Chapter 1:

History of Computers
• The abacus was one of the earliest human inventions for calculation.
• The Arabic numeral system was developed and used for arithmetic.
• Over time, the abacus could not meet the need for complex and repetitive calculations.
• This need pushed humans to create more advanced calculating tools.
• One of the major outcomes of this progress was the invention of the computer.

Computer Revolution: Timeline (1930’s to 1960’s)

1939:
•Konrad Zuse (Germany):
-Invented the first general-purpose computer.
•John Atanasoff (USA):
-A professor at Iowa State College (now Iowa State University).
-Invented the first electronic computer, called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC).

1940’s:
Howard Aiken (USA, 1944):
-Harvard University professor.
-Invented the automatic general-purpose calculator called Mark I.
-The project was financed by IBM (International Business Machines).
•John Mauchly & J. Presper Eckert (USA):
-Invented the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC).
-Used in World War II to calculate trajectory tables for new guns.
-After the war, developed the UNIVAC I, the first general-purpose commercial computer (1951).
-U.S. Census Bureau was its first major user.
-UNIVAC I marked the first generation of computers, built using vacuum tubes.

1948:
•Bell Laboratories (USA):
-Physicists J. Bardeen, H. W. Brattain, and W. Shockley invented the transistor.
-Transistors performed the same function as vacuum tubes but were smaller, faster, cheaper,
and more reliable.
-In 1956, transistors were first used to build computers.
-This began the second generation of computers.

1960’s:
-Transistor-based computers were replaced by third-generation computers.
-These computers were smaller, more powerful, and more efficient.
-Built using integrated circuits (ICs).
-ICs could integrate hundreds of transistors into a single tiny chip.

1965:
•Honeywell Corporation (USA):
-Introduced the H316 “Kitchen Computer”, considered the first home computer.
-Marketed as a household device but was impractical for everyday consumers due to high cost
and complexity.
1969:
-The first microprocessor (the “brain” of the computer) was invented.
-Marked the beginning of the fourth generation of computers.
-Microprocessors combined thousands of integrated circuits into a single chip.

Computer Revolution: Timeline (1970’s)

1970’s:
-Apple, Tandy, and Commodore introduced the first low-cost computers.
-These were considered as powerful as many of the room-sized computers of the 1950s and
1960s.

1971:
•Intel Corporation – Dr. Ted Hoff:
-Designed and created the world’s first commercially available microprocessor.
-Originally intended for use in a calculator, later paving the way for use in computers.
•Steve Wozniak & Bill Fernandez:
-Designed and created the Cream Soda Computer.
-Named after Cragmont cream soda they drank during its construction.

1972:
-The 5.25-inch floppy disk (diskette) was first introduced to the market.
-Allowed easy transfer of data, programs, or software from one computer to another.
Note: Today, this role has been replaced by the USB Mass Storage Device (Thumb Drive/Flash
Drive), allowing users to move data anywhere, anytime.

1973:
•IBM Corporation – Hard Disk:
-Introduced the hard disk as a mass storage device.
-Originally designed to hold 70 MB of data.
Note: Today’s hard disks are over 160 GB in capacity.

1974:
•Intel Corporation & Motorola Inc.:
-Introduced an 8-bit microprocessor.
-Featured 64 KB of RAM memory and ran at a speed of 2 MHz.
Note: Today’s microprocessors are 64-bit, with 2 GB of RAM, and run at speeds of over 2.3 GHz.

1975:
•Unites States
-The first commercially available Personal Computer (PC), called the Altair, was introduced.

1976:
•Apple, Inc.:
-The first Apple I computer was designed and marketed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak.
-Their company Apple, Incorporated was established.
-Named the company after their favorite snack food: the apple.
1978:
•Epson:
-Introduced their first dot-matrix printer, model MX-80.

A Short History of Calculating Machines

•Before Computers – Early Calculating Machines:

-Calculating machines existed before computers.
-Compared to computers (lions and tigers), these machines were like dinosaurs.
-Though extinct and no longer useful, their “skeletons” remain as reminders of humanity’s past
innovations.
-They are worth remembering as an important part of history.

•Abacus:
-One of the earliest tools for calculation.
-Eventually became insufficient for solving complex and repetitive tasks.

•1642 – Blaise Pascal (France):

-French mathematician and philosopher.
-Invented an adding machine called the “Pascaline”.
-His concept and design influenced mechanical calculator inventors in the early 20th century.

•1830 – Charles Babbage (England):

-Invented the “Difference Engine” to solve equations.
-Later conceived the “Analytical Engine”, designed with five features of a modern computer:
-Input device
-Storage
-Processor
-Control unit
-Output device
-Earned the title “Father of Computer”.
-His son later constructed a working model of the Analytical Engine.
•Ada Augusta Byron (Countess of Lovelace):
-Gifted mathematician and daughter of poet Lord Byron.
-Worked closely with Babbage, creating instructions for computations.
-Published notes about the Analytical Engine.
-Recognized as the “first computer programmer”.

•Herman Hollerith (USA):

1890:
-Devised a punched-card tabulating machine.
-Used for the 1890 U.S. Census.
1896:
-Founded the Tabulating Machine Company.
1911:
-Company merged with others to form the Computing–Tabulating Recording Company (CTR).
1924:
-General Manager Thomas J. Watson Sr. renamed the company International Business Machines
(IBM).
 -Today, IBM remains one of the largest computer companies in the world.

The Computer Age Generation

•First Generation Computer (1951-1958): The Age of Vacuum Tube

-Built with vacuum tubes as internal components.
-The first generation began with the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I).
-The UNIVAC I was the first commercially viable electronic computer.
-Designed and patterned after the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).

•Second Generation Computer (1959-1964): The Age of Transistor

-Used transistors as internal components.
-Transistors were: smaller, faster, more reliable than vacuum tubes, consumed less electrical
energy, and needed no warm-up time.

•Third Generation Computer (1965-1970): The Age of Integrated Circuit (IC)

-Used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of individual transistors as internal components.
-An entire circuit board of transistors could be replaced by one chip (IC).
-ICs were much smaller than a single transistor.
-Made of silicon chips – a semiconductor crystalline substance that conducts electric current.

•Fourth Generation Computer (1971-present): The Age of Microprocessor

-Extension of third-generation technology.
-Introduced the microprocessor – a chip with more power and capabilities.
-The microprocessor is considered the “brain of the computer”, coordinating and performing
nearly all operations.
-Applications of microprocessor technology go beyond computers, including:
-Digital watches
-Pocket calculators
-Copy machines
-Television sets
-Cars
-Audio and video appliances

•Fifth Generation (Onward): Information Superhighway

-Term coined by the Japanese for their plan to build powerful computers by the mid-1990s.
-Initially focused on artificial intelligence, natural language, and expert systems.
-Evolved toward connectivity – enabling computers to connect with other computers.
-This development foreshadowed the rise of the Internet.
-Raises the question: Could the Internet be the precursor of the Information Superhighway?
The Computer Today

•Mainframe Computers:
-Still used by large companies for massive computing tasks.
-Very expensive, room-sized machines housed in air-conditioned rooms.
-Rarely seen by the public, but many people benefit from them indirectly (e.g., ATM withdrawals,
bank deposits).
-Large banks continue to use mainframes for core banking operations, while also using PCs for
daily transactions.

•Minicomputers:
-Smaller and less expensive than mainframes.
-Less powerful than mainframes, but more powerful than early personal computers.
-Today, this description is outdated because modern high-end PCs (network servers) can surpass
minicomputers in speed, accuracy, and reliability.

•Personal Computers (PCs):

-Designed for single or personal use by an individual.
-The most common type of computer today.
-Found almost everywhere – from homes to offices.

•Workstation:
-A PC connected to a main computer (server) to form a network.
-Typically used in office or business environments.

•Portable Computers (late 1980s):

-Weighed around 20 pounds.
-Looked like suitcases with fold-out keyboards and small TV-like screens.
-Called portable because they could be carried from one place to another.

•Laptop Computers (modern evolution):

-Replaced early portable computers.
-Flat-screen, battery-powered, lightweight, and handy enough to rest on a lap.
-Commonly called notebook computers – lighter and carried like a book.
-Used for tasks such as memos, budgets, and emails, often connected to the Internet.

•Palmtop Computers (hand-held):

-Small enough to fit in a jacket pocket.
-Considered a fast-emerging type of portable computer.
-Generally, more expensive than desktop PCs.

•Pocket PCs (next wave of portable computers):

-Example: Palm Pilot PC.
-Popularized in the tech market and featured in computer magazines and stores.

•Special-Purpose Computers:
-Designed for specific tasks (e.g., controlling building temperature/humidity, monitoring patient heart
rates in hospitals).
•Embedded Computers:
-Found in almost all consumer electronic devices:
-Game machines, video players, phones, stereos, ovens, automobiles.
-Typically hidden inside devices and not visible to users.
-Do not have keyboards, monitors, or disk drives.

•How They Work:

-Built into an integrated circuit (chip).
-Contain a special-purpose program that performs dedicated tasks.
-Combination of hardware (IC) and software (program).
-The built-in program is called firmware.

Computers for People like Us

•Types of Computers for Personal Use:
-Personal Computer (PC) / Desktop Computer
-Laptop / Notebook Computer
-Smartphone / Handheld Computer

•Handheld Personal Computer:

-Small enough to fit in one’s hand.
-Popular type: Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
-Functions: Appointment book, taking notes, storing phone numbers and addresses, and
tracking dates and agendas

•Smartphone:
-A cellular phone with advanced features.
-Capabilities include: Internet browsing, access to e-mails, and functions as a personal
organizer

Computers for the Company

-Mainframes and Minicomputers (Midrange)
-Supercomputers
-Network Servers

•Network Server:
-A powerful personal computer equipped with strong software and peripherals.
-Functions as the primary computer in a network.
-Workstations used by employees are connected to it.
-Stores most of the company’s resources.
-Allows employees to access their files, folders, and information from any workstation within the
company premises.
Chapter 2:

Summary:

•Computers’ Power and Usefulness

-Make life convenient and comfortable.
-Applications:
-Airline flight scheduling & ticket reservations (fast, accurate, convenient).
-Weather forecasting (typhoons, tidal waves).
-ATMs (withdraw cash anytime, anywhere).
-Life without computers would feel difficult and inconvenient.

•What Computers Can Really Do

-Perform four basic tasks:
1. Receive input
2. Process information
3. Produce output
4. Store information
-Their power comes from programs/software created by humans.

•Hardware Components of a Computer

-Input devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick.
-Output devices: monitor, printer.
-Microprocessor (CPU): performs calculations, makes decisions; also called the brain of the
computer.
-Storage devices: floppy diskettes, hard disks, CD-ROMs, DVD-ROMs, USB flash drives, backup
tapes.
-Memory:
-RAM – temporary storage.
-ROM – permanent storage.

Hardware Revolution: Timeline (In 1980’s)

1981:
•Osborne I:
-First portable computer.
-Features: two floppy drives, no hard disk.
-Pre-installed software:
-Operating system: CP/M (Controlled Processor for Microcomputer)
-Word processing: WordStar
-Spreadsheet: SuperCalc
•IBM PC:
-Introduced by IBM Corporation in August 1981.
-Operating system: DOS (Disk Operating System) by Microsoft.
-Specs:
-Speed: 4.77 MHz
-16 KB RAM
-Two floppy disk drives
-8088 (8-bit microprocessor) by Intel Corporation
•Xerox Star:
-Introduced by Xerox Corporation.
-First computer to use a mouse as an input device.
-Mouse served as an alternative to the keyboard for navigation.

1982:
•Sun Microsystems, Inc.:
-Founded and introduced its first workstation: Sun 1.
•Intel Corporation:
-Introduced the 16-bit 80286 microprocessor.

1983:
•Compaq Computer Company:
-Released the first successful 100% IBM-PC compatible computer.

1985:
•Intel Corporation:
-Introduced the 32-bit 80386 microprocessor.
•Hewlett-Packard (HP):
-Released the LaserJet laser printer.
-Main feature: 300 dpi (dots per inch) resolution.

1986:
•IBM Corporation:
-Introduced its first laptop computer.
•CD-ROM Technology:
-Introduced as a promising storage device at an international conference in Seattle, Washington,
USA.

1987:
•Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA):
-Introduced by a group of independent computer manufacturers.
-Created to compete with IBM’s proprietary Micro-Channel Architecture (MCA).
•IBM Corporation:
-Introduced the Video Graphics Array (VGA) interface card.
-Features: 256 colors at 320×200 resolution.
•Hewlett-Packard (HP):
-Released the first inkjet printer: HP Deskjet.

1988:
•Next Inc.:
-Founded by Steve Jobs after leaving Apple.
-Introduced the first PC using Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in its operating system.
-Used a CD-ROM drive instead of a floppy disk drive.
1989:
•Apple Computer:
-Introduced its laptop computer called PowerBook.
-Along with IBM and Motorola, signed a cooperative agreement to:
-Design and produce RISC-based (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) chips.
-Develop object-oriented operating systems.
-Establish common multimedia standards.
-Result: invention of the PowerPC microprocessor.

Hardware Revolution: In 1990’s

1992:
•IBM Corporation:
-Released their ThinkPad laptop computer.

1993:
•IBM Corporation:
-Introduced its first RISC-based workstation: RS/6000.
-Powered by the PowerPC 601 microprocessor chip.

1994:
•Apple Computer:
-Introduced its RISC-based computer.
-Powered by the PowerPC microprocessor chip.

1995:
•Intel Corporation:
-Introduced the Pentium microprocessor.
•Power Computing:
-Released its first Apple-Macintosh clone called Power 100.

1996:
•U.S. Robotics:
-Introduced the PalmPilot, marking the start of the Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) era.
•Sun Microsystems:
-Introduced its first workstation with a 64-bit microprocessor: Sun Ultra.

1997:
•Intel Corporation:
-Introduced the Pentium II microprocessor.
-Introduced MMX (Multi-Media Extension) technology, enhancing multimedia capabilities of the
processor.
•DVD Technology:
-Introduced in the market.
-Offers more storage capacity than VCDs.
-Predicted to become the standard for CD-ROM technology in PCs and home entertainment
systems (TVs, stereo players).
1998:
•Intel Corporation:
-Released Pentium II Celeron: slower performance but lower cost, ideal for home users or offices
with basic needs.
-Released Pentium II Xeon: designed for high-performance network servers and workstations
for companies and universities.
•Apple Computer:
-Introduced the colorful iMac.
-Features: G3 microprocessor (faster than Intel Pentium II), USB connections, and no floppy
disk drive

1999:
•Intel Corporation:
-Released the Pentium III microprocessor.
-Features enhancements for website graphics applications.
•AMD Corporation:
-Introduced the Athlon microprocessor to compete with Intel’s Pentium III Xeon and Celeron.
•Apple Computer:
-Released iMac with G4 microprocessor, faster than Intel Pentium III and AMD Athlon.

Hardware Revolution: In early 2000

2000:
•AMD and Intel Corporation:
-Announced the release of the world’s first microprocessors capable of running at 1 GHz.

2001:
•Apple Computer – iPod:
-Introduced the first iPod music player with 5 GB internal storage, capable of holding 1,000 CD
songs.
-Three main categories of iPods:
-iPod Shuffle – smaller, 1 GB capacity, released later than the other models.
-iPod Nano – 8 GB capacity.
-iPod Video – 160 GB capacity.

2003:
•Supercomputer:
-Created by Mike Showerman and Craig Steffen.
-Performs 6.5 billion mathematical operations per second.
-Uses Linux as its operating system.
•Intel and AMD:
-Released 64-bit microprocessors.
•Apple Computer:
-Released Power Macintosh with G5 64-bit microprocessor.
•Intel Centrino Technology:
-Introduced wireless capabilities for laptops.
-Allows Internet access without cables at public places like coffee shops and malls.
2005:
•Bluetooth Technology:
-Enables sharing of text, pictures, videos, music, and files across devices.
-Compatible with cell phones, PDAs, iPods, and other gadgets.
•Intel Dual-Core Processors (Core Duo):
-Introduced as high-performance processors in the market.

2006:
•Intel Core 2 Duo:
-Emerging microprocessor technology.
-Offers 40% more performance compared to its predecessor, the Core Duo.

2007:
•Intel Quad-Core Processors:
-Introduced for desktop computers.
-Expected to be adapted for laptops in the near future, offering higher performance.