QUANTUM

MECHANICS
PHY 361
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QUANTUM MECHANICS
(PHY 361)

INSTRUCTOR: ISAAC KWESI ACQUAH

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“It is safe to say that

nobody understands
quantum
mechanics.”
Richard Feynman
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THE HARMONIC
OSCILLATOR

LECTURE 10
 Introduction
❑In 1900, Planck made the bold assumption that atoms acted like oscillators 5

with quantized energy when they emitted and absorbed radiation;

❑In 1905, Einstein assumed that electromagnetic radiation acted like

electromagnetic harmonic oscillators with quantized energy;

❑In 1907, Einstein assumed that the elastic vibrations of a solid behaved as a
system of mechanical oscillators with quantized energy.
❑These assumptions were invoked to account for black body radiation, the
photoelectric effect and the temperature dependence of the specific heats of
solids.
❑Subsequently, quantum theory provided a fundamental description of both
electromagnetic and mechanical harmonic oscillators.
 The Classical Oscillator
6
❑ The simplest example of a harmonic oscillator is a particle on a spring with
elastic constant 𝑘.
❑ When the particle is displaced from equilibrium by a distance 𝑥, there is a force
which opposes the displacement.
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
❑ Because the work needed to move the particle from 𝑥 to 𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥 is 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥, the
potential energy stored by displacing the particle by a finite distance 𝑥 is
𝑥
1 2
𝑉 𝑥 =න 𝑘𝑥 ′ 𝑑𝑥 ′ = 𝑘𝑥
0 2
❑ This potential energy is converted into kinetic energy when the particle is
released.
❑ The equation of motion for a particle of mass 𝑚 is
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𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2
This is usually rewritten as
𝑥ሷ = −𝜔2 𝑥
where 𝑥ሷ is the acceleration of the particle and 𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚

Solving the second-order differential equation using D-factor method;

𝑑2 𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Let, 𝑑
2
be D
𝑑𝑡
 ⟹ 𝑚𝐷 2 𝑥 = −𝑘𝑥
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𝑚𝐷 2 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

𝑥(𝑚𝐷 2 + 𝑘) = 0

where, 𝑚𝐷 2 + 𝑘 = 0 is the auxiliary equation.

𝑘
𝐷2 =−
𝑚

𝑘
𝐷=± − 𝐵𝑢𝑡, 𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚
𝑚

𝐷 = ±𝑖𝜔
 From the standard, if the roots of the auxiliary equation is given by;
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𝐴 = 𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽
The general solution becomes;
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝛼𝑥 (𝐵 cos 𝛽𝑥 + 𝐶 sin 𝛽𝑥)

❑ Using the same analogy, the general solution of the classical oscillator with
appropriate boundary conditions is

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)

where 𝐴 and 𝜃 are two constants which may be determined by specifying the
initial position and velocity of the particle; for example, if the particle is released
from rest at position 𝑥0 , then 𝐴 = 𝑥0 and 𝜃 = 0
❑ During the motion, the potential energy rises and falls as the kinetic energy
falls and rises. 10

❑ But the total energy E, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies, remains
constant and equal to
1 1 2 1
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑥ሶ + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2
2
2 2 2

❑ In the real world of quantum mechanics, simple harmonic motion with definite
energy, frequency, phase and amplitude never really happens.

❑ Most often oscillators either have definite energy and do not oscillate, or they
oscillate with uncertain energy. However, in special circumstances, the
oscillations are almost like simple harmonic motion.
 The Quantum Oscillator 11

❑ The defining property of a quantum system is its Hamiltonian operator. For a

one-dimensional harmonic oscillator the Hamiltonian operator is
𝑝Ƹ 2 1
𝐻෡= + 𝑚𝜔2 𝑥ො 2
2𝑚 2
❑ The first term represents the kinetic energy operator for a particle of mass 𝑚 and
the second term represents the potential energy operator for a particle in a
potential well which, in classical physics, would give rise to simple harmonic
motion with angular frequency 𝜔.
❑ The behaviour of a particle in a harmonic oscillator potential is more varied in
quantum physics than in classical physics. There are an infinite number of
quantum states; some are stationary states with definite energy and some are non-
stationary states with uncertain energy.
❑ Each of these states is described by a wave function Ѱ(𝑥, 𝑡) which satisfies
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the Schrodinger equation
𝜕Ѱ
𝑖ħ ෡
= 𝐻Ѱ
𝜕𝑡
❑ The problem is how to find the energy eigenvalues and eigenstates of this
Hamiltonian. This problem can be studied by means of two separate methods.
❑ The first method, called the analytic method, consists in solving the time-
independent Schrödinger equation (TISE) for the Hamiltonian.

❑ The second method, called the ladder or algebraic method, does not deal with
solving the Schrödinger equation, but deals instead with operator algebra
involving operators known as the creation and annihilation or ladder operators;
this method is in essence a matrix formulation, because it expresses the various
quantities in terms of matrices.
 Analytic Method
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❑ This approach consists in using the power series method to solve the following
differential (Schrödinger) equation:

ħ2 𝑑2 Ѱ 𝑥 1 2 𝑥 2 Ѱ 𝑥 = 𝐸Ѱ(𝑥)
− + 𝑚𝜔
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2 2

which can be reduced to

𝑑2 Ѱ 𝑥 2𝑚𝐸 𝑥 2
2
+ 2
− 4 Ѱ 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑥 ħ 𝑥0

where 𝑥0 = ħ/(𝑚𝜔) is a constant that has the dimensions of length

 𝑑 2Ѱ 𝑥 2𝑚𝐸 𝑥 2
From the equation, + − 4 Ѱ 𝑥 =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ2 𝑥0 14

The solutions are expressed in terms of some special functions, the Hermite
polynomials.

The energy eigenvalues which are discrete or quantized is given by

1
𝐸 = 𝑛+ ħ𝜔
2
The wave functions that are physically acceptable and that satisfy the reduced
differential equation above are given by:
1 −𝑥 2 /2𝑥 2 𝑥
Ѱ𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 𝐻
𝑛
𝜋2𝑛 𝑛! 𝑥0 𝑥0

where 𝐻𝑛 (𝑦) are nth order polynomials called

Hermite polynomials
 Algebraic Method 15

❑ To solve the harmonic oscillator eigenvalue problem using the algebraic

method, we need to rewrite the Hamiltonian in terms of the two Hermitian,
dimensionless operators;

෠ 𝑚ħ𝜔
𝑝Ƹ = 𝑃/ ෠ 𝑚𝜔/ħ
𝑞ො = 𝑋/
෡ becomes;
Then, the Hamiltonian, 𝐻
ħ𝜔 2
෡=
𝐻 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑞ො 2
2
Introducing two non-Hermitian, dimensionless operators:

1 1
𝑎ො = ෡
𝑞ො + 𝑖𝑝 ϯ
𝑎ො = ෡
𝑞ො − 𝑖𝑝
2 2
Note that,
ϯ
1 1 16
𝑎ො 𝑎ො = 𝑞ො − 𝑖 𝑝Ƹ 𝑞ො + 𝑖𝑝Ƹ
2 2
1 2 2
1 2 2
𝑖
= 𝑞ො + 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑖𝑞ො 𝑝Ƹ − 𝑖𝑝Ƹ 𝑞ො = 𝑞ො + 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑞ො , 𝑝Ƹ
2 2 2
Using, 𝑋෡ , 𝑃෠ = 𝑖ħ

We can verify that the commutator between 𝑞ො and 𝑝Ƹ is

𝑚𝜔 1 1
𝑞ො , 𝑝Ƹ = ෠
𝑋, 𝑃෠ = 𝑋,
෠ 𝑃෠ = 𝑖
ħ ħ𝑚𝜔 ħ
Hence,
ϯ
1 2 2
1 1 2 1
𝑎ො 𝑎ො = 𝑞ො + 𝑝Ƹ − ⟹ 2 ϯ
𝑞ො + 𝑝Ƹ = 𝑎ො 𝑎ො +
2 2 2 2
 ෡;
From, the Hamiltonian, 𝐻
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ħ𝜔 2
෡=
𝐻 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑞ො 2
2
Inserting;
1 2 2 ϯ
1
𝑞ො + 𝑝Ƹ = 𝑎ො 𝑎ො +
2 2
ħ𝜔 2
⟹ ෡=
𝐻 𝑝Ƹ + 𝑞ො 2
2
1 1
෡ = ħ𝜔 𝑎ො 𝑎ො +
𝐻 ϯ ෡+
= ħ𝜔 𝑁
2 2 ෡ = 𝑎ො ϯ 𝑎ො
With, 𝑁

where 𝑁 ෡ is known as the number operator or occupation number operator, which is

clearly Hermitian.
 Energy Eigenvalues
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From the equation

1 1
෡ = ħ𝜔 𝑎ො ϯ 𝑎ො +
𝐻 ෡
= ħ𝜔 𝑁 +
2 2
෡ as given by commutes with 𝑁
𝐻 ෡ , since H is linear in 𝑁
෡ . Thus, 𝐻
෡ and 𝑁
෡ can have a
set of joint eigenstates, to be denoted by |𝑛ۧ:
෡ 𝑛ۧ = 𝑛|𝑛ۧ
𝑁| and ෡ 𝑛ۧ = 𝐸𝑛 |𝑛ۧ
𝐻|
The states |𝑛ۧ are called energy eigenstates.
Therefore, the energy eigenvalues
1
𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 + ħ𝜔
2
 Energy Eigenvalues
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❑ The energy levels of the quantum harmonic oscillator are quantized and equally
spaced, with the lowest energy state (ground state) having a non-zero energy known
as the zero-point energy, which is given by:

𝟏
𝑬𝒏 = ħ𝝎
𝟐

❑ Using the algebraic method with ladder operators provides a concise and elegant way
to derive the energy levels of the quantum harmonic oscillator.

❑ The final result shows that the energy levels are quantized and depend linearly on the
quantum number n, demonstrating the fundamental principles of quantum mechanics
in harmonic systems.
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END OF LECTURE