MICROBIAL, VITAMIN AND SENSORY EVALUATION AND PRODUCTIUON OF

COCONUT BASED YOGHURT

BY

UDEH NNEOMA GENEVIEVE

REG: 2020834141

A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF FOOD

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE, NNAMDI
AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (BSc) DEGREE IN FOOD SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY.

Supervisor: Mrs Udehmba Cynthia

SEPTEMBER, 2025
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

Yoghurts are produced by anaerobic fermentation of milk sugar present in the milk. Lactose is
converted into lactic acid which acidifies the milk resulting to protein coagulation, producing a
thickened and viscous semi-liquid texture, through the action of some bacterial cultures. In the
modern days, a starter culture of a combination of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus
delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus has been used to produce yoghurts. The combination of these two
cultures has some symbiotic relationship. S. thermophiles produce folic acid, formic acid, CO2,
etc. in the initial stage. The production of these chemicals promotes the growth of L. delbrueckii
ssp. bulgaricusis. On the other hand, L. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus produces free amino acids
and small peptides, which help with the growth of S. thermophilus (Aswal et al., 2012). Overall,
this combination of culture has some advantages that it could produce lactic acid more rapidly
than in a single strain culture alone (Aswal et al., 2012; Horackova et al., 2015).
Probiotics are defined as live active microorganisms which upon ingestion in sufficient number
could improve intestinal microbial balance and therefore, they will enhance the health of the host
(Ndife et al., 2018). Yoghurts are acting as probiotic carriers and originated many centuries ago
among the nomadic tribes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, where herdsman began the
practice of milking their animals and storing the milk in containers made from animal stomachs.
Yoghurts is made of milk and can be done with any type of milk, yoghurt have nutritionally rich
fat, high level of biologically important protein, calcium, zinc, potassium, magnesium,
phosphorus, riboflavin (vitamin B2), thiamine (vitaminB1), vitamin B6, vitamin B12, niacin and
are also a good source of folate (Mckinley, 2018; Oladipo et al., 2021; Ndife et al., 2018; El-
Abbadi et al., 2017). The minerals and vitamins found in yoghurts are bioavailable that is they
are easily accessible such that the body could easily absorb and use. Yoghurts also provide the
bioavailable protein of high quality. Yoghurts contain almost all essential amino acids necessary
to maintain good health; particularly they have a higher content of amino acids such as proline
and glycine compared to the whole milk (Mckinley, 2018).
Coconut
Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 meters (98 ft.) tall, with leaves 4–6 meters
(13–20 ft.) long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long. Coconut (Cocos nucifera L. Family Palmae) is
one of the most extensively grown and used nut in the world and is rated as one of the most
important of all palms (Onifade and Jeff-Agboola, 2017; Popenoe, 2019). It is found
throughout the tropic and sub-tropic area, the coconut is known for its great versatility as seen
in many domestic, commercial, and industrial uses of its different parts including the dietary
use of its parts by many people (Chan and Elevitch, 2016). Coconuts contain a large quantity
of "water" and when immature they are known as tender-nuts or jelly-nuts and may be
harvested for drinking and this differentiates them from any other fruits. When mature they
still contain some water and can be used as seed nuts or processed to give oil from the kernel,
charcoal from the hard shell and from the fibrous husk A lot of products are directly or
indirectly made from coconuts. These include whole coconut copra, coconut oil, coconut oil
cake, coir, desiccated shredded coconut, coconut skin milk and coconut protein (Onifade and
Jeff-Agboola, 2017). Coconut can also be used to produce desired texture in cookies, candies,
cakes pies, salads and desserts. It is commercially viable because of its rich nutritive values
(Child, 2021; Akubugwo et al. 2021; Kyari, 2021).
Plant-based types of milk are a rising alternative for curbing the health concerns posed by
dairy products. Their global market is expected to reach USD 2.89 billion by 2026, and this
can aid as an inexpensive alternative in areas with a shortfall in animal milk accessibility
(Aydar et al., 2020). Plant materials such as coconut, rice, almond, peanuts, quinoa, and
sesame are naturally free from lactose and have been used as essential ingredients to produce
plant-based beverages present in the market for lactose-intolerant individuals and those allergic
to cow's milk (Sethi et al., 2016). However, the existing alternatives to milk and dairy products
have shown to be highly-priced (Yiğit, 2020) and face many technical issues, either related to
processing or preservation, that result in products with poor texture and/or flavor (Sethi et al.,
2016, Gorlov et al., 2019). Further, most of these replacements are unbalanced in specific
nutritional values relative to animal-derived products. However, they contain functionally-
active components with health-promoting properties that continue to attract health-conscious
consumers (Mousel and Tang, 2016) Plant- based yoghurt offers a good alternative to dairy
yoghurt, animal welfare, environmental and health concerns especially for lactose intolerance
(65% of the world’s population), Vegans and dairy allergy sufferer (Raikos et al., 2020). Plant-
based nutritional products including diary-free product are becoming shifting traction among
millennials nowadays. Plant milk such as coconut milk, coconut milk has a milky white color.
Its nutritional content includes fat, ash, water, carbohydrate, protein, vitamin B6, E and C and
easily digested (Goral et al., 2018).
Coconut milk is the major raw material for the production of fermented based yoghurt and it was
found to be rich in calcium, highly rich in minerals and vitamin content, the fat content plays an
important role in the flow properties of the milk. the coconut oils are rich in medium chain fatty
acid which is clinically proven to have preventive effects against hyperlipidemia, fatty liver, and
diabetes (Narayanankutty et al., 2018) According to the National Center for Biotechnology
Information, lauric acid present in the milk has antifungal and antiviral properties which fight
against many human diseases. Lauric acid also reduces cholesterol and triglycerides which is
helpful in treating cardiovascular diseases. The oil is also known to contribute to improve insulin
secretion and the utilization of blood glucose, reduce symptoms associated with malabsorption
syndrome and cystic fibrosis, relieve symptoms associated with crohn disease, ulcerative colitis
and stomach ulcers. Current trend and changing consumer needs indicate a great opportunity for
innovations and developments in fermented milk (Khurana and Kanawjia, 2017). There is little
information about fiber fortification in cultured dairy products however various fibers like
psyllium, guar gum, gum acacia, oat fiber and soy component have potentials to be used
(Staffolo et al., 2019) Therefore, consuming symbiotic foods that contain prebiotics(fibers) and
probiotics (lactic acid bacteria) would offer added nutritional benefits that can help boost overall
health and well-being. Therefore, the objective of this study is to produce yoghurt enriched with
coconut milk and to determine the microbial, minerals, physicochemical, sensory qualities and
overall acceptability of the product.

1.1 Statement of the problem

The production of dairy milk yogurt has several limitations, including lactose intolerance,
allergies and sensitivities to dairy proteins like casein and whey, and limited nutritional profiles.
Additionally, the growing demand for plant-based products from vegans and vegetarians has
created a need for non-dairy yogurt alternatives. Coconut-based yogurt is regarded as a prebiotic
and probiotic carrier, nutritionally rich in protein, calcium, milk fat, potassium, magnesium, etc.
Coconut yogurt also has medical uses due to its probiotic characteristics. According to the
National Center for Biotechnology Information, lauric acid present in the milk has antifungal and
antiviral properties which fight against many human diseases and also reduces cholesterol and
triglycerides, helpful in treating cardiovascular diseases, etc. However, despite its nutritional
benefits and potential health advantages, coconut yogurt remains underutilized and
underappreciated, highlighting the need for increased awareness and acceptance of this healthy
alternative to traditional yogurt.

1.2 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this study is to produce and evaluate fermented coconut-based yoghurt as a plant-
based alternative to traditional yogurt.
Specified objectives of this research are:
i. To produce coconut-based yogurt and evaluate its sensory properties.
ii To analyze the vitamin composition of the coconut-based yoghurt.
ii. To investigate the microorganism present and their potential benefit.

1.3 Justification of the Study

Yoghurt with active culture is easier to digest than milk. Many people, who cannot tolerate milk,
either because of milk protein allergy or lactose intolerance, prefer yoghurt to milk (Perdigon et
al., 2017). Yoghurt and other fermented forms of milk not only aid in digestion but have also
been shown to ease diarrhea (Aydar et al., 2020), boost immunity (Gibson, 2004; Mahfudh et al.,
2021), fight infections (Banwo et al., 2021), and protect against colon cancer. Many individuals
who are vegans, lactose intolerant milk allergy sufferers have raised the need of producing
alternative to dairy yoghurt for consumption and utilization. Maintaining an individual's health
through sustenance is essential in managing health stresses, improving productivity at the
workplace, reducing medical costs and other social expenses which altogether improve people’s
lives. The development of healthy dairy-free Plant based Yoghurt will increase a choice space
for dairy alternative consumers and contribute to food security where there is shortage of animal
milk also increases yoghurt utilization by all not only for specific set of people.

1.4 Scope of Study

This research work will cover the production of fermented coconut-based yoghurt using coconut
milk as an alternative to dairy milk. The microbial, vitamin and sensory properties will be
determined. The data that will be generated will be subjected to statistical analysis.

CHAPTER TWO
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Yoghurt: Definition, Brief History, Benefits

Milk fermentation is one of the oldest methods practiced by the human beings to preserve milk
with an extended shelf life. The exact origination of milk fermentation is not clear; however, it
seems that it is dated back to the dawn of the civilization. It has been reported that the early
civilizations such as the Samarians, Babylonians, Pharoes and Indians were well advanced in
agricultural and animal husbandry practices. Milk fermented product includes Yoghurt, cheese,
kefir, buttermilk, sour cream, cottage cheese, etc. Yogurt is a partly solid food fermented and
typically flavored from milk (Tewari et al., 2019). Yoghurt is a popular dairy product made by
the bacteria fermentation of milk, the bacteria used to make yoghurt are called yoghurt starter
cultures, which ferment natural sugar found in milk. This process produces lactic acid, a
substance that causes milk proteins to curdle, giving yoghurt its unique flavor and texture.
“According to Journal of food science and technology (2022), yoghurt is a fermented dairy
product that contains live and active cultures of lactic acid bacteria, which confer potential health
benefits.

Yogurt leads the category of fermented milks in terms of volume of production and research
activity, with innovations in ingredients, starter, and probiotic cultures, types of
packaging, sensory properties, composition, manufacturing methods, addition of flavorings,
among others (Aryana and Olson, 2017).Yogurt is the product resulting from the fermentation of
milk by proto-symbiotic bacteria cultures . However, in some countries, the term yogurt is
restricted to products made exclusively by the two cultures, while other countries also allow
adjunct probiotic cultures to be labeled as yogurt. Therefore, other lactic acid bacteria also be
added to contribute to the characteristics of the final product (Chandan, Gandhi, and Shah, 2017),
such as L. acidophilus, L. casei, and Bifidobacterium spp. (Pimentel, Antunes, et al., 2017).
Yogurt is a dairy product much consumed because of its high nutritional value, pleasant taste,
characteristic texture and perceived safety (Chandan et al., 2017). The fermentative process
increases the nutritional value, resulting in products with higher levels of vitamin B, conjugated
linoleic acid (CLA) (Balthazar et al., 2016) and bioactive peptides than milk and other
unfermented dairy products (Donovan and Hutkins, 2018).The beneficial health effects
associated to yogurt consumption are related to the presence of viable bacteria and their
metabolites and its composition (protein, calcium, magnesium and vitamin D contents) (Mostafai
et al., 2019). In addition, the semi-solid structure and viscosity may contribute to enhance these
properties (Panahi et al., 2018).

2.2. Brief History

The origin of yogurt is dated back to the 6000 B.C. when the Neolithic people in the Central Asia
transformed from a status of a food gatherer to a food producer where they began the practice of
milking their animals. It is generally accepted that the fermented milk products including yogurt
have been discovered accidentally when they used to store milk in sheep-skin bags and has been
evolved over centuries into commercial yogurt making which paved the pavement for different
commercially available varieties with a range of flavors, forms and textures (Anon., 2013c).
With reference to yogurt, it can be suggested that it has been evolved in Turkey as the term
“yoghurt” has been derived from a Turkish verb, “jugurt” that means “to be curdled or
coagulated” The earliest writings about yogurt can be found from those of Pliny who lived in the
first century A. D. and wrote about ancient barbarous nations that knew how to thicken the milk
into a substance with an agreeable acidity. According to the literature, the founder of the Mongol
empire, Genghis Khan and his armies was lived on yogurt and spreading of this news among the
people had made the yogurt consumption to spread throughout the East (Anon., 2013c). At
present, various names are used to refer to yogurts such as Dahi or Dahee in India, Roba in
Iraq, Fiili in Finland, zabadi (Egypt), mast (Iran), lebenraib (Saudi Arabia), laban
(Iraq and Lebanon), roba (Sudan), iogurte (Brazil), cuajada (Spain), coalhada (Portugal), dovga
(Azerbaijan), and matsoni (Georgia, Russia, and Japan).Today, many forms of yogurt can be
found, including plain yogurt, fruit-flavored yogurt (including fruit-on-the-bottom and blended
forms), whipped yogurt, granola-topped yogurt, drinkable yogurt, frozen yogurt, and Greek
yogurt with varying fat contents (regular, low fat, and non-fat).

2.3. Benefits of consuming yoghurt

Yogurt is a balanced, nutrient-dense food with all of the nutrients found in milk but in a more
digestible state (Savaiano, 2014). Yogurt has been used to treat various illnesses, including
digestive issues, sunburn healing, cholesterol reduction, and increased antioxidant activity
(DiRienzo, 2000; Shori, 2022). It was sold in pharmacies even as a medication in the early
1900s. Nowadays, yogurt is consumed as a healthy "probiotic" supplement. Probiotics are living
microorganisms that benefit human health when consumed and improve the functioning or
balance of gut microbes. Probiotics can reduce the gut infection (Samad, 2022). Yogurt is
thought to have beneficial therapeutic properties and aid in treating gastrointestinal disorders
(Bianchi-Salvadori, 1986). It increases insulin sensitivity and helps to control diabetes (Li et al.,
2021). Yogurt contains bacteria and nutrients that are good for your digestive system, immune
system, and memory a yogurt stuffed with canned pears, whiskey, and chicken soup. Yogurt's
nutritional value, microbial properties, and vulvoginal and organoleptic qualities have led to a
global increase in demand and consumption (Tewari et al., 2020).

2.3.1. Compositions of Yoghurt

Yoghurt is a nutrient-rich food composed of various compounds. Here's a breakdown of the
typical composition of yoghurt, major Components includes moisture about 80-90 %,
Carbohydrates lactose, glucose, galactose about 4-6 %, Protein casein and whey proteins about
3-5 % and Fats (saturated, unsaturated) 0-10 %. Yoghurt also contains other minor nutrient
examples are Minerals like calcium, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, Vitamins we have B2,
B12, D, E, present. Yoghurt been known as acting Probiotic carrier contains some probiotics i.e.
live microorganism example Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, lastly it contains some acids and
flavor compound these includes lactic acid, citric acid, diacetyl, acetaldehyde etc.

2.4. Yoghurt categories

Yoghurt is categorized into two main groups; Dairy Yoghurt and Non-Dairy Yoghurt

2.4.1 Dairy Yoghurt

Dairy yoghurt is a fermented milk product made from the milk of mammals, such as cows, goats,
sheep, and buffalo. It's produced by adding a yoghurt starter culture, containing live bacteria like
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, to the milk.

[Link] Characteristics of dairy based yogurt

1. Thick and creamy texture: Dairy yoghurt has a characteristic thick and creamy texture due to
the fermentation process.
2. Tart flavor: The lactic acid produced during fermentation gives dairy yoghurt its distinctive
flavor tart.
3. High protein content: Dairy yoghurt is an excellent source of protein, essential for muscle
growth and repair.
4. Rich in calcium: Dairy yoghurt is a rich source of calcium, crucial for maintaining strong
bones and teeth.
[Link] Types of Dairy Yoghurt
Traditional Yoghurt: Made with a traditional yoghurt culture, (e.g., Lactobacillus bulgaricus
and Streptococcus thermophilus) this type of yoghurt has a thick and creamy texture.
Greek Yoghurt: Strained through a cheesecloth or fine mesh to remove excess liquid, Greek
yoghurt is thicker and creamier than traditional yoghurt.
Icelandic Yoghurt (Skyr): Made with a specific type of bacterial culture, Skyr is thicker and
creamier than traditional yoghurt.
2.4.2. Non-Dairy Yoghurt
Plant-based yoghurt, also known as non-dairy yoghurt, is a fermented plant-based milk
alternative made from sources such as: Coconut milk, Soy milk, Almond milk, Cashew milk, Oat
milk, Rice milk, Hemp milk.

[Link]. Characteristics
1. Varied texture: Plant-based yoghurt can have a range of textures, from thin and pourable to
thick and creamy.

2. Flavor profile: The flavor profile of plant-based yoghurt can vary depending on the base
ingredient, with some having a stronger nutty or coconut flavor.

3. Protein content: Plant-based yoghurt can have varying levels of protein, depending on the
base ingredient and any added protein sources.
4. Calcium content: Plant-based yoghurt can be fortified with calcium, making it a good option
for those looking for a dairy-free source of calcium.

[Link]. Types of Plant-Based Yoghurt

1. Coconut Yoghurt: Made from coconut milk, this type of yoghurt is high in saturated fat and
can have a strong coconut flavor.
2. Soy Yoghurt: Made from soy milk, this type of yoghurt is often fortified with calcium and
can have a slightly nutty flavor.
3. Almond Yoghurt: Made from almond milk, this type of yoghurt is low in calories and can
have a light, airy texture.
4. Cashew Yoghurt: Made from cashew milk, this type of yoghurt is creamy and rich, with a
subtle nutty flavor.
5. Oat Yoghurt: Made from oat milk, this type of yoghurt is low in calories and can have a
smooth, creamy texture.
[Link] Benefits of non-dairy yoghurt
[Link] digestive health: Plant-based yoghurt can contain live and active cultures, which can
help support digestive health.
[Link] in saturated fat: Many plant-based yoghurt options are low in saturated fat, making them a
heart-healthy choice.
[Link] with nutrients: Plant-based yoghurt can be fortified with nutrients such as calcium,
vitamin D, and vitamin B12.
[Link] immune system: Some plant-based yoghurt options contain immunoglobulins, which
can help support the immune system.
With the growing demand for non-dairy yoghurt alternatives, coconut-based yoghurt has
emerged as a popular option. The production process of coconut-based yoghurt differs
significantly from traditional dairy yoghurt; coconut-based yoghurt is s non- dairy yoghurt
alternative made from coconut milk. The production process involves fermentation, thickening,
and flavoring resulting in a unique and delicious yoghurt product Plant-based fermented yogurt
exhibit a colossal potential for the developing and growing market of health foods and it
demands further research and investigation which can be achieved through expansion or
advancement of processing technologies, techniques of fortification in order to develop a product
which is nutritionally adequate as well as has a high percentage of acceptability in terms of the
sensory characteristics like taste, texture and are also easily accessible. The focus must be
towards providing a low cost, nutritionally dense alternative for those who suffer from some type
of allergies related to animal-based milks. Preservation of such plant-based fermented products
should be further studied by the exploration of newer technologies and their potential in
processing. To promote the use of plant- based fermented products like yogurt among population
sensitive to animal-based milk, further fortification with an appropriate fortificant using the right
technology and also keeping up the bio-accessibility of nutriments during the whole process is a
radical field of study. Thus, the expanding consumer demand and the need to fulfill it keeping in
mind the criteria of acceptability, plant-based fermented yogurt and similar products will remain
an important area of research in the category of new product development of food science and
technology.

2.5. Coconut based yogurt

2.5.1 Coconut

The coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is a member of the family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the
only accepted species in the genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with
pinnate leaves 4–6 m long and pinnae 60–90 cm long which old leaves break away cleanly,
leaving the trunk smooth. The term coconut can refer to the entire coconut palm, the seed, or the
fruit. It is particularly important in the low islands of the Pacific where, in the absence of land-
based natural resources, it provides almost all the necessities of life-food, drink, oil, medicine,
fiber, timber, thatch, mats, fuel, and domestic utensils. For good reason, it has been called the
“tree of heaven” and “tree of life.” Today it remains an important economic and subsistence crop
in many countries.

2.5.2. Coconut fat

All fats and oils are composed of molecules called fatty acids. There are two methods of
classifying fatty acids. The first is based on saturation; there are saturated fats, monounsaturated
fats, and polyunsaturated fats. The other system of classification is based on molecular size or
length of the carbon chain within each fatty acid. In this system there are short-chain fatty acids
(SCFA), medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), and long-chain fatty acids (LCFA). Coconut oil is
composed predominately of medium-chain fatty acids (MCFA), also known as medium-chain
triglycerides (MCT). The size of the fatty acid is important because the human body responds to
and metabolizes each fatty acid differently depending on its size. So, the physiological effects of
MCFA in coconut oil are distinctly different from those of LCFA more commonly found in our
foods. The saturated fatty acids in coconut oil are predominately medium-chain fatty acids. Both
the saturated and unsaturated fat found in meat, milk, eggs, and plants (including almost all
vegetable oil). are composed of LCFA (Pamplona-Roger, 2017). MCFA are very different from
LCFA. They do not have a negative effect on cholesterol and help to protect against heart
disease. MCFA help to lower the risk of both atherosclerosis and heart disease. It is primarily
due to the MCFA in coconut oil that makes it so special and so beneficial. There are only a very
few good dietary sources of MCFA. The best sources of MCFA are coconut and palm kernel oils
(Pamplona-Roger, 2017).

2.5.4. Coconut meat

Coconut meat is the edible white meat of a coconut; often shredded for use in cakes and curries.
It contains essential mineral salts particularly magnesium, calcium and phosphorus which are of
great importance to the musculoskeletal system. Though present in small amounts (32 mg/100 g
of magnesium) in coconut meat, the Magnesium content surpasses that of all animal-based foods
including meat, fish, milk and eggs (Pamplona-Roger, 2017).

2.5.5. Coconut milk

Coconut milk should not be confused with coconut water, although some studies have used the
two terms interchangeably. The aqueous part of the coconut endosperm is termed coconut water,
whereas coconut milk, also known as “santan” in Malaysia and Indonesia, and “gata” in the
Philippines, refers to the liquid products obtained by grating the solid endosperm, with or
without addition of water. Coconut milk is usually used as a food ingredient in various traditional
cooking recipes, while coconut water is served directly as a beverage to quench thirst. Coconut
milk is the term used to designate the liquid obtained by the manual or mechanical extraction of
grated coconut meat with or without added water. The term coconut milk and coconut cream are
used interchangeably. But coconut milk refers to the milky fluid, freshly extracted from the
coconut kernel with or without added water, and coconut cream refer to the high fat cream like
material obtained from the coconut milk by either gravity separation or centrifugation. Maturity
of the coconut greatly affects the yield of coconut milk. Mature brown husked coconuts with no
protruding sprouts produce higher yields of milk. Coconut milk is generally produced from
mature nuts of 12 months in age. At this stage, the meat is hard and thick, with a typical
composition of as follows: 50% moisture, 34% oil, 3.5% protein, 3% fiber, 2.2% ash and 7.3%
carbohydrates (Banzon, 1990). Composition of coconut milk is shown in the

Table 2.5.6.
Components Quantity (%)

Moisture 72.88
Protein 2.02

Fat 5
Ash 1.7

Acidity (as %citric acid) 0 .13

Carbohydrate 2.81

Table 2.5.6. Composition of coconut milk

Source USDA (2012)

2.5.7. Nutritional and medicinal importance of coconut milk

Some of the most important benefits of coconut milk are:
 A major part of the fat found in coconut milk is Lauric acid which has been found to exhibit
antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties. This fatty acid can boost the immune system
and its disease fighting ability.
 Lauric acid can also be helpful in maintaining the elasticity of the blood vessels and in
keeping them clean, which can lower the risk for conditions like, atherosclerosis and heart
disease.
 Coconut milk also contains several antioxidant compounds, which can provide protection
against the harmful free radicals and their damaging effects on the body cells and tissues.
 Coconut milk can improve the health of the digestive system and promote digestion. It can
relieve the symptoms of stomach ulcers and acid reflux disease as well.
 Coconut milk can give about 22% of the recommended daily allowance of iron. With such a
high level of iron, it can help to treat anemia can help to treat anemia caused by iron deficiency.
 Coconut milk health benefits are mentioned in Traditional Medicine for the human body. It is
also used for the treatment of mouth ulcers.
 Coconut is a dairy free alternative to those who are lactose intolerant and are also allergic to
animal milk. This milk is also nut free, soy free and gluten free.
 It is known to relieve the symptoms of sore throat.
 It is good for the health of your skin and hair. Many cosmetic giants use it as a base in
products for skin and hair.
 Apply coconut milk to the scalp to have dandruff free hair and condition your hair naturally.
 Coconut milk is a reservoir of antioxidants. Antioxidants help the body fight aging, low vision
and low bone density.
 It also aids in digestion and is also used as a laxative. It can also be a remedy for urinary and
kidney problems
 Coconut milk is an excellent source of Vitamin E. It helps in the nourishment of the skin.
 The saturated fat content in coconut is made up of short and medium chain fatty acids. These
fatty acids are quickly converted in to energy instead of storing as fat in the body.
 The medium chain fatty acids present in coconut milk are full of lauric acid. Lauric acid is
anti-fungal, anti-viral and anti-microbial. Lauric acid present in coconut milk helps to keep the
arteries of the heart clean and healthy.

2.6. Need for Coconut Yoghurt Production

Development of new alternative and nutritional product will increase the utilization of yoghurt
by all consumers (including vegans, those suffering from lactose intolerant, milk allergy
sufferers etc). Coconut yoghurt which is plant-based yogurt will be a good product to start with
considering coconut been known as a functional food. Considering the nutritional composition
and benefits of coconut milk listed above it will be a better option in production of plant-based
yogurt. As long as functional foods are widely accepted, functional beverages, foods, and
ingredients will play an important part in human nutrition. The extraction and quantification of
biological compounds is a crucial step in developing functional foods. Since most individuals do
not include fruits and vegetables in their meals as sources of bioactive compounds, the use of
isolated chemical components known as nutraceuticals added in capsules and tablets is becoming
popular in the market. However, consumers prefer foods grown and processed sustainably,
considered safe, natural, and fresh with nutritional contents. This shows that plant-based foods
will soon be a better source of essential nutrients worldwide, which calls for the development of
new functional foods by researchers, and food industries that focus on the use of plant-based
food.

Prevalence of lactose intolerance and milk allergens

A predictable 70-75% of the global population are lactase enzyme-deficient (Heine et al., 2017;)
Mäkinen et al., 2016). According to the World Gastroenterology Organization (2019) lactose
intolerance is prevalent in South America, Asia, and Africa. Previous reports show that about 65-
85% of Africans are unable to digest lactose appropriately due to the inability to produce the
lactase enzyme. Similarly, 10-20 % of Tanzanians were found to be lactose intolerant after
consuming fermented goat and cow milk (Mushi, 2014). Lactose intolerance is a form of
disaccharidase deficiency disorder linked to the incapacity to digest lactose into its galactose and
glucose constituents (Heine et al., 2017). The cause of lactose intolerance is the low levels of
lactase enzyme in brush edge duodenum. Although lactase enzyme levels are high after birth,
continue to decline with age. The symptoms of such deficiency are pain and abdominal bloating,
flatulence, diarrhea, and nausea (Bailey et al., 2013). The measures to treat lactose intolerance
are avoiding milk derivatives and having special diets aid in digestion and health care costs.
Allergens caused by cow's milk are an immune response to milk proteins (casein and whey) that
regularly follow ingestion. It is the most famous form of initiation of food allergy with an
estimation of 0.5 - 3% alternating from the age of one year in a developed country (Flom and
Sicherer, 2019). Approximately 18% of milk allergies in five-year-old children have also been
reported in Kenya (Kung et al., 2014) and 20% of asthmatic children had reactivity to milk
allergens in South Africa.

2.7. Compositions of coconut yoghurt

Coconut yoghurt which is a plant-based yoghurt should be a highly recommended diary base
alternative because of its composition, nutritional value, accessibility and economic value.
Components:
Moisture: Coconut-based yoghurt typically contains around 80-90 % water (Kumar et al., 2017;
Tang et al., 2019). This high-water content is due to the natural moisture present in coconut milk,
which is the primary ingredient in coconut yoghurt. This high-water content makes it an
excellent beverage for hydration, digestive health, regulate blood pressure and other health
benefit.
Coconut Milk Solids: The solids from coconut milk, includes proteins (albumins and globulins),
carbohydrate (simple and complex sugars, starches and dietary fiber), lipids, minerals
(potassium, magnesium, calcium etc.) vitamins, and phytochemicals (phenolic acids, flavonoids,
saponins etc.) makes up around 5-15 % of the yoghurt composition.

Probiotics: Coconut-based yoghurt often contains added probiotics, such as Lactobacillus

acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, which contribute to its flavor and health benefits (Kumar
et al., 2017; Patel and Goyal, 2015).

Thickeners and Stabilizers: Some coconut-based yoghurt may contain added thickeners and
stabilizers, such as carrageenan, guar gum, xanthan gum, CMC, tapioca starch etc. to improve
texture and prevent separation. (Tang et al., 2019; Sing et al., 2018).

Sweeteners (optional): Some coconut yoghurt contains sweeteners which is optional depending
on the product desired to obtained (sweetened yoghurt), examples of the sweeteners include;
natural sweeteners (honey, maple syrup, coconut syrup, date syrup etc.), refined sweeteners
(granulated sugar, brown sugar, or high-fructose corn syrup), low-calorie sweeteners (stevia,
erythritol or xylitol.).

2.7.1 Nutritional content of Coconut-based Yoghurt

Calories: Coconut milk is relatively high in calories, with approximately 400-500 calories per
cup. The high calorie content is primarily due to the MCTs and other fatty acids present in
coconut milk, calories servers as a source energy production, maintaining bodily functions etc.

Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCTs): MCTs are type of saturated fat that is easily absorbed
and metabolized by the body. They have potential health benefits, including weight management,
improved cholesterol, and increased energy.

Protein: Coconut yoghurt contains protein but not in very large quantity examples of proteins
present includes albumins, globulins. This protein present serves a play some crucial role in the
body that includes building and repairing tissues, producing enzymes and hormones, maintaining
fluid balance by regulating the amount of fluid in cells and tissue etc.

Fiber: Coconut yoghurt is a good source of dietary fiber, which helps and support digestive
health and satiety, fibers in coconut yoghurt can help you feel fuller for long, reducing the
likelihood of overeating and support weight loss effort, it supports healthy cholesterol levels i.e.
it helps to bind the bile acids and remove them from the body, which can lower cholesterol levels
and reduce the risk of heart disease.

Vitamins and Minerals: It is a good source of vitamins and minerals, coconut milk which is the
based used is a rich source of vitamins and minerals including;
● Vitamin C: important for immune function and collagen production.

● Vitamin E: acts as an antioxidant and protects against cell damages

 ● Iron: essential for healthy red blood cells, help fight off infections, essential in producing
neurotransmitters etc.
● Potassium: helps regulate blood pressure and support healthy heart function.

● Magnesium: involves in muscles and nerve function, as well as bone health

● Calcium: for building and maintain strong bones and teeth, helps regulate muscle
contractions and relaxations, necessary for transmission of nerve impulses, blood clothing
etc.
● Phosphorus: bone health, energy production, necessary for the synthesis of proteins,
which are the building blocks of tissues, DNA synthesis, etc.
● Selenium: antioxidant function, necessary for proper functioning of the immune system,
helps fighting of infection, selenium is required for thyroid hormone production, helps
prevent cancer, etc.
2.8. Benefits of Coconut yoghurt
2.7.1 Nutritional Benefits
1. High in Healthy Fats: Coconut yoghurt is rich in medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), which
are easily absorbed and provide sustained energy.
2. Good Source of Protein: Coconut yoghurt contains a moderate amount of protein, making it an
excellent option for those seeking a plant-based yoghurt alternative.
3. Rich in Fiber: Coconut yoghurt is a good source of dietary fiber, supporting digestive health
and satiety.
2.8.2. Health Benefits
1. Supports Digestive Health: Coconut yoghurt contains probiotics, which support gut health and
immune function.
2. Boosts Immune System: The probiotics in coconut yoghurt can help stimulate the immune
system, reducing the risk of illnesses.
[Link] Support Weight Management: Coconut yoghurt is high in healthy fats, providing
sustained energy and supporting weight management.
4. May Support Skin and Hair Health: Coconut yoghurt contains fatty acids and vitamins that
promote healthy skin and hair.
2.8.3. Additional Benefits
[Link]-Free and Hypoallergenic: Coconut yoghurt is an excellent option for those with dairy
allergies or intolerances.
[Link] and Eco-Friendly: Coconut yoghurt is a sustainable and eco-friendly option, as
coconuts are a highly renewable resource.
[Link]-Friendly: Coconut yoghurt is a popular dairy-free alternative, making it an excellent
option for vegans.
[Link]: Coconut yoghurt can be flavored and sweetened to suit individual tastes,
making it a versatile breakfast or snack option.
2.9. Chili pepper
A Nutrient-Rich Spice with Microbial Potential. Chili peppers (Capsicum annuum) are a popular
spice known for their pungent flavor and potential health benefits. They are rich in nutrients,
including: Vitamins A and C, Antioxidants, Capsaicin, a bioactive compound with anti-
inflammatory properties Chili peppers have been associated with various health benefits,
including: -Anti-inflammatory effects (due to capsaicin) Yang. (2018), Antimicrobial properties,
Potential antioxidant activity Lee. (2012), Pain relief due to capsaicin's analgesic properties
according to Tominaga et al. (2015). also helps in cardiovascular health benefits due to capsaicin
and other bioactive compounds present in them Ahuja et al. (2017).
2.9.1. Microbial Presence in Chili Peppers
Research suggests that chili peppers harbor beneficial microorganisms, including:
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, and
Lactococcus lactis. These microorganisms can contribute to fermentation processes and
potentially provide probiotic benefits
2.9.3. Application in Yogurt Fermentation
Our findings suggest that chili peppers can be used as a starter culture for fermenting coconut
yogurt, potentially introducing beneficial microorganisms like LAB. This application highlights
the versatility of chili peppers beyond their traditional use as a spice.

In coconut yogurt fermentation, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plan

Chili pepper is a nutrient-rich spice with potential health benefits and microbial properties. Its
ability to harbor beneficial microorganisms and contribute to fermentation processes makes it a
valuable ingredient for food applications, including yogurt production. Further research is
needed to fully explore the potential of chili peppers in food technology and nutrition.

2.10. Starter culture

Starter cultures are considered as the heart of the fermented dairy and no dairy products industry.
Apart from the basic function of producing lactic acid, starter cultures also impart numerous
technological and health-beneficial properties to fermented dairy products. A starter culture is a
product with a high concentration of lactic acid bacteria, which can activate an acidification
process in milk. Starter cultures are normally manufactured in special starter culture laboratories
but may also be cultured and propagated in dairy and no dairy.

2.10.1 Starter Culture for Coconut yoghurt

To our knowledge they seem to be a problem indicating a successful and health beneficial
culture for coconut yoghurt but for this study different species of Lactic Acid Bacteria will be
used due to it fermentable ability on sugar present in coconut milk. A mix culture containing
Lactococcus lactic, Lactobacillus Plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus obtained from chili
pepper.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Source of Materials
The raw materials; Coconut, Corn Starch, Chili Pepper, Containers, that were used for this
research work were purchased at Eke-Awka market, Awka South Local government area,
Anambra State. And was conveyed to the Food Science and Technology laboratory, Nnamdi
Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra state for analysis.

3.2 Experimental design

A simplex centroid mixture design using Jmp pro version 16 2023 was employed in this study to
determine the mixtures of different grams to be used in the research. A total of five (5) runs were
generated as shown in Table 3.1;
Table 3.1: A simplex centroid mixture design
Samples code Coconut milk Starter Cultu
LAB1 95g 5g
LAB2 90g 10g
LAB3 85g 15g
LAB4 80g 20g
LAB Control 100g

3.3 Equipment and Chemical

Pasteurizer, Homogenizer, Incubator, pH meter, Refrigerator, Blender, Thermometer, Bucket,
Cooking pot, Wooden stirrer, Plastic container, Sieve, Culture medium (plate count agar),
MacConkey agar, Sterile distilled water, Starter culture, Hydrogen peroxide, etc.

3.4 Selection of Starter Culture

The starter culture used was created by inoculating a specific gram of pure coconut milk
stabilized with cornstarch with a chili pepper which the Lactic Acid bacteria present in them
converts the sugar (glucose and fructose) into lactic acid during fermentation. The yogurt is then
used as the starter culture for the actual production due to the presence of active bacteria in them.
3.5 Sample preparation:
3.5.1 Preparation of coconut milk
The coconut was de-husked. The de-husked nut was cracked open into halves. The split nuts
were de-shelled to separate the coconut meat (kernel). Coconut meat was washed and
comminuted using an electric blender with water. This was then pressed through a muslin cloth
and strained to obtain coconut milk.

The flow chart for the preparation of coconut milk is shown in Fig. 3.1
3.5.2 Preparation of coconut-based yoghurt
Fresh coconut milk with minimum fat content was poured inside a clean cooking pot and heated
at temperature 161 °F (72 °C) for 15-30 seconds to kill off any existing bacteria and extend shelf
life(pasteurization). then cooled at temperature 113 °F (45 °C) for inoculation. thickener (corn
starch 10g) was also added during this heating yoghurt starter culture (i.e. chili pepper containing
Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus), was added to the cooled coconut milk
using a wooden stirrer or whisker to mix well to distribute the starter culture evenly. Incubation;
The inoculated coconut milk was poured into a container and kept in an airtight dark cupboard
maintained at temperature of 100 °F (38 °C) to 110 °F (43 °C) for 8-12 hours. The mixture
ferments (when the bacteria ferment with the sugar present in the coconut milk i.e. glucose,
sucrose etc. to produce lactic acid) and thicken. Cooling and Refrigeration; After incubation, the
coconut yoghurt will be removed from the cupboard and cooled to 40 °F (4 °C) within 1-2 hours
to slow down fermentation. The coconut yoghurt was refrigerated and stored at 39 °F (4 °C) to
45 °F (7 °C) then allowed to set and thicken in the refrigerator for at least 4-6 hours or overnight.
Once set, the coconut yoghurt is ready for consumption or further processing (e.g., flavoring,
packaging).

The flow chart for the preparation of coconut milk incorporated is shown in Fig. 3.2
 Coconut milk (Fat >10 %)

Addition of Corn starch

Heating to 70 °C

Cooling until (43-45 °C)

Inoculating of 2 % culture

Incubating at 43 °C for 8-12 hrs. or Overnight

Fortification (sugar and flavor optional)

Cooling (4-7 °C)

Coconut yoghurt

Packaging

Fig. 3.2 Preparation of coconut yoghurt

Source: Biswas (2013)

3.6. Coconut Yoghurt Analysis

3.6.1. Microbial Analysis
Preparation of culture media:
3.6.1.1Nutrient agar medium
Twenty-eight grams powder of NA base was suspended in 1000 ml of distilled water. The
suspension was heated to boil for few minutes to dissolve the powder completely with water. The
medium was autoclaved for 30 minutes to make it sterile. After autoclaving in centigrade system,
the medium was kept into water bath maintaining its temperature at 45°C. From water bath 10-20
ml of medium was poured into small and medium sized sterile Petri dishes to make NA plates.
The plates were than incubated at 37°C for 24 hours to check the sterility. The sterile media then
stored at 4°C in refrigerator for future use.
[Link]. MacConkey agar medium
Fifty grams powder of MC agar base (Difco, USA) was added to 1000 ml of distilled water in a
flask and heated until boiling to dissolve the medium completely. The medium was then
sterilized by autoclaving technique. After autoclaving, the medium was kept into water bath to
decrease its temperature at 45°C. After solidification of the medium in the Petri dishes, the Petri
dishes were allowed for incubating at 37°C for overnight to check their sterility and then stored
in a refrigerator for future use.
PROCEDURE
[Link]. Total Bacterial Count
One milliliter of each of the water samples was introduced into a petri-dish containing
ketoconazole at a concentration of 0.05mg/ml to inhibit fungal growth. Sterile nutrient agar (NA)
was added to the petri-dish and the mixture was gently swirled and left to solidify. Duplicate
plates from each sample were prepared and one incubated at 37 0C for 24 hours and the other
incubated at 220C for 24 hours after which the colonies that developed were counted using a
colony counter. Only plates that showed between 30 and 300 colonies were counted and the
values expressed as colony forming unit per milliliter of the sample. Each colony was purified by
repeated sub-culturing on sterile nutrient agar plates and later stored on sterile NA slants for
characterization and identification (Abbott, et al., 2008).
[Link]. Total Coliform Test
The most probable number (MPN) technique Oblinger, and Koburger. (2015) was used. Ten
milliliters (10ml) of each of the water samples were introduced into each of a first set of five
tubes each containing 10ml double strength bile salt-lactose broth. One milliliter (1ml) of each of
the samples was also introduced into each of a second set of five test tubes each containing 5ml
single strength bile salt-lactose broth. 0.1 milliliter of each of the samples was also introduced
into each of a third set of test tubes each containing 5ml single strength bile salt-lactose broth.
Durham tubes were inserted into each of the test tubes. All the test tubes were incubated at 37 0C
for 48 hours and examined for the presence of acid and gas. Acid production was indicated by a
change of colour of the broth to yellow while gas production was indicated by the presence of
sufficient gas space at the top of the Durham tubes. The potable number of coliforms per 100ml
of each water sample was obtained using the McCrady’s Probability Table.
[Link]. Total fungi count
One ml of each sample was serially diluted using sterile distilled water as diluents (Prescott et
al., 2002). 9ml of distilled water was measured out into test tubes, using separate sterile pipettes;
1ml of the sample was measured out into the first test tube properly mixed. Using a different
sterile pipette, 1ml from the first test tube was pipette into the second test tube already containing
9ml of distilled water, this continued following the same procedure till the last dilution (i.e. the
4th test tube). Using the streak method 1ml each of each sample unit from the test tubes was
collected with wire loop and streak into the sterile Petri dishes. The plates were incubated at 37°c
for the 24hr.
The number of colonies were counted on both nutrient and MacConkey agar and calculated using
the formula below;
N
CfU (ml) = VxD
Where
Cfu=Colony forming unit
N=Mean number of colonies
V=Volume of inoculum
D=Dilution factor.

3.6.2. Vitamin Analysis

[Link]. Vitamin B12 Determination

One gram (1 g) of the sample was weighed into a 50 ml conical flask, and 50 ml of distilled
water was added. To the mixture, 5 ml of 1% potassium ferricyanide solution and 5 ml of 2%
sodium nitrate solution were added. The mixture was boiled for 5 minutes at 60–70°C. After
boiling, 1 ml of formaldehyde was added, and the mixture was filtered using filter paper. The
absorbance of the filtrate was then read at 361 nm using a spectrophotometer.
Calculation:
Vitamin B12 (mg/100g) =
(Absorbance of Sample × Dilution Factor × Volume Analyzed × 1000) / (Absorbance of
Standard × Mass of Portion)

[Link]. Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Vitamin B2 content was determined according to the method described by AOAC (1990). A 5 g
portion of the sample was mixed with 50 ml of distilled water and allowed to shake for 3 hours.
The whole solution was then filtered, and 2 ml of the filtrate was collected into a test tube.
To this, 6.5 ml of distilled water was added, followed by 2 ml of Deniges reagent. The Deniges
reagent was prepared by mixing 1 g of mercuric oxide and 10 ml of sulphuric acid, and making
up the volume to 100 ml using distilled water.
The absorbance of the sample was read at 525nm against a blank.
Calculation:
Vitamin B2 (mg/100g) =
(Abs × Vol of extract × DF)
/ (1000 × Mass of sample)
Where:
- Abs = Absorbance
- DF = Dilution Factor

[Link]. Vitamin A
Vitamin A was determined according to the method described by AOAC (2011). One gram (1 g)
of the sample was mixed with 30 ml of absolute ethanol and 3 ml of 50% alcoholic KOH
solution. The mixture was heated under reflux at 70°C for 30 minutes.
After refluxing, the mixture was transferred into a separating funnel and washed with 50 ml of
water. Then, 150 ml of diethyl ether was added to extract the vitamin A.
The extract was evaporated in a water bath to dryness at a low temperature (50°C). The residue
was then dissolved in 10 ml of isopropyl alcohol, and the absorbance was measured.
For the standard, vitamin A standard solution was dissolved in 5–10 ml of diethyl ether,
transferred into a cuvette, and the absorbance was also measured. The sample absorbance was
compared with that of the standard. The absorbance readings were taken at 460 nm wavelength
using a spectrophotometer.

Calculation:
Vitamin A (mg/100g) =
(Abs of Sample × Conc. of Standard × Vol. of Extract × DF)
(Abs of Standard × Mass of Sample × Pathlength)

Where:
- DF = Dilution Factor
- Pathlength = Cuvette width (typically 1 cm)

[Link]. Vitamin E
Vitamin E was determined using the saponification and spectrophotometric method. 5 g of the
sample was weighed into a conical flask. To this, 200 ml of ethanol (alcohol) was added,
followed by 3 ml of freshly prepared potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution* and a pinch of
pyrogallol (as antioxidant).
The mixture was heated in a water bath at 60°C and refluxed for 1 hour. After saponification, the
mixture was cooled and quantitatively transferred into a separating funnel. It was extracted three
times using 50 ml of diethyl ether each time. The combined ether extract was washed with water
and then shaken with freshly prepared KOH solution (1.5 g KOH in 50 ml of 30% alcoholic
KOH). The absorbance of the ether extract was measured at 330 nm using a spectrophotometer.
Calculation:
Vitamin E (mg/100g) =

(Abs of test soln × conc. of standard × Vol. of cuvette used)

(Abs of standard × Mass of sample)

Sample formula used:
Y = 0.0095 × 2.002 ÷ 0.0155 = 0.0012 mg/100g

3.6.3. Sensory Analysis:

Sensory evaluation was carried out using the method described by Iwe (2014). A total of twenty-
five (25) semi-trained panelists from the Department of Food Science and Technology, Nnamdi
Azikiwe University, Awka, were selected for the [Link] various formulations of coconut
yogurt were tasted and evaluated based on appearance (color), texture, viscosity, taste, and
overall acceptability using a 9-point Hedonic Scale, defined as follows:1 = Dislike extremely, 2
= Dislike very much,3 = Dislike moderately, 4 = Dislike slightly,5 = Neither like nor dislike, 6 =
Like slightly,7 = Like moderately, 8 = Like very much, 9 = Like extremely.

3.6.4. Statistical analysis

The data was compiled and subjected to a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 26.00 (2023). Duncan Multiple Range
Test (DMRT) was used for mean separation at a significance level of 5% (p < 0.05).

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Microbial analysis

The microbial load of coconut yoghurt samples showed in table 4.2 varying levels of bacteria
counts. The value of the bacteria count ranged from 2.02 d ± 0.03 Lab 3(85g of coconut milk and
15g of starter culture) to 2.43a ± 0.02 Lab 4(80g of coconut milk and 20g of stater culture). There
was a significant difference between Lab 4(80g of coconut milk and 20g of stater culture) and
Lab 3(85g of coconut milk and 15g of stater culture) (P < 0.05), Lab 4(80g of coconut milk and
20g of stater culture) and Lab 1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture) (P < 0.05), and
other labs as indicated: Lab 1 (95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture) and Lab 2 (90g of
coconut milk and 10g of stater culture) has no significant difference,( P > 0.05), Lab 2(90g
coconut milk and 10g of stater culture) and Lab 5(control) also has no significant difference, (P >
0.05), Lab 3 and Lab5 (control) are significantly difference, (P < 0.05). The bacteria count of
coconut yoghurt obtained from this study is compared to the standard reported by Adams et al
. (2020) for coconut yoghurt products, which recom
et al. (2024), the bacterial count for
coconut yoghurt ranged from 6.95 to 8.20 CFU/mL, which can serve as a reference point for
microbial limits. The bacteria count ranged from 2.10 ± 0.02 (Lab 1) to 2.30 ± 0.02 (Lab 5). The
minimum bacteria count 2.10 ± 0.02 (Lab 1) The maximum bacteria count is 2.30 ± 0.02 (Lab 5).
In comparison to the stated standard, According to Adejo et al. (2024), coconut yoghurt typically
has bacterial counts ranging from 6.95 to 8.20 CFU/mL. Another study found that fermented
coconut extracts had Lb. bulgaricus counts between 6 and 10 log CFU/mL after one day of
storage. Given these references, the coconut yoghurt samples have lower bacterial counts
compared to these standards.
The coliform count had values ranging from 0.09 ± 0.01 (Lab 2) to 0.33 ± 0.03 (Lab 5). Lab 5
had the highest coliform count, while Lab 2 had the lowest. Lab1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of
stater culture), 4(80g of coconut milk and 20g of stater culture), and 5(control) are not
significantly different from each other (P > 0.05), while the rest had significant differences. Lab
5 has the highest coliform count (0.33), significantly different from Labs 2 (0.09) and 3 (0.11)
Labs 2 and 3 have lower coliform counts, indicating potentially better hygiene practices
According to the FDA guidelines, there isn't a specific coliform count limit provided for yogurt.
However, based on general microbiological standards for dairy products, coliform bacteria
should ideally be minimized or [Link] the data, Lab 5's coliform count (0.33)
appears to be the highest, which might indicate a potential issue with hygiene practices or
contamination. In contrast, Labs 2 and 3 have lower coliform counts (0.09 and 0.11,
respectively), suggesting better control over microbiological [Link] increase in coliform
count may be due to contamination through air, source of water, handling, or processing
technique used.
The fungi count (yeast and mold) had values ranging from 0.34 ± 0.02 Lab1(95g of coconut milk
and 5g of stater culture) to 1.78 ± 0.02 Lab5(control). Lab 5(control) had the highest fungi
growth, while Lab 1 had the lowest. Labs 1, 2, 3, and 4 showed significant differences (P < 0.05)
compared to Lab 5. Labs 2, 3, and 4 may not be significantly different from each other (P >
0.05). This indicates that Lab 5 has significantly different fungi counts compared to the other
labs, while the differences between Labs 1, 2, 3, and 4 are not significant. The increase in fungi
count may be due to contamination through air, source of water, handling, or processing
technique.
Table 4.1: Microbial analysis of coconut yoghurt
Sample Bacteria Coliform Mold Yeast
LAB1 2.15C ± 0.03 0.23b ± 0.02 0.34e ± 0.02 1.50b ±0.01
LAB2 2.37b ± 0.01 0.09d ±0.01 1.03d ± 0.03 1.80a ±0.00
LAB3 2.02d ± 0.03 0.11d ± 0.02 1.26b ± 0.01 1.33c ±0.03
LAB4 2.43a ± 0.02 0.16C ±0.03 1.21C ± 0.01 1.15d ±0.02
LAB5 2.15c ± 0.04 0.33 a ±0.03 1.78a ± 0.02 1.74a ±0.02 Keywords
LAB1- 95g of Coconut
milk and 5g of stater culture
LAB2 - 90g of Coconut milk and 10g of stater culture
LAB3 – 85g of Coconut milk and 15g of stater culture
LAB4 – 80g of Coconut milk and 20g of stater culture
LAB5 – 100g of dairy yoghurt (Control)
Coconut yoghurt products contain live cultures, similar to traditional yoghurt, with billions of
gut-loving bacteria of the Bifido strain.

4.2. Vitamin Analysis

The result of the vitamin B12 content in the coconut yoghurt is presented in the table.4.3. The
vitamin B12 content ranged from 0.01 to 0.01 mcg per 100 grams. The value observed is lower
when compared to other food sources due to coconut being a low source of vitamin B12 and
other ingredients used for the production is also a low source for vitamin B 12 According to our
findings, coconut yoghurt contains approximately 0.01 mcg of vitamin B12 per 100 grams.
Vitamin B12 plays crucial roles in; Red blood cell formation: Vitamin B12 is essential for the
production of red blood cells, preventing anemia as stated by Watanabe et al. (2013), vitamin
B12 deficiency can lead to neurological disorders and anemia also secondly nerve’s function;
Vitamin B12 maintains the health of the nervous system, supporting nerve function and
transmission also Vitamin B12 is necessary for DNA synthesis and repair, ensuring proper cell
division. There was no significant difference among all the samples (P > 0.05), indicating
consistent vitamin B12 content across different labs. The vitamin B12 content in coconut yoghurt
can be raised due to fermentation processes involving microorganisms, such as probiotic
bacteria. Although coconut is not a good source of vitamin B12, fortification or specific
fermentation methods could enhance its content. Compared to other food sources, coconut
yoghurt has lower vitamin B12 content. However, coconut yoghurt can still contribute to daily
vitamin B12 intake, especially when fortified or made with specific microorganisms. The
recommended daily intake of vitamin B12 varies by age group: Adults: 2.4 mcg per day
according to National Institutes of Health (NIH). Pregnant women: 2.6 mcg per day then
Breastfeeding women: 2.8 mcg per day by Craig WJ et al (2021)
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) is a water-soluble vitamin. The B2 content of coconut yoghurt ranges
from 0.01 to 0.01 mg per 100 grams. The highest value was obtained from Lab 5(control) with a
value of 0.01 mg/100g, while other labs have similar values. The ingredients used in coconut
yoghurt production may contribute to its vitamin B2 content. However, the exact contribution of
each ingredient is not specified. Riboflavin plays crucial roles in Antioxidant defense system,
reducing oxidative stress and helping protect against cellular damage Ochaha et al., (2019) Eye
health and maintenance of optimal vision Tribere et al., (2020) Immune system, protein
metabolism, and brain development Tribere et al., (2020) There is no significant difference (P >
0.05) between the vitamin B2 content of different labs, except for variations due to different
ingredients or processing methods. The vitamin B2 content of coconut yoghurt is relatively low,
but it still contributes to the daily intake of this essential nutrient.
The vitamin A content of coconut yoghurt ranges from 0.39 to 0.61 μg/100g. The highest value
was obtained from Lab5 (control) (0.61 μg/100g). The higher values were obtained from sample
Lab5 with sample ratio 0.61:0.39 or 1.56:1 Lab 1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture)
with sample 0:0.39:0.67 and Lab2(90g of coconut milk and 10g of stater culture) 0:0.60:0.39.
The
Table 4.2. Vitamin composition of coconut yoghurt
Sample Vitamin A VitaminB12 VitaminB2 Vitamin E
LAB1 0.39c± 0.00 0.01a ±0.00 0.01 a± 0.00 0.02a ±0.00

LAB2 0.60a ±0.00 0.01a ±0.00 0.01a ± 0.00 0.02a ±0.00

LAB3 0.39c± 0.00 0.01a ± 0.00 0.01a ± 0.00 0.02a±0.00

LAB4 0.41b ±0.00 0.01a ±0.00 0.01a ± 0.00 0.02a±0.00

LAB5 0.61a± 0.00 0.01a ±0.00 0.01a ± 0.00 0.02a ±0.00 Keywords
LAB1- 95g of Coconut
milk and 5g of stater culture
LAB2 - 90g of Coconut milk and 10g of stater culture
LAB3 – 85g of Coconut milk and 15g of stater culture
LAB4 – 80g of Coconut milk and 20g of stater culture
LAB5 – 100g of dairy yoghurt (Control)
ingredients used in coconut yoghurt production are coconut milk, cornstarch, and chili pepper.
Coconut milk: contains some vitamin A, primarily in the form of beta-carotene. Cornstarch:
minimal to no vitamin A content. Chili pepper: contains carotenoids, which can contribute to
vitamin A content Vitamin A plays crucial roles in Maintaining healthy vision (Loiu et al., 2017)
Supporting immune system function (Yambo et al., 2020) The vitamin A content in coconut
yoghurt may be attributed to the coconut milk and chili pepper used in production. The
proportion of these ingredients may have contributed to the varying vitamin A content across
labs. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin A is 700-900 μg RAE/day for
adults (Dixon, 2002). The vitamin A content of coconut yoghurt is relatively low, likely due to
the minimal contribution from the ingredients. The highest value obtained in Lab 5 may be
attributed to variations in ingredient proportions or processing. Coconut yoghurt can still
contribute to overall dietary intake, but other food sources rich in vitamin A may be necessary to
meet daily requirements.
The Vitamin E content rate is consistently 0.02 mg per hundred grams across all labs (Lab 1 to
Lab 5). Statistical analysis revealed no significant difference in Vitamin E content among the
labs (p >0.05). Given the consistent values, the ratio of Vitamin E content across labs is 1:1,
indicating no variation. The recommended dietary allowance for Vitamin E is 15 mg for both
men and women (Institute of Medicine, 2000). Compared to this recommendation, the yoghurt
(both coconut and traditional) has low Vitamin E content. Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin and
antioxidant that supports many aspects of health, from eyes to skin. It helps protect cells from
free radicals, which are harmful molecules that can damage cells WebMD.(2024).Vitamin E
benefits include protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals, boosting the immune
system to fight off infections, repairing damaged skin, improving moisture and elasticity, and
reducing inflammation, promoting circulation to the scalp and reducing damage, defending the
eyes against damage and reducing the risk of age-related macular degeneration and widening
blood vessels, reducing blood clotting, and supporting overall heart health. The yoghurt (both
coconut and traditional) has consistently low Vitamin E content, suggesting that the production
process and ingredients used may result in a uniform but relatively low Vitamin E content.
The analysis reveals that Vitamin A content varies across labs, ranging from 0.39^A to 0.61^A,
with Lab 5 having the highest value. According to a study on yoghurt nutritional content,
Vitamin A levels can range from 0.3 to 0.6 μg/g, which is consistent with our findings (Smith et
al., 2020). The low content of Vitamin B12 and Vitamin B2, consistently at 0.01^A across all
labs, may be due to the type of milk used or the fermentation process. Vitamin E content is
consistently low at 0.02^A, potentially due to degradation during processing or limited presence
in the milk source.
4.3. Sensory analysis
The sensory evaluation of food products is a crucial determinant of consumer choice. This study
focuses on the sensory evaluation of coconut yoghurt, assessing attributes such as color,
mouthfeel, taste, viscosity, and overall acceptability. According to the results presented in Table
4.3, the sensory scores for the coconut yoghurt samples ranged from, Color: 6.84 to 7.80, with
Lab 2 (7.80) being most preferred for appearance. Mouthfeel: 5.28 to 6.52, with Lab 4 (6.52)
being most preferred. Taste: 5.76 to 6.80, with Lab 4 (6.80) being most preferred. Viscosity: 5.64
to 7.24, with Lab 5 (7.24) being most preferred. Overall acceptability: 6.00 to 7.28, with Lab 5
(7.28) being most preferred.
The values of appearance (color)ranged from 6.84 to 7.80, with Lab 1 (6.84) being the lowest
and Lab 2 (7.80) being the highest. This suggests that Lab 2 was most visually appealing to the
panelists, potentially due to its better color or texture attributes, which are often linked to
consumer preference, as noted by (Tamime et al 2007) in their yoghurt science research. In
contrast, Lab 1 received a lower score, indicating poorer visual appeal, which may be attributed
to unfamiliarity or less desirable appearance characteristics, similar to findings by Kailasapathy
(2008) on yoghurt quality. There was a significant difference (P < 0.05) among the samples,
except between Lab 1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture), Lab4(80g of coconut milk
and 20g of stater culture), and Lab 5(control), which showed similar appearance scores.
The values of taste ranged from 5.76 to 6.80, with Lab 1 (95g of coconut milk and 5g of starter
culture) 5.76 being the lowest and Lab 4(80g of coconut milk and 20g of stater culture) 6.80
being the highest. The disparity in taste may be attributed to the type and quantity of ingredients
added, as well as the composition of the coconut yoghurt. According to Dave et al. (2019), the
sensory properties of yoghurt can be influenced by the type and quantity of ingredients used.
Lab1(95g 0f coconut milk and 5g of stater culture) is significantly different (P < 0.05) from Lab
2(90g of coconut milk and 10g stater culture), Lab 4(85g of coconut milk and 15g of stater
culture), and Lab 5(control). Lab 4(80g of coconut milk and 20g of stater culture) is significantly
different (P < 0.05) from Lab1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture) and Lab 3(85g of
coconut milk and 15g of stater culture). There was no significant difference (P > 0.05) between
Lab 2 and Lab 3, Lab2 and Lab5, and Lab3 and Lab5. The low score for Lab1(95g of coconut
milk and 5g of stater culture) may be due to the less desirable flavor profile, which may not be
appealing to consumers, possibly due to an imbalance of sweetness and acidity, as noted by
Sodini (et al. 2004).
Mouthfeel is a crucial attribute in yogurt, significantly influencing consumer acceptance and
preference, contributing to the product's overall sensory profile, influencing consumer preference
and acceptance, affecting perceived quality and freshness, and playing a role in differentiating
products in a competitive market, and is influenced by factors such as fat content, protein
structure, incubation, fermentation, additives and ingredients. Mouthfeel is an important attribute
that combines the textural perception of the product. The mean value ranged between 5.28 - 6.52
with Lab1(95g of coconut milk and 5g of stater culture) (or Lab3(85g of coconut milk and 15g of
stater culture) having a lower value of 5.28 and Lab 4 having the highest value of 6.52
respectively. There was no significant difference amongst the samples (p > 0.05) as all labs share
the same superscript (A).
The values of viscosity for the yogurt samples ranged from 5.64 to 7.24, with Lab 5 having the
highest value and Lab 2 having the lowest. There was a significant difference amongst the
samples (p < 0.05), with Labs 4 and 5 being significantly different from Labs 1, 2, and 3, as
indicated by the different superscripts (A, C). This variation in viscosity could be attributed to
differences in formulation, such as varying levels of thickeners or stabilizers, protein content, or
processing
Table 4.3. Sensory evaluation of coconut yogurt
Sample Color Mouthfeel Taste Viscosity Acceptability
LAB1 7.44ab ±1.16 5.28a ±1.72 6.32ab ± 1.18 5.72c± 1.57 6.28bc ±1.28

LAB2 7.80a ± 1.04 5.36a ±1.50 6.24ab ± 1.48 5.64c±1.52 6.00c ±1.12

LAB3 7.76a ± 1.20 5.28a ± 1.93 6.72a ± 1.70 6.60bc±1.73 6.88ab ± 1.42

LAB4 6.84b ± 1.54 6.52a ± 2.12 6.80a ± 1.29 6.72ab± 1.49 7.24a± 1.13

LAB5 6.84a ± 1.84 6.40a ± 2.55 5.76b ± 1.90 7.24a ± 1.36 7.28a ± 1.28 Keywords
LAB1 – 95g
of Coconut milk and 5g of stater culture
LAB2 – 90g of Coconut milk and 10g of stater culture
LAB3 – 85g of Coconut milk and 15g of stater culture
LAB4 – 80g of Coconut milk and 20g of stater culture
LAB5 – 100g of Diary yoghurt (Control)
methods like incubation time and temperature, which can impact the gel structure and flow
behavior of yogurt. The higher viscosity in Labs 4 and 5 may be desirable for certain yogurt
products, contributing to a thicker and creamier texture. Factors such as increased protein
content, addition of hydrocolloids, or optimized incubation conditions might have contributed to
the higher viscosity in these labs (Lee and Lucey, 2010).
The overall acceptability of the coconut yogurt samples refers to the general acceptance of the
product with reference to all discriminating sensory attributes of the samples. Samples
Lab5(control) (7.28±1.28) and Lab4 (80g of coconut milk and 20g of starter culture) (7.24±1.13)
were rated highest for overall acceptability, possibly due to their desirable sensory attributes,
such as optimal viscosity and taste, which are crucial factors influencing consumer preferences
for yogurt products (Granato et al., 2010). Samples Lab2(90g of coconut milk and 10g of stater
culture) (6.00±1.12) and others received lower scores. Samples Lab4(80g of coconut milk
and20g of stater culture) (7.24±1.13) and Lab5(control) (7.28±1.28) were rated highest for
overall acceptability and were significantly different from Lab2(90g of coconut milk and 10g
stater culture) (6.00±1.12) (p < 0.05), while Lab 1 (6.28±1.28) and Lab 3 (6.88±1.42) showed
intermediate scores, with Lab 3 being not significantly different from Labs 4 and 5 (p > 0.05).
The sensory analysis revealed that Lab 4 coconut yogurt was similar to Lab 5 traditional yogurt
in overall acceptability, taste, and viscosity, and was the most acceptable among the coconut
yogurt samples, whereas Lab 2 was the least acceptable, indicating that coconut yogurt can be
formulated to match traditional yogurt's sensory characteristics, making it a viable dairy-free
alternative.
 Chapter 5
Conclusion and Recommendation

This study evaluated the vitamin content, microbial properties, and sensory characteristics of
coconut yogurt as a plant-based alternative to traditional dairy yogurt. The results showed that
coconut yogurt had comparable vitamin content to traditional yogurt, with promising results for
Lab4 (20% starter culture & 80% coconut milk) The microbial analysis revealed a safe and
consumable product with beneficial microorganisms. Sensory evaluation indicated that Lab4
(20% starter culture and 80% coconut milk) coconut yogurt was similar to traditional yogurt in
terms of overall acceptability, taste, and viscosity. These findings suggest that coconut yogurt,
formulated with coconut milk, corn starch as a stabilizer, and chili pepper as a starter culture, can
be a viable dairy-free alternative to traditional yogurt.

5.2 Recommendations
Based on the study's findings, it is recommended that further research be conducted to:
- Increase consumer awareness and acceptance of coconut yogurt as a dairy-free alternative.
- Explore the potential benefits of coconut yogurt, particularly its probiotic properties and
nutritional content.
- Develop strategies to promote and market coconut yogurt to a wider audience.
- Conduct long-term studies to assess the shelf-life and stability of coconut yogurt, ensuring its
quality and safety for consumers.
- Investigate the potential for scaling up coconut yogurt production, exploring its feasibility and
economic viability for commercialization.
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