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INTRODUCTION
Introduction: Introduction is the noun form of introduce. Introduction is a process
through which one person is known properly to others.

Introduction is generally divided into two types.

I. Expected Introduction
II. Unexpected Introduction
Expected Introduction: Expected introduction is an introduction, which is expected to
happen.
Examples: Introduction in interview
Introduction in first day of the class

Unexpected Introduction: Unexpected introduction is that which is not expected to

happen but it happens.
Examples: Introduction in the park.
Introduction in the airport
Introduction at Bus stop.

CLASS INTRODUCTION
Class introduction: Class introduction is a type of expected introduction that takes place
(happens) within a class period.

Class Introduction:
Class introduction has three stages:
I. Teacher’s introduction
II. Student’s introduction
III. Book/Subject/Course introduction

Dated: 20/05/2009

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GRAMMAR
Grammar: The word grammar is derived (taken) from the old Greek word “Gremme”
which means a set of standard rules.
Definitions of Grammar:
A. The principles and rules that structure a particular language is called grammar.
B. Grammar is a book that contains some dynamic rules of changing the forms of
words and combining them into proper sentences.
C. The accurate knowledge and usage about a particular language is called
grammar.

Alphabet: The collection of letters and symbols in a fixed order (limited) is called
alphabet.
Note: While the individuals such as A; B, C, D and so on are called
Alphabets.

Word: A written or spoken representation of one or more syllables that gives a

particular meaning is called word.
Definition II
The collection of limited alphabets that gives a particular meaning or sense is called
word.
Types of Words
Words are generally divided into two types.
I. Lexical words
II. Grammatical words
Lexical words: Lexical words are those words which do not need explanation. They
give complete meaning. Lexical words are also called “Absolute Words”.
E.g.
Study, dance, play, write etc.

Grammatical words: Grammatical words are those words which need explanation.
They don’t give complete meaning. Grammatical words are also called “grammar
terminologies”.
E.g.
Noun, pronoun, verb, adjective etc.

GRAMMAR / GRAMER
The first word, which has been spelled with “grammar”, is absolutely right. It can be
found in dictionaries and encyclopedia.
The second word, which has been spelled with “gramer”, is completely wrong.
According to some grammarians the first one is British while the second one is
American, but this wrong. The correct word is grammar.

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Words Meanings
Gremmie a set of standard rules
Principles Basics, Fundamentals
Structure Make
Standard rules Accepted rules
Dynamic Active
Accurate Correct
Knowledge Understanding, Comprehension
Combine Connect

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Note: First form of the verb is called dictionary form or root form.
It is not called base form of the verb.

Dated: 21/05/2009

FORMS OF LEXICAL WORDS

In English language lexical words most frequently have four forms:
I. Verb Form ------ Produce
II. Noun Form ------ Product / Production
III. Adjective Form ------ Productive
IV. Adverb Form ------ Productively

Note: Most frequently = 85%

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PARTS OF SPEECH
Parts of speech is a grammatical term that represents the collection of
Grammatical words with a particular meaning.
Parts of speech are eight in numbers.
I. Noun
II. Pronoun
III. Adjective
IV. Adverb
V. Preposition
VI. Conjunction
VII. Interjection
VIII. Verb

TYPES OF PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech are generally divided into two types:
I. Open elements of parts of speech
II. Close elements of parts of speech
Open elements (parts) of parts of speech:-
Those elements which can accept either addition or deduction. Open elements
are four in numbers.
I. Noun
II. Adjective
III. Adverb
IV. Verb
Close elements of parts of speech:-
Close elements of parts of speech are those elements which can accept neither
addition nor deduction. Close elements of parts of speech are four in numbers.
I. Preposition
II. Conjunction
III. Interjection
IV. Pronoun
Open elements of parts of speech
Presentation deduction Present Addition Presentation
Beautiful Addition beautifully deduction beautiful
Carefully deduction careful addition carefully
Swim addition Swimmer deduction swim

Close elements of part of speech

At X X ------------ X
But X X ------------ X
I X X ------------ X
Wow X X ------------ X
It means that close elements of parts of speech accept no addition or deduction.

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NOUN
The word noun is derived from the old Greek word nomen, which means
name.
Definitions of noun:-
A. Noun is a word or group of words that names place, person, thing,
Animal, quality, quantity, idea, action.
Place: America, Park, Class etc.
Person: boy, girl, child, man etc.
Thing: chair, pen, book, fan etc.
Animal: dog, lion, cat etc.
Quality: Honesty, Beauty, loyalty etc.
Quantity: Kilo, pound, miter, litter etc.
Idea: goodness, sadness etc.
Action:Playing, Studying, Watching etc.

B. Noun is a grammatical term that refers to anything we see, we feel,

We touch, we drink, we eat.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Roots of Noun
Roots of noun is a grammatical term that describes noun and noun related
Structures.
Roots of Noun: - (information about noun)
I. Types of noun
II. Genders of noun
III. Cases of noun
IV. Numbers of noun

Types of noun: -
Nouns are generally divided into nine types.
I. Proper nouns
II. Common nouns
III. Compound nouns
IV. Collective nouns
V. Material nouns
VI. Abstract nouns
VII. Concrete nouns
Vlll. Countable nouns
X. Non countable nouns
Dated: 22/05/2009

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Proper Nouns: -
Proper nouns are those nouns, which refer to proper place, proper things and proper
person.
Note: Proper Nouns start with capital letter or upper case letter.
E.g.
Proper person: Hamid, Ali, John etc.
Proper place: Pakistan, America, and Kabul etc.
Proper thing: Nokia Mobile, Honda Car etc.
Common Nouns: -
Common nouns are those nouns, which refer to commonplace, common person and
common thing.
E.g.
Common person: boy, girl, child, man etc.
Commonplace: city, park, room, ground etc.
Common thing: chair, pen, book, notebook etc.
Compound Nouns: -
Compound nouns are those nouns, which are composed of (made of) two or three words.
E.g.
Bus driver, schoolteacher, brother-in-law etc.
Types of Compound Nouns
In English grammar compound nouns are generally divided into three types.
I. Open compound nouns
II. Close compound nouns
III. Hyphenated compound nouns
Open compound nouns: -
Open compound nouns are those nouns, which are spelled (written) as two words.
E.g.
Bus driver, schoolteacher, college student etc.
Close compound nouns: -
Close compound nouns are those nouns, which are spelled as one word.
E.g.
Classroom, housewife, notebook, homework, classmate etc.
Hyphenated compound nouns: -
Hyphenated compound nouns are those nouns, which contain hyphen.
E.g.
Brother-in-law, sister-in-law, father-in-law, editor-in-chief etc.
Forms (shapes) of compound noun
Forms of compound noun is a grammatical term, which denotes how compound
nouns are shaped (made). In English grammar compound noun have the
following forms:
I. Noun+Noun
In this form compound noun is composed of two simple nouns in which the first
noun functions as an adjective. So it should be singular in form.
E.g.
College student
Bus driver

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Project Director
Etc.
Here the nouns, which are used first, function, as adjectives so this point should
be kept in mind the first noun that in compound nouns must be singular. For
making the compound noun plural addition is made to the second noun.
Form II Gerund+Noun
In this form compound noun is made of one verbal noun and one simple noun.
E.g
Driving school
Cooking school
Dancing club
Swimming pool etc.
Form III Noun+Gerund
In this form compound noun is made of one simple noun and one verbal noun.
E.g
Bird watching
Mountain climbing
Window-shopping
Sightseeing (close) (to go on picnic)
Form IV Noun+hypen+preposition+hyphen+noun
In this form compound noun is made of five parts.
E.g
Father-in-law
Mother-in-law
Editor-in-chief
Stick-in-mud etc.
Collective Nouns: -
Collective nouns are those nouns, which are singular in form but plural in
meaning. Some collective nouns are listed (mentioned) here.
E.g.. People, family, tea, army, class etc.
Material Nouns: -
Material nouns are those nouns, which refer to substance (things) from which
other nouns are made. Some material nouns are listed here.
E.g.. Copper, metal, gold, wood, cotton, silver etc.
Abstract Nouns: -
Those nouns, which do not have physical shapes or existence. Some abstract
nouns are listed here.
E.g
Knowledge, experience, pain, love, honesty etc.
Those nouns, which do not have physical shapes or existence but can be felt.
Concrete Nouns: -
Concrete nouns are those nouns, which have physical existence and shapes.
Some concrete nouns are listed here.
E.g
Water, glass, paper, ball etc.
2. Genders of noun

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The word gender is derived from the Arabic word “genus” which means the sex
or status of nouns.
Genders of noun: - It is a grammatical term, which indicates the sex or status of
nouns. In English grammar nouns have four genders.
Genders of noun

Masculine Feminine Common Neuter

Gender Gender Gender Gender

Masculine gender: -
Masculine gender is a gender refers to male living beings.
E.g
Father, Mother, Son, Uncle, Husband, Actor etc.

II Feminine gender: -
It is a gender that refers to female living beings.
E.g
Mother, Sister, Aunt, Daughter, Wife, Actress etc.

III Common genders: -

It is a gender that refers to either (both) male living beings and female living beings.
E.g
Friend, Teacher, Student, Engineer, Doctor Etc.

Iv. Neuter gender: -

It is a gender that refers to neither male living beings nor female living beings.
E.g
Book, pen, stick, stone etc.
Note: If a noun refers to beauty, gentle, fragileness, adoration such noun is considered
female but if a noun refers to power, intensity, roughness such noun is considered male.
Beauty: Flower, Star, Moon, Spring etc.
Gentle: Foam etc.
Fragile: (Breakable thing) glass, paper, windowpanes etc.
Adoration: (Love) She is used for country because of adoration=people love it.
Male nouns:
Power: Earhquake, Flood etc.
Intensity: Sun, Flood etc.
Roughness: Wall, Bricks etc which are not soft that’s why they are masculine nouns.

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Cases of Noun
Cases of noun are a grammatical term, which indicates the position of nouns in sentences.
In English grammar nouns have five positions or cases (usages).
I. Subject Case
II. Object Case
III. Complement of preposition case
IV. Possessive case
V. Vocative case
6. Dative

Subject Case: -
In this case noun is used before main verb to function as the subject in sentence.
E.g
The boys play football everyday.
Noun main verb
So it is subject case.
[Link] Case: -
In this case a noun is used after main verb to function as the object of sentence.
E.g
She loves Hamid.
Main verb noun(object case)
He teaches the students.
The boys tease the girls.(Both cases subject and object)
[Link] of Preposition Case:-
In this case a noun is preceded by/with a preposition to complete the meaning of
preposition.
E.g
He talks to the boy daily.
Prep. Noun

She punished the children at home.

He is happy about trip.
Here the noun trip completes the meaning of preposition about.
[Link] Case:-
In this case a noun is used in two forms to show possession or ownership.
Form I. Students’ book
Ahmad’s car
Boy’s shoes
Form II. My Car
You’re Class
His shirt
Note: The first form is made of noun+Apostraphy.
The second form is made noun+possessive adjective.
[Link] Case:-
In this case a noun is articulated (addressed)(spoken) by the speaker.
E.g
Students, stand up.
Come here, Ali.

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Attend the Call, Shahid.

Comma is put for break or pause.
Note: In English grammar subject case is also called nominative case, object case is also
called accusative case, Complement of preposition case is also called dative case,
possessive case is also called genitive case and vocative case is also called addressive
case.
4. Numbers of Noun: -
Numbers of noun is grammatical term that indicates singularity of nouns, plurality of
nouns, regularity of nouns, irregularity of nouns, count ability of nouns and non-
countability of nouns.
I. Singular Nouns:-
Singular nouns are those nouns, which agree with singular verbs.
E.g
The child plays toys in the room.
Singular noun singular verb
He plays Cricket.
[Link] Nouns:-
Plural nouns are those nouns, which agree with plural verbs.
E.g
The children play toys in the room.
Plural noun plural verb
[Link] Nouns: -
Regular nouns are those nouns, which have specific rules while changing them to plural
forms. They take the suffixes (s, es, ies, and ves) in their plural forms.
E.g
Singular Regular Noun Plural Regular Nouns
Book Books
Car Cars
Dish Dishes
Watch Watches
Country Countries
City Cities
Wife Wives
IV. Irregular Nouns:-
Irregular nouns are those nouns which do not have specific rules while changing them to
plural forms. They do not take the suffixes (s, es, ies, ves) in their plural forms.
E.g
Singular irregular Nouns Plural irregular Nouns
Child Children
Man Men
Woman Women
Foot Feet
Count Nouns:-
Count nouns are those, which have physical individual shapes or existence.
Some count nouns are listed here.
E.g
Car, chair, book, pen etc.

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Noncount Nouns:-
Noncount nouns are those nouns which don’t have physical individual shapes or
existence.
E.g
water, milk, meat, sugar, money, beans, rice etc.
Beans, rice, hair, stars etc. can be counted but it is very difficult to count these things.
That’s why they are called massive nouns. Money is not countable but when it is changed
into currency it is then countable. Money is the general form while currency is the
specific form.
Currency can be counted while money can’t be counted.
E.g
Rupees, Afghanis, dollars and yens etc can be counted because these are currency while
money can’t be because it general form.

Differences between Count Nouns and Noncount Nouns

Count Nouns NonCount Nouns
I. Can be counted. Can’t be count but measured.
II. Have physical individual Don’t have physical individual
Shapes shapes
III. Have both singular & plural Have one form considered
Forms singular.
IV. Can take both singular & can take only singular verbs.
Plural verbs
V. The articles (a, an) can be The articles (a, an) can’t be used
Used before count nouns. Before noncount nouns.
VI. Numbers can be used before Numbers can’t be used before
Count nouns. Noncount nouns.

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PRONOUN
Pronoun: -
The word pronoun is composed of two parts.
 The composed (pro), which means previous.
 The root word (noun), which means name.
So (pronoun) basically means the previous name.
Definition of Pronoun:-
Pronoun is a word or group of words that is used instead of noun to avoid (stop) its
repetitions.
E.g
Wali studies Arabic. He is very intelligent.
Previous name pronoun
Antecedent

 Where do we use pronouns?

 Why do we use pronouns?
I. Instead of nouns
II. To avoid (stop) the repetition

Types of Pronoun
Pronouns are generally divided into eleven types.
I. Subject Pronouns II. Object Pronouns III. Possessive Pronouns IV. Demonstrative
Pronouns V. Indefinite Pronouns VI. Reflexive Pronouns
VII. Interrogative Pronouns VIII. Emphatic Pronouns IX. Distributive Pronouns
X. Relative Pronouns XI. Reciprocal Pronouns.
I. Subject Pronouns: -
Subject pronouns are those pronouns, which are used before main verbs to function as the
subject of sentence. Subject pronouns are seven in numbers.
E.g
I, We, You, He, She, It, They
Note: In English grammar subject pronouns refer to three grammatical people.
 First Person = I, We
 Second person = You
 Third person pronouns = He, She, It, They
We play football daily.
We is subject pronoun while play is main verb here.
Third person pronoun is that which is not involved in the discussion whether
He, She, It, They are present on occasion or outside.

Object Pronouns: -
Object pronouns are those pronouns, which are used after main verb to function as the
object of sentence.
E.g
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns
I Me
We Us
You You
He Him

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She Her
It It
They Them
E.g.
She teaches them.
Here she is subject pronoun while them is object pronoun.
Possessive Pronouns: -
Possessive pronouns are those pronouns which can be used either before
main verb or after main verb to show possession.
Possessive pronouns are seven in numbers.
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns
I Me Mine
We Us Ours
You You Yours
They Them Theirs
He Him His
She Her Hers
It It Its
E.g
She has a car.
He has a car.
Hers is expensive.
Possessive pronoun
I have two brothers.
You have two brothers.
Mine are intelligent.
Possessive pronoun (here mine refers to brothers)
Theirs are interesting. (Topic)
His is red. (cap)

Demonstrative Pronouns: -
Demonstrative pronouns are those pronouns, which are used to demonstrate or point
out place, person, and thing. Demonstrative pronouns are five in numbers.
E.g
I. This II. That III. These IV. Those V. Such
Those are college students.
[Link]

These are cars.

[Link]

He needs books, pencils, notebooks, pens and such. ([Link].)

Such is needed.
[Link].

Such are needed for me.

[Link].
Demonstrative pronoun such can be used in singular form and plural form as well.
Indefinite Pronouns: -
Indefinite pronouns are those pronouns, which are used instead of indefinite person,
place, thing. Indefinite pronouns are generally divided into three groups.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

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Person Place Thing

Someone/Somebody Somewhere Something
Anyone/Anybody Anywhere Anything
None/Nobody Nowhere Nothing

Note:
I. In English grammar indefinite pronouns usually start with the
compounds (some, any, no).
II. The indefinite pronouns started with the compound sound
(some) are used in positive statements and interrogative
sentences.
III. The indefinite pronouns started with the compound (any) are
used in negative statements and interrogative sentences.
IV. The indefinite pronouns started with the compound (no) are
used in positive statements but give negative meaning.

Some = positive statements & interrogative sentences but when Yes is

expected.
Any = Negative statements & interrogative sentences but when Yes or No
both are expected.
No = Positive statements but gives negative meaning.

Reflexive Pronouns: -
Reflexive pronouns are those pronouns which denotes the action of a sentence turns from
object back to subject. Reflexive pronouns are composed of two parts.
 Object Pronouns / Possessive Adjectives
 The suffixes (self, selves)
Some reflexive pronouns are listed here.
Himself, herself, itself, myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, themselves.
E.g
Tahir writes himself a note. (Reflexive pronoun)
You bought yourselves nice shoes. (Reflexive pronoun)

Interrogative Pronouns: -
Interrogative pronouns are those pronouns, which are used to interrogate or ask about
nouns. Some interrogative pronouns are listed here.
Who, Whom, whose, Which, What
E.g
Who can play football very well?
Who is Interrogative pronoun asking about noun or name?
Ali can play football very well.
Whose son has got first division?
Whose here is an interrogative pronoun is asking about the owner.
Whom did you see there?

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Whom here is an interrogative pronoun asking about object?

Who = Subject
Whom = Object
Whose = Owner
Emphatic Pronouns: -
Emphatic pronouns are those pronouns, which are used before main verbs to emphasize
noun or another pronoun. Some emphatic pronouns are listed here.
E.g
Himself, herself, itself, myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, themselves.
E.g
They themselves come late to class.
Emphatic pronoun main verb
You yourself told me everything.
Emphatic pronoun main verb
They write themselves a note.
Main verb Reflexive pronoun
A little shout is made when you pronounce emphatic pronouns because for stress.

Distributive Pronouns: -
Distributive pronouns are those pronouns, which are used to replace nouns individually.
Some distributive pronouns are listed here.
Each, Every, Either, Neither
E.g
Tawab bought two cars.
Each is expensive.
Distributive pronoun
I. Car A is expensive.
II. Car B is expensive as well.
Tawab bought two cars.
Either is expensive. (Either gives positive meaning & it shows here as well that car A is
expensive and car B is expensive too).
Neither is expensive. (Neither gives negative meaning and shows that none of them is
expensive).

Relative Pronouns: -
Relative pronouns are those pronouns, which are used to connect noun or pronoun with
dependent clause. Some relative pronouns are listed here.
Relative Pronouns
-----------------------------------------------------------

Simple Relative Pronouns Compound relative Pronouns

Simple Relative Pronouns: -
Are those pronouns, which are used, single in forms.
E.g
Who, which, that, Whom, when, Where, Whose

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Compound Relative Pronouns: -

Compound relative pronouns are those pronouns, which are composed of one simple
relative pronoun and the word ever.
E.g
Whoever, Whomever, Whosever, Whichever, Whatever, Whenever, Wherever
That = Whatever
i. He respects a teacher who lives in London.
Noun Relative Pronoun independent clause
Here relative pronoun who has connected noun with an independent clause.
ii. He loves someone who has four wives.
Indefinite pro. Relative pro. Independent clause

Reciprocal Pronouns: -
Are those pronouns which are used to replace nouns mutually (equally). Some reciprocal
nouns are listed here.
E.g
Each other, every other, One other, get-together
Practice with each other.
Reciprocal pronoun
Practice/help get-together.
Pass this duster to every other.
They looked at each other.

ADJECTIVE
Adjective: -
Adjective is a word or group of words that describes the quality, the quantity, the size, the shape,
the color, the age, the temperature and the origin of the noun or pronoun.
E.g.
The quality: -Intelligent, lazy, beautiful, ugly, good, bad etc.
The quantity: -Much, many, a little, enough etc.
The size: -Small, big, medium, huge etc.
The shape: -Round, triangular, circle etc.
The color: -White, black, red, brown etc.
The age: - young, old, teenager etc.
The temperature: - cold, cool, warm, hot etc.
The origin: -American, Japanese, and Canadian etc.
E.g.
She has much money.
We have big class.
We have a triangle room
I have white clothes.
I saw an old man.
Pakistan has hot weather.
I use Chinese marker.
She likes American car.
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Roots of Adjective
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Types of Adjective Cases of Adjective Degrees of Adjective

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Types of Adjective: -
Adjectives are generally divided into ten types.
I. Proper Adjectives
II. Descriptive Adjectives or Adjective of quality
III. Possessive Adjective
IV. Demonstrative Adjective
V. Interrogative Adjectives
VI. Distributive Adjectives
VII. Adjective of Numbers
VIII. Adjective of quantity
IX. Exclamatory Adjective
X. Emphatical Adjective

I. Proper Adjectives: -
Proper adjectives are those adjectives, which are formed of some proper nouns.
Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives
America American
Japan Japanese
Pakistan Pakistani
Afghanistan Afghan
E.g
He bought American car.
Proper adjective
Note: Proper adjectives always start with capital/uppercase letter.

II. Descriptive / Adjective of quality: -

Descriptive adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to describe the quality of noun
either positively or negatively. Some descriptive adjectives are listed here.
E.g.
good, bad, intelligent, lazy, beautiful, ugly, expensive etc.
He is an intelligent boy.
Here intelligent show positive quality of a noun.
John is a lazy person.
Here lazy shows negative quality of noun.

Possessive Adjectives: -
Possessive adjectives are those adjectives, which are followed by noun to show
possession or ownership. Possessive adjectives are seven in numbers.
E.g.
my, our, your, their, his. Her, its
She reads her book.
Possessive adj. Noun
She reads hers.
Possessive pronoun
Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns
My Mine
Our Ours
You’re yours

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Their Theirs
His His
Her Hers
Its Its
Note:
Noun can use after Possessive Adjectives.
Noun cannot use after Possessive Pronouns.
Demonstrative Adjectives: -
Demonstrative adjectives are those adjectives which are used to demonstrate or
point out place, person or thing. Demonstrative adjectives are five in numbers.
E.g.
This, That, These, Those, Such
This car runs very fast.
Demonstrative Adjective, Noun
Those students study in college.
Here those are demonstrative adjective because noun (student) has followed it.
Those are college students.
Here those are Demonstrative Pronoun because there is not any noun after those.
Such player can win the final match.
[Link] Noun
This is a car.
This is my car.
This car is expensive.
Interrogative Adjectives: -
Interrogative adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to interrogate or ask about
noun or pronoun. Some interrogative adjectives are listed here.
What, Which, Whose
What day do you like the most?
Interrogative
Adjective
Interrogates about the noun (day).
Which language do you speak fluently?
Interrogative Noun
Adjective
Here which is interrogative adjective as it is asking about noun (language).
Whose book is more interesting?
Interrogative Noun
Adjective
What did you buy?
Interrogative pronoun
Here what is interrogative pronoun as it is followed by verb not by the noun.
Which is more expensive?
Interrogative
Pronoun
Which book is more interesting?
Interrogative Noun
Adjective
Note: In English grammar interrogative adjectives are followed by noun or pronoun but
interrogative pronouns are followed by verbs.
Which car is more stylish? (Followed by noun).
Interrogative Noun
Adjective
Which is more stylish? (Followed by verb).
Interrogative Verb
Pronoun

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Distributive Adjectives: -
Distributive adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to modify (explain) noun or
pronoun individually. Some distributive adjectives are listed here.
E.g.
each, every, every other, any other, either, neither
She has two books. Each book has five chapters.
Distributive Adjective
She has two books. Each has five chapters.
Distributive Pronoun
I have two brothers. Neither brother is a pickpocket.
Distributive Adjective
I have two brothers. Neither is a pickpocket.
Distributive Pronoun
He plays football everyday.
She plays football every other day. (On alternate days).
Arabic is more interesting than any other language in the world.
Distributive Adj. Noun
After distributive Adjective singular form of the noun is used as it (any other) explains all
languages one by one. So it can’t be like this sentence.
Arabic is more interesting than any other languages in the world.
Wrong
______________________________________________________________________________________
Adjectives of Number: -
Adjectives of numbers are also called numerical adjectives. Adjectives of number are
those adjectives, which are used to count the nouns or order the nouns in a particular
series (group). Adjectives of number are divided into two types.
ADJECTIVES OF NUMBER
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Ordinal Adjectives Cardinal Adjectives

Ordinal Adjectives: -
Ordinal Adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to show the order of nouns in a
series (group).
E.g.
First Student.
Ordinal Noun
Adjective
Second Student.
Ordinal Adj. Noun
And so on.
Cardinal Adjectives: -
Cardinal Adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to count the nouns.
E.g. One book.
Cardinal Noun
Adjective
Two books.
Twenty Students.
Those adjectives, which count the nouns, are called Cardinal Adjectives while those, which order
the nouns, are called Ordinal Adjectives.
E.g.
She selected first car.

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Ordinal Noun
Adjective
She bought five books.
Cardinal Noun
Adjective

Adjectives of Quantity:-
Adjectives of quantity are those adjectives which are used to show the quantity or
measurement of either count or noncount nouns. Some adjectives of quantity are listed
here.
E.g.
Much, many, a little, little, a few, few, enough
E.g.
The students need many chairs. (Noun)
Adjective of quantity
We have enough time to study.
She has enough books to read.
A little, A few are used in positive sense. Which can complete your requirement exactly?
Little, few are used in negative sense. Which can’t complete your requirement? It means
that something more to fulfill your requirement.

Exclamatory Adjectives: -
Exclamatory Adjectives are those adjectives which are used to show sudden or strong
surprise or emotion about noun or pronoun.
What a car!
Exclamatory Noun
Adjective
It shows strong surprise about car.
Such a cool day!
Exclamatory Noun
Adjective

Emphatical Adjectives:-
Emphatical adjectives are those adjectives, which are used to emphasize noun or pronoun
in a sentence. Emphatical adjectives are listed here.
E.g
Own, Very
E.g
She drives her own car. (Noun)
Emphatical Adj.
Here own is emphatical adjective as it emphasizes the noun (car).
Money is very need of life.
[Link] Noun
Emphatical adjectives are pronounced with a little stress.

II. Cases of Adjective

Cases of adjective is a grammatical term that indicates the positions of adjectives in
sentences. In English grammar adjective have four cases.
CASES OF ADJECTIVE
I. Attributive Case
II. Predicative Case

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III. Abridging Case

IV. Post Indefinite Case
1. Attributive Case:-
Attributive case is also called direct case. In this case adjective is used before noun.
E.g
The old car runs very fast.
Adj. Noun
So it is called attributive case.
She met a tall man.
Attributive Adj. Noun
So it is attributive case because noun has used after adjective.

2. Predicative Case:-
Predicative case is also called indirect case. In this case adjective is used after linking
verbs (is, am, are, was, were, look, get, become, seem, taste, smell).
E.g.
The students are happy.
Linking verb. Adjective
She looks sad.
It is predicative case because adjectives are used after linking verbs.

3. Abridging Case:-
Abridging case is also called inner case. In this case adjective is used between one linking
verb and one noun.
He is intelligent student.
Linking Abridging Case Noun
Verb
He is intelligent. (Predicative Case)

4. Post Positive Case: -

Post positive case is also called indefinite case. In this adjective is used after indefinite
pronouns.
E.g.
He bought something expensive.
Indefinite pro. Adjective
She needs something special.
Indefinite Pro. Post Positive case
In this case adjective is used after indefinite pronouns.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DEGREES OF ADJECTIVE
Degrees of adjective are a grammatical term that indicates the forms (shapes) of
adjective. In English grammar adjective have three degrees.
I. Positive Degree
II. Comparative Degree
III. Superlative Degree
I. Positive Degree: -
Positive degree is a degree in which the firms of adjective have neither prefix nor suffix.
E.g

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Positive Degree
Nice
Good
Intelligent
Hot
E.g
He is a nice person.
Having neither prefix nor suffix.

______________________________________________________________________________________
[Link] Degree: -
Comparative degree is a degree through which we compare one person with another
person, one thing with another thing and one place with another place.
E.g
Comparative degree
Nicer
Better
More intelligent
Hotter
Etc.
E.g
Ahmed is more intelligent than Wali.
Peshawar is hotter than Swat.

3. Superlative Degree: -
Superlative degree is a degree through which we compare one person with a group of
people, one thing with a group of things and one place with a group of places.
Superlative Degree
Nicest
Best
Most intelligent
Hottest
Etc.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Those adjectives, which don’t have comparative and superlative degrees, are called
Absolute Adjectives.
E.g
Intelligent, excellent
______________________________________________________________________________________

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ADVERB
The word adverb is derived from the old Greek word adverbium, which means effect or
change. The word adverb is composed of two words.
 The compound (ad), which means to add.
 The root word (basic word) which means action or state.
So (adverb) basically means to add (bring) some changes to the meaning of verb.
Definitions of Adverb:
(A) Adverb is a word or group of words that describes where, when and how an
action happens.
(B) Adverb is a word or group of words that modifies verb, adjective and sometimes-
another adverb.
E.g.
The students played football at school. (Adverb).
Shows where an action happened.
She met her friend yesterday. (Adverb)
Shows when the action happened.
He drives the car carefully. (Adverb)
Shows how an action happens.
She speaks beautifully. (Adverb)
Modifies verb here.
Tawab is very intelligent.
Adverb Adjective
Here modifies adjective.
She writes a letter pretty well.
Adverb Adverb
Here modifies another adverb.
She is very often late.
Adverb Adjective
Here it modifies adjective.
Very often = Usually, most of the time

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
TYPES OF ADVERB
1. Adverb of place: -
Adverbs of place are those adverbs, which denote where an action happens or happened.
Some adverbs of place are listed here.
E.g
Class, School, Hospital, City, Ground, room, Pakistan etc.
He slept in the class.
It shows where an action happened.
Note: In English grammar adverbs of place have three positions (placement).
I. Usually at the end of sentence.
85% adverbs of place are used at the end of sentence.
E.g.
He played football in the ground. (Adverb of place)
II. Rarely in the beginning of sentence
Rarely means 5-10%

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E.g.
In the ground, he played football.
______________________________________________________________________________________
III. Sometimes in the middle of sentence: - 50%
He played in the ground football.

2. Adverbs of time: -
Adverbs of time are those adverbs, which denote when an action happens or happened.
Adverbs of time or generally divided into two types.

------------------------ ADVERBS OF TIME -------------------------

Definite Adverbs of Time Indefinite Adverbs of time

I. Definite Adverbs of time: -
Definite adverbs of time are those adverbs, which denote exact time of an action.
E.g
Today, Tomorrow, Yesterday, Last week, Last year, and Three days ago etc.
E.g
He came here last night.
Definite adverb of time
II. Indefinite adverb of time: -
Are those adverbs, which don’t show exact time of an action.
E.g
Yet, Still, Anymore, Already, Ago, Just etc.
E.g
He has already told me the reality.
Indefinite adverb of time
He went there three days ago.
Definite + Indefinite = Definite

III. Adverbs of Manner: -

Are those adverbs, which denote the way how an action happens. Adverbs of manner are
usually composed of two parts.
I. Adjective
II. The suffix (ly)
Adjective Suffix Adverb of Manner
Beautiful Ly Beautifully
Careful. Ly Carefully
Slow Ly Slowly
Loud Ly Loudly
FORMS OF LEXICAL WORDS
In English language lexical words most frequently have four forms:
I. Verb Form ------ Produce
II. Noun Form ------ Product / Production
III. Adjective Form ------ Productive
IV. Adverb Form ------ Productively

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Note: Most frequently = 85%

E.g
The students speak loudly.
Adverb of Manner
She writes beautifully.
Note: In English grammar some adverbs of manner don’t have (ly) ending.
E.g
Fast, Well, Hard
She dances well.(Adverb) (Correct)
She dances good. (Adjective) (Incorrect)
----------------------------
Fast = Adjective
Fast = Adverb
Hamid is fast.
Here it is adjective.
Hamid runs fast.
Verb Adverb

4. Adverbs of Frequency: -
Adverbs of frequency are those adverbs, which are used to show the repetition of an
action or state.
OR
Those adverbs, which denote how many times an action, happen.
In English grammar adverbs of frequency are decided into two types.
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Definite Adverbs of Frequency Indefinite adverbs of frequency

I. Definite Adverbs of Frequency: -
Are those adverbs, which shows the exact repetition of an action or state.
E.g
Once, twice, three times, four times etc.
Thrice is also possible but not common.
He calls me twice a day.
II. Indefinite Adverbs of frequency: -
Are those adverbs, which don’t show exact repetition of an action or state.
E.g
Always, usually, often, sometimes, hardly ever, seldom, rarely, never
He went to park twice. (Shows exact repetition)
He usually goes to park. (Doesn’t show exact repetition)
I went to movie once. (Shows exact repetition)
Percentage of indefinite adverbs of frequency
Always 100% this group gives positive sense as the
Usually 80 or 85% percentage is above than 50%.
Often 70%
Sometimes 50%

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Hardly ever 10-15% this gives negative meaning as the

Seldom 5% percentage is below than 50%.
Rarely less than 5%
Never 0%
Do you play cricket daily?
Yes, I usually play cricket.
No, I Hardly ever play cricket.

__________________________________________________________________________________
5. Interrogative adverbs: -
Are those adverbs, which are used to interrogate or ask where, when and how an
action happens Interrogative adverbs are listed here.
Where, When, How
Where did you study computer?
Where shows place.
When does he go to park?
When shows time.
How did she learn Arabic?
How shows how an action happens.
Or how a thing is performed.
How old are you?
Interrogative Adjective
Adverb
6. Adverbs of Affirmation: -
Are those adverbs, which are used to show agreement or acceptance.
Adverbs of affirmation are listed here.
E.g.
Yes, of course, certainly, why not, sure
E.g
Can you swim in the water?
Yes, I can. (Adverb of affirmation)

7. Adverbs of Negation: -
Are those adverbs, which are used to show disagreement or denying with the
previous statement. Some adverbs of negation are listed here.
E.g.
No, Not, Not at all, No way, by no meaning
E.g.
Does he go to school daily?
No, he doesn’t. (Adverb of negation)
------------------------------------

NEGATION
Negation is a grammatical term that changes a positive word, sentence or idea to
negative.
Negation
----------------------------------------------------------------

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Shorten Negation Absolute Negation

Or Complete Negation

I. Shorten Negation: -
Shorten negation is a negation that changes a positive single word to negative form.
E.g.
Not

II. Absolute Negation: -

Is a negation that changes a positive idea or sentence to negative.
E.g.
No
Do you play cricket?
No, I don’t. (Correct)
Absolute Negation
Not, I don’t. (Wrong)
--------------------------------
 No is absolute negation that changes the whole sentence or idea to negative.
 Not is a shorten negation that changes a single positive word to negative.
E.g
Do Don’t
Will Won’t
Can Can’t
----------------------------
Don’t speak.
This sentence is imperative. Here subject is in abstract form. Here subject is you but it is
also called understood subject.
---------------------------------
Usually
I am usually at home.
I usually go to park.
----------------------------------
Ever = any time in life (shows happening)
Have you ever eaten a chicken?
Never = none of the time in life
He has never eaten a chicken.
-------------------------------

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Just = very recently

E.g.
I have just come here.
______________________________________________________________________________________

FORMS OF LEXICAL WORDS

In English language lexical words most frequently have four forms:
I. Verb Form ------ Produce
II. Noun Form ------ Product / Production
III. Adjective Form ------ Productive
IV. Adverb Form ------ Productively

Note: Most frequently = 85%8. Focusing Adverbs:-

Are those adverbs which are used to focus or emphasize over verb, adjective,
another adverb. Some focusing adverbs are listed here.
E.g.
Too, even, very, right, so, really, pretty
E.g.
He comes to class right on Monday.
Focusing adverb
Right means exactly
He is really intelligent. (Focusing Adverb)
Too is always used with adjectives.

9. Relative Adverbs: -
Relative adverbs are those adverbs, which are used to connect noun of time
or noun of place with dependent clause.
E.g.
He likes the city where he got married.
Noun of relative Dependent Clause
Place adverb
He remembers the day when he was punished by his wife.
Noun of Relative Dependent Clause
Time Adverb

10. Adverbs of Certainty: -

Adverbs of certainty are those adverbs which are used to denote how much
sure we are about a particular point. Some are listed here.
E.g.
Surely, definitely, certainly, almost, obviously, absolutely, probably, may be
etc.
E.g.
Are they going to that weeding party?
Certainly, they are going.
Adverb of Certainty
Will Australia win the match?
Obviously, they will.
Adverb of certainty

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Obviously, certainly and definitely are the most strong adverbs of certainty.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
LINKERS
Linker is a grammatical term used to connect two sentences, two clauses, two phrases,
and two words. In English grammar linkers are divided into groups.
LINKERS
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prepositions Conjunctions Transitions

Prepositions: -
The word preposition is composed of two parts.
I. The compound (Pre) which means before
II. The root word (Position) which means placement
So, (Preposition) basically means placement before noun or pronoun.
Definition of Preposition: -
Preposition is a word or group of words that shows the relationship of noun or pronoun
with the rest of sentence.
E.g.
The book is on the table.
+R\S Preposition Noun
Showing the relationship of noun with the rest of sentence.
She is talking with him.
+R\S Preposition Pronoun
Showing the relationship of pronoun with the rest of sentence.
Prepositions are 99% used before nouns and pronouns.
But 1% are used in push down questions.
E.g.
Which class do you read in?
Which city do you live in?
Push Down Questions.
---------------------------------
Types of Preposition: -
Prepositions are generally divided into two types.
Prepositions
---------------------------------------------------------------

Simple Prepositions Compound Prepositions

I. Simple prepositions: -
Are those prepositions, which are formed of single word. Simple prepositions are divided
into two types.
Prepositions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Simple Prepositions Compound Prepositions

--------------------------------- --------------------------------

One sellable simple two sellable simple Two-word sequence threewordcompound

Prepositions Prepositions compound Prepositions

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Prepositions

______________________________________________________________________________________

I. One sellable simple prepositions: -

Are those prepositions, which contain one sound.
E.g.
At, for, in, to, of, on, with, by
II. Two sellable simple prepositions: -
Are those prepositions, which contain more than one sound.
E.g.
Between, behind, before, beside, above, about, despite, during, until etc.
------------------
Compound Prepositions:-
I. Two-Word Sequence Compound Prepositions: -
Are those prepositions, which are composed of two words.
E.g.
Next to, about to, from to, apart from/upon, because of, due to, without etc.
III. Three-Word Sequence Compound Prepositions: -
Are those prepositions, which are composed of three words.
E.g.
In front of, in spite of, incase of, in event of, in middle of, etc.

______________________________________________________________________________________

CONJUNCTION
Conjunction is a word or group of words used to combine two sentences, two clauses,
two phrases or two words.
E.g.
The boys play football and the girls play football.
Hamid can play cricket but Wali can’t play cricket.
Here “and” and “but” are conjunctions they have combined two sentences.
E.g.
They will get first division if they study hard.
He took lunch when he got home.
Here “if” and “when” are conjunctions they have combined two clauses.
E.g.
At home and at school.
On the road and in the ground.
Here “and” has combined two phrases and so it a conjunction.
E.g.
Book and Notebook.
Here “and” is conjunction that has combined two words.
--------------------------------------------
Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are generally divided into four types.

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CONJUNCTIONS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Coordinating Subordinating Paired Conjunctives

Conjunctions Conjunctions Conjunctions

I. Coordinating Conjunctions: -
Are those conjunctions, which are used to combine two independent clauses. Some
coordinating conjunctions are listed here.
E.g.
but, and, nor, so, for, yet, or
Note: Coordinating conjunctions are also called FAN BOYS.
E.g.
Wali studied very hard, but he didn’t pass the final examination.
Independent Clause Coordinating Independent Clause
Conjunction
II. Subordinating Conjunctions: -
Are those conjunctions, which are used to connect one dependent clause and one
independent clause some subordinating conjunctions are listed here
E.g.
Before, after, when, while, bythetime, until, if, because, unless, providing that, though,
although, even though, etc.
E.g.
He completed his computer classes before he got job.
Independent Clause Subordinating Dependent Clause
Acting conj.
3. Paired conjunctions: -
Paired conjunctions are also called correlative conjunctions. Paired conjunctions are
those conjunctions, which are composed of one coordinating conjunction, and one
subordinating conjunction. Some paired conjunctions are listed here.
E.g.
Both-------and
Neither----nor
Either------or
Not only----but also

4. Conjunctives:-
Conjunctives are also called transitions. Conjunctives are those words, which connect
ideas in a sentence or paragraph. Some conjunctives are listed here.
E.g.
Inadditionto, Furthermore, Moreover, For instance, However, For example, Therefore,
Infact, etc.
-------------------------------------------
PUNCTUATION OF CONJUNCTIONS
1. Punctuation of Coordinating Conjunctions: -
In English grammar Coordinating conjunctions have three punctuations.
I. Between independent clauses proceeded with a comma.

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They were really busy, but they attended the class.

II. Between two independent clauses without a comma.
They were really busy but they attended the class.
III. In the beginning of second sentence with capital letter.
They were really busy. But they attended the class.
[Link] is informal usage.

2. Punctuation of Subordinating Conjunctions: -

In English grammar Subordinating conjunctions have two usages.
I. In the beginning of sentence, here comma separates two clauses.
E.g.
If she works hard, she will make money.
II. Between two clauses, here no comma is used.
E.g.
She will make money if she works hard.

3. Punctuation of Paired Conjunctions: -

I. Both------and
Both------and means two of them.
It is used to combine two positive statements.
E.g.
Habib plays football. Ali plays football.
Both Habib and Ali play football.
Plural verb is used with both-----and.
II. Neither-----nor
Neither----nor means none of them.
It is used to combine two negative statements.
E.g.
Tahir does not drive a car. Wali does not drive a car.
Neither Tahir nor Wali drives a car.
Here verb will be put according to the second subject in a sentence.
E.g.
Neither the students nor the teacher comes on time to the class.
Neither the teacher nor the students come on time to the class.
IV. Not only-----but also
Not only-----but also means all of them.
It is used to combine two negative statements and sometimes two positive statements.
E.g.
Ali washes the car. Wali washes the car.
Not only Ali but also Wali washes the car.
E.g.
Habib cannot swim. Nabi cannot swim.
Not only Habib but also Nabi cannot swim.
The same case is also here. Verb will be put according to the second subject of the
sentence.
IV. Either-----or

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Either----or means one of them.

It is used to combine to two positive statements.
E.g.
He can go to America. He can go to Australia.
He can go either to America or Australia.
-----------------------------------------------------
Both-----and +, +
Neither---nor -, -
Either----or +, +
Not only---but also +,+ or -,-
-----------------------------------------------------
Both----and two positive statements
Neither---nor two negative statements
Either---or two positive statements
Not only---but also two positive statements or two negative statements
------------------------------------------------------
Both Ali and Patasa play cricket.
Plural verb
Neither the children nor the mother goes to park.
Singular verb according to the second subject
Neither the mother nor the children go to the park.
Plural verb according to the second subject of
sentence as the second subject of sentence is “children” and that is plural that’s the verb
is also plural.

______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Punctuation of Conjunctives: -
In English grammar conjunctives or transitions have four usages.
I. Tawab studied hard. Therefore, he got first division.
II. Tawab studied hard. He, therefore, got first division.
III. Tawab studied hard. He got first division, therefore.
IV. Tawab studied hard; therefore, he got first division.
---------------------------------
The second one is very common and much used in official correspondence.
INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are those words, which denote sudden (immediate) or strong surprise,
emotion or pain. Some interjections are listed here.
E.g.
Oh, Hey, Wow, Ouch, Mmm, Mmmm, burr, burrr, etc.

______________________________________________________________________________________

VERB
The word verb is derived from the old Greek word (VERBUM), which means action or state.
Definitions of Verb: -
I. Verb is word or group of words that predicates the subject in a sentence.

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II. Verb is a word or group of words that indicates action, state and experience.
E.g.
I. The students play cricket at school. Shows action
II. The students are in the class now. Shows state/existence
III. Hamid was a child fifteen years ago. Shows experience
---------------------------------------
Types of Verbs
In English verbs are divided into two types.
TYPES OF VERBS
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Ordinary Verbs Auxiliary Verbs

1. Ordinary Verbs: -
Are those verbs which function only as main verbs in sentence?
Note: Ordinary verbs are also called Main Verbs, Common Verbs or Full Verbs.
E.g.
Study, Eat, Speak, Write, etc.
Ordinary Verbs are divided into three types.
ORDINARY VERBS
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Transitive Verbs Intransitive Verbs Linking Verbs

I. Transitive Verbs: -
Transitive Verbs are those verbs, which are followed by objects.
OR
Those verbs, which need object.
E.g.
She writes a letter daily.
She Subject Pronoun
Writes Main verb, Transitive verb
A letter Object
Daily adverb of time
Transitive Verbs are divided into three types.

TRANSITIVE VERBS
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Mono-Transitive Die-Transitive Verbs Complex Transitive

a. Mono Transitive Verbs: -

Are those verbs, which can take one object.

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E.g.
Eat, Drive, Study, Learn, Drink, Watch, Wash, Clean, etc.
He eats apple.
Mono Transitive Verb
b. Die-Transitive Verbs: -
Are those verbs, which can (possible) take two objects.
E.g.
Buy, Send, Give, Cook, Prepare, Arrange, etc.
E.g.
He buys a book for his brother.
He Subject Pronoun
Buys Ordinary verb, Transitive verb, Die-Transitive verb
A book direct object
His brother Indirect object
c. Complex Transitive Verbs: -
Are those verbs, which can take one object, one or more complements?
E.g.
Announce, Declare, Chose, Elect, etc.
E.g.
The teacher selected John as the representative and best student of the class.
Complex Object Complement complement
Transitive
------------------------------------------------------------------------
II. Intransitive Verbs: -
Intransitive Verbs are those verbs, which are not followed by object.
Or
Intransitive Verbs are those verbs, which are followed by PATAP.
P means Place expression
A means Adjective
T means time expression
A means adverb
P means preposition
Some intransitive verbs are listed here.
E.g.
Go, Walk, Sit, Stand, Climb, Come, Dance, Sleep, Work, Belong, etc.
E.g.
She goes to school.
Goes Intransitive
To patap
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

LINKING VERBS
Linking verbs are those verbs, which are used to connect the subject with an adjective or
its complement. Linking verbs are also called Capulative verbs or Copular verbs. Some
linking verbs are listed here.
E.g.
is, am, are, was, were, get, become, look, seem, sound, taste, smell, etc.
E.g.
He gets tired.
He subject
Gets linking verb

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Tired adjective
E.g.
They are happy.
They subject
Are linking verbs
Happy adjective
Note: Linking verbs are also modified by adjectives. This is case in which verbs are modified by
adjectives.
--------------------------------------------------------------------
AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary verbs are also called Helping Verbs. Auxiliary Verbs are those verbs which are
used to show the mood (state) of sentence.
E.g.
He dances very well on the main road.
Does she dance very well on the main road?
Auxiliary Verb
------------------------------------
TYPES OF AUXILIARY
In English grammar Auxiliary verbs are divided into three types.
Auxiliary Verbs
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Principal Auxiliary Verbs Semi-Modal Auxiliary Modal Auxiliary Verbs

1. Principal Auxiliary Verbs: -
Are those verbs, which can function either as main verbs or Auxiliary Verbs.
E.g.
They have taken lunch.
Auxiliary Verb
They have much money
Here have is main verb.
Principal Verbs are divided into three types.
PRINCIPAL AUXILIARY VERBS
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

To Be To Do To Have
Is Do Have
Am Does Has
Are Did Had
Was
Were
Been
Being
Be

To be as main verb used in the following cases.

1. To show present and past existence.
E.g.
They are at home. Shows present existence

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Here “are” is main verb.

They were in the class. Shows past existence
2. To show present and past state of being (quality).
E.g.
She is very intelligent. Shows state of being
Here “is” is used as main verb to show state of being (quality).
3. To connect subject with an adjective
E.g.
He is happy today.
------------------------------------------------------------------
To be as auxiliary used in the following cases.
1. To affirmative and negative statements and in continuous tenses.
___________________________________________________________________________
E.g
They are playing football now.
She has been teaching Arabic.
2. To make interrogative sentences in both present continuous and past
continuous tenses.
E.g.
Are they watching TV?
3. To make the forms of passive.
E.g.
A letter is written by him.

Here it is a bit incomplete.

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS
I. Modal Auxiliary (Correct)
II. Model Auxiliary (Wrong)
The term (word) Modal Auxiliary is composed of two parts.
MODAL
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
According to dictionary (Modal) According to grammar
Means helping (Modal) means mood

AUXILIARY
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
According to dictionary (auxiliary) According to grammar (auxiliary)
Means extra or the staff of lower rank means helping.
So (Modal Auxiliary) basically means helping mood.
In English grammar Modal Auxiliary verbs are used for the following purposes.
A) Modal Auxiliary verbs are used to show the mood of verb in sentences.
E.g. they should earn much money.
Note: In above example (should) is modal auxiliary used to show advisability. So this
advisability is by itself is a mood.
B) Modal Auxiliary verbs are also used to add (include) different meanings to the
main verb in a sentence.
E.g He may study very hard.
He must study very hard.

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Note: In above examples the words (May and Must) are Modal Auxiliary verbs adding
different meanings to the main verb (study).
C) Modal Auxiliary verbs are also used to show degrees of certainty.
E.g He might go to the party tomorrow. 30%
He may go to the party tomorrow. 50%
He will go to the party tomorrow. 70-75%
D) Modal Auxiliary verbs are also used to show stages of obligation.
E.g He should earn money. Mild obligation 70%
He must earn money. Strong obligation 95%
E) Modal Auxiliary verb is also used to show past repeated action.
E.g Her grandmother would tell her stories when she was a child.
E.g Pakistan cricket team would defeat the other teams when Waseem and Waqar
were part of the team.
(This action used to happen in the past and now no longer present or exist).
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Definition of Auxiliary Verb:
Modal Auxiliary verbs are those verbs, which are used to show the mood of verbs, add
different meanings to main verbs, degrees of certainty, stages of obligation and
past repeated action. Some auxiliary verbs are listed here.
E.g
Can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, need, dare
E.g.
He studies hard.
He should study hard.
Shows advisability
He may study hard.
He must study hard.
Shows strong obligation
Need (should) she buy a car?
She needn’t (shouldn’t) work in the office.
Dare (can) he swim in the ocean?
He doesn’t (can’t) swim in the ocean.
-------------------------------------------------------------
Differences between Modal Auxiliaries and other Auxiliaries
Modal Auxiliary Verbs Other Auxiliary Verbs
1. Show the mood of verb. Show the mood of sentence.
2. Have one form. Have both singular and plural form.
3. Can make the forms of negative can’t make the forms of negative and
And interrogative sentences. Interrogative sentences.
---------------------------------
E.g
She has to study hard. (Semi-modal auxiliary)
Does she have to study hard? (Correct)
Does she have to study hard? (Wrong)
In semi-modal auxiliaries do and does are used for making questions.
---------------------------------

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She should study hard. (Modal Auxiliary)

Should she study hard?
She shouldn’t study hard.
While Modal Auxiliaries are independent and they can make negative and interrogative
sentences by themselves means that without do or does.
----------------------------------
E.g.
She has been teaching since 1995.
She Subject Subject Case
Has Auxiliary Principal auxiliary To Have auxiliary
Been Auxiliary Principal auxiliary To Be auxiliary
Study Main verb or Ordinary verb or Common Verb or Full Verb
Since Preposition of time
1995 Time expression / Noun of Time / Adverb of Time
______________________________________________________________________________________
E.g.
The students will have been studying for two hours in the class.
The students Noun Common noun Subject Case
Will Modal Auxiliary
Have Principal Auxiliary To Have Auxiliary
Been Principal Auxiliary To Be Auxiliary
Studying Main Verb Present Participle
For Preposition Time preposition
Two Adjectives
Hours Adverb of time Indefinite adverb of time
In Preposition
The class Noun of Place / Adverb of place
---------------------------------------
Note:
In American English we have nine Modal Auxiliaries.
i.e.
Can, could, will, would, may, might, shall, should, must
In British English we have eleven Modal Auxiliaries.
i.e.
can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, need, dare
______________________________________________________________________________________
TENSE
The word tense is derived from the old Greek word (Tempus), which means time. Tense
is a grammatical term which denotes what we did in the past, what we do in the present,
what we will do in the future.
Tense is a grammatical term, which describes the functions of verbs related to the time.
E.g.
He played football yesterday.
He plays football today.
He will play football tomorrow.
---------------------------------------

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STAGES (SECTIONS) OF TENSES

In English grammar tenses have three stages.
I. The Syntax Stage The Structure of Tense
II. The explanatory Stage the definition of Tense
III. The implementing Stage the example of Tense
----------------------------------------
DIAGRAM OF TENSES:
Diagram of tenses is a grammatical term that describes the theory (idea) of a tense in the
form of picture.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Past Present Future

E.g
She slept last night.
She was sleeping last night.
Note: The first line is called zigzag line and it means that the action was in progress. She
was enjoying her sleep and was not awake.
While the second line is called soft line and it means that the action was over and she was
awake after enjoying her sleep last night.
---------------------------------------------
DIVISIONS OF TENSES
In English grammar tenses are generally divided into Three Categories.
TENSE
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Past Present Future

Simple Past tense Simple Present tense Simple Future
Past Continuous tense Present Continuous Future contain
Past Perfect tense Present Perfect tense Future Perfect
Past Perfect Conti: Present Perfect Conti: Future Perf: C
--------------------------------------------
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
Structures:
Singular Structure
Subject+verb+s/es/ies+R\S
III. Plural Structure:
Subject+root form of the verb+R\S
______________________________________________________________________________________
What can be the subject of a sentence?
SUBJECT
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Noun Pronoun Noun Phrase Noun Clause
(Ali) (He, She) Stylish girl what is gave me
Is something special.
------------------------------

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E.g.
The students play cricket. Noun as subject
They play cricket. Pronoun as subject
Two naughty boys play cricket. Noun phrase as subject
What she bought looks expensive. Noun clause as subject
------------------------------
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE HAS ALMOST 54 CASES (USAGES).
1. Simple present tense expresses an action or state that happens habitually, regularly,
daily.
E.g.
He chews gum in the class. Habitual Action
She goes to park on Sundays. Regular Action
The students attend the class everyday. Daily Action
Tahir is busy in the office everyday. Daily State
------------------------------
2. Simple present tense also expresses future schedualized (planed or confirmed) action
or state.
E.g.
The plane arrives at 3.00 PM tomorrow. 100%
Bush is busy at 4.00 PM next Sunday. 100%
The plane will arrive at 3.00 PM tomorrow. 70%
Time expression must be put in this case.
Bush will be busy at 4.00 PM next Sunday. 70%
----------------------------
3. In headlines present simples tense expresses past event or state.
E.g.
Bush meets Musharaf.
Australia plays South Africa
Condaliza Rice arrives in Japan.
4. Usage
With subordinating conjunctions (when, before, after, if, though, because,
bythetime, etc.) simple present tense gives future meaning.
E.g.
When he finishes his classes, he will get a job. (Subordinating conjunction)
Future meaning
-----------------------------
5. With adverbs of frequency (always, usually, sometimes, often etc.) simple
present expresses the repetition of an action or state, which is in the favor of
subject.
E.g.
They usually clean the rooms.
She often cooks food for the family.
Here adverbs of frequency show that the subjects of sentences like or interested
in doing these jobs.

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E.g
She is often cooking food for the family.
Here adverb of frequency shows the subject doesn’t like or is not interested in
doing the job but she has to do it.
-------------------------------
How to change simple present affirmative statement into negative statements
and interrogative sentences.
(+) They go to park daily.
(-) They don’t go to park daily. Informal
(-) They do not go to park daily. Formal
(+?) Do they go to park daily?
(-?) Don’t they go to park daily?
(-?) Do not they go to park daily?
(-?) Do they not go to park daily?
-------------------------------------------
WXSV IS A FORMULA FOR MAKING QUESTIONS IN ALL TENSES. IT IS
DEFINED BELOW:
W W.H
X AUXILIARY
S SUBJECT
V VERB
What does Ali study in college?
What has Ali studied?
What is Ali Studying now? Etc.
--------------------------------------------
EMPHATICAL QUESTION
Emphatical question contains auxiliaries and that are pronounced with a stress.
What does Ali study in college?
Here stress needs to be given.
--------------------------------------------
LOOSE QUESTION:
Loose questions don’t contain auxiliaries and pronounced lightly or softly.
E.g.
What Ali studies in college?
Who told you that thing?
______________________________________________________________________________________

Present Continuous Tense or Present Progressive Tense

Structure:
Subject +is, am, are+verb+ing++R\S
1. Present continuous tense expresses an action, which is in progress at the time
of speaking, now and around now.
E.g.

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The students are taking notes now.

She is watching TV in the room now.
She is watching TV in the room right now. (Emphatical Adverb)
-------------------------
2. It also expresses an action, which gives future meaning. In this case we use
(today, tomorrow, tonight, next week, etc).
E.g.
The students are attending the class tomorrow. (Future Meaning)
The students are attending the class now. (Present Meaning)
--------------------------
3. With adverbs of frequency present continuous tense expresses the repetition
an action which is not in the favor of subject.
E.g.
She is always cleaning the rooms.
He is usually doing the jobs of his officer.
Here the subject don’t want to do these things but he has to do.
---------------------------
3. It also expresses a gradual change in a particular situation.
E.g.
The weather is getting hotter day by day.
She is becoming older year by year.
---------------------------
5. It also expresses repeated action.
E.g. (in one instant that an action repeated)
E.g.
She is blinking in the class.
He is scratching his head now.
----------------------------
How to change affirmative to negative and interrogative.
(+) I am washing the car now.
(-) I am not washing the car now.
(+?) Am I washing the car now?
(-?) Am not I washing the car now?
(-?) Am I not washing the car now?
-----------------------------
WXSV SENTENCES
What are you buying from the shop? (Correct)
What you are buying from the shop? (Wrong)

Present Perfect Tense

Structures:
Singular structure:

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Subject+has+Past participle verb +R\S

Plural Structure:
Subject+have+Past Participle Verb +R\S
Definitions:
Present Perfect tense expresses an action or state that happened or did not
happen in unspecific time in the past.
E.g.
The students have attended the class.
She has been very busy.
The weather has been cloudy. (Started in the past)
I have been busy these days. (Started in the past and still exists)
-----------------------------------
2. Present Perfect tense also expresses the repetition of an action or state in the
past.
E.g.
He has played piano several times.
She has taken French food once in her life.
Ahmad has been sick once in this month.

3. Present Perfect tense also expresses an action or state started in the past, comes
to present, may or may not go to future. In this case we use (since and for) only
with durative verbs (live, work, teach, be, know, etc).
E.g.
He has lived in Pakistan since 1990.
She has been the manager for fifteen years.
1990-----------------------------2009-----------------------------may go to Future
----------------------------May not go to Future
---------------------------------------------------------------
Past Present Future
Diagram is soft since there are gapes.
Here since and for are propositions of time.
Since shows starting / point time while for shows duration of time.
Here this Tense is used for long-lasting period.
----------------------------------------
4. Present Perfect Tense also expresses an action or state that has or has not
happened in recent past. In this case we use (lately, recently, just).
E.g.
They have not watched movie lately.
I have called him lately / recently. (A short time age)
I have just come to class. (A very short time ago)
So far= up to now
-----------------------------------------

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5. Present Perfect Tense also expresses an action or state that happened in the
past but the result comes out to present.
E.g.
Action or State Result
She has written a letter. Now the letter is ready to be seen.
They have taken lunch. Now they are full and not hungry.
He has polished his shoes. They are shinning now.
He has been sick. He is weak and black now.
She has lost the keys to her house. She is unable to enter her house now.
I have lost the money to my trip. I am unable to go on a trip without money.
Why present perfect tense?
Because the result of past action comes to present.

PRESENT PERPECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

Structures:
Singular Structure:
Subject+has+been+present participle+ +R\S
Plural Structure:
Subject+Have+Been+Present Participle ++R\S
------------------------
1. Present Perfect Continuous Tense expresses the length or duration of an action
that started in the past, comes to present, may or may not go to future. In this
case we use since and for.
E.g.
The students have been studying since 2:00 PM.
Main Clause Time Phrase
She has been watching TV for one hour.
Main-Clause Time Phrase

What is the difference b/w Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous
tense?
1: Present Perfect continuous tense shows length or duration and all verbs can be
used in this tense.
While Present Perfect Tense case no.3 shows action or state and only durative
verbs can be used in that tense.
May go to future
2.00 PM 3.00 PM may not go to future.
------------------------------------------------------------
Past Present Future
E.g.
I have lived in Peshawar since 2000. (Present Perfect)
It shows long-lasting action or state and shows gaps here as well and the line
must soft as the person might have spent some time somewhere else.

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I have been living in Peshawar since 2000. (Present Perfect Continuous)

It means that the person has been living in Peshawar consecutively and there are
no gaps as the line in the diagram is in zigzag. It should be kept in mind that
both actions and states come to present time but they can go or can’t go Future
time.
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Without since and for Present Perfect Continuous tense expresses an action,
which was in progress in recent past but no longer present.
E.g.
She has been playing in the mud.
She has been running in the park.

---------------------------------------------------------------

Past Present Future

The action/activity finishes before comes to present.
---------------------------------------------------------
E.g.
She has been washing clothes since 2.00 PM.
She has been washing clothes.
Here sentence 1 is still in progress as it has started in past, comes to present, may or may not go
to future.
Sentence 2 Stops / completes before comes to present.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. With the phrase (How Long) present perfect continuous tense is used to ask
about the length or duration of an action started in the past, comes to present,
may or may not go to future.
E.g.
How long has he been studying college?
How long have you been working in this office?
For how long have you been working here? (Spoken)
-----------------------------------------------
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense also expresses repeated action started in the
past, comes to present, may or may not go to future.
E.g.
He has been snorting for two hours. Present Perfect Continuous
She is blinking in the class. Present Continuous
Ali has been scratching his legs since 1.00 PM.
--------------------------------------------------
In present perfect continuous tense the action/activity starts in the past, comes to
present, may or may not go to future.
While in present continuous tense the action/activity starts in present.
This can be more clarified through diagram.
--------------------------------------------------

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5. Present Perfect Continuous tense also expresses a gradual change started in

the past, comes to present, may or may not go to future.
E.g.
The pollution has been increasing in Peshawar day by day.
The population has been declining (decreasing) year by year.
______________________________________________________________________________________
Differences between Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense Present Perfect Continuous Tense
1. Shows the occurrence or 1. Shows the continuation of action.
Happening of an action or state
2. Shows long-lasting action or 2. Shows short-lasting action or state.
State.
3. May have some stoppages. 3. May not have some stoppages.
4. The result might be achieved. 4. The result might not be achieved.
5. Emphasizes on the action. 5. Emphasizes on the length or duration.
________________________________________________________________________
E.g.
Ali has worked since 8.00 PM. (Breaks) (Stoppages)
Tahir has been working since 8.00 PM. (No breaks) (consecutively working)
Both activities / actions are in progress.
--------------------------------------------
Result:
I have written a letter.
I have been writing a letter for 30 minutes.
In sentence 1 the action has been completed and the result is available.
In sentence 2 the action/activity is still in progress.
--------------------------------------------
Emphasize
He has worked in the office since 2.00 PM.
He has been working in the office since 2.00 PM.
In sentence 1 verb is emphasized while in sentence 2 length or duration is
emphasized.
SIMPLE PAST TENSE
Structures:
Subject + Past form of verb + +R\S
1. Simple past tense expresses an action or state that started and ended in a
particular time in the past.
E.g.
He washed his car yesterday. (Action) (Absolute Structure)
He was really busy last week. (State)
He washed his car. Ellipsis Structure
-------------------------------------

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2. Simple past tense also expresses an action or state existed in the past but no
longer exists in present time. In this case we use “used to”.
E.g.
He used to drink wine. Action
My grandmother used to tell me stories when I was a child. Action
She used to be very sad. State
In the past days she was unhappy but now she is happy.
He was in the habit of drinking wine in the past but now he is not doing so.
Would = Used to
--------------------------------------------
3. With the words if and wish simple tense expresses present unreal condition
and present unreal desire.
E.g.
If he studied hard, he would get first division.
Present unreal condition
It means that he didn’t study hard that’s why he is unable to get first division.
She wishes she were a doctor.
Present unreal desire
It means that now she not a doctor but she wants it would be better if she were a
doctor.
She wishes she educated.
Present unreal desire
It means she is not educated at the present time but she is wishing she were educated.
If the condition is positive it gives negative meaning and if negative then gives positive
meaning.
-------------------------------------
4. Simple past tense also expresses a status existed in the past but no longer exist in
present.
E.g.
Bush was the president of America.
It means that almost a year before Bush was the president of America but now he is not
he is just like a citizen.
Tendulkar was the captain of Indian cricket team seven years ago.
It means that Tendulkar was Indian captain before seven ago but now he is a common
player.
______________________________________________________________________________________
5. Simple past tense also expresses a situation where one action happened before another
action in the past. In this case we use (when).
E.g.
She learned Computer when she completed her college.
2nd activity 1st activity
It means that after completion of college she learned computer.
E.g.
He made much money when he got married.
OR

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When he got married, he made much money.

----------------------------------------
How to change simple past affirmative statements to negative statements and to
interrogative sentences.
(+) She went to park yesterday.
(-) She didn’t go to park yesterday.
(-) She did not go to park yesterday.
(+?) Did she go to park yesterday?
(-?) Didn’t she go to park yesterday?
(-?) Did not she go to park yesterday?
(-?) Did she not go to park yesterday?
------------------------------------------
WXSV
What did he buy yesterday?
What did you see there?
-------------
What he bought yesterday?
What you saw there?
------------
First two questions are Emphatical questions and they should be pronounced with a stress
while the other two are loose questions.

________________________________________________________________________
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
Structure:
Subject + was/were + Present Participle + +R\S
1. Past Continuous tense expresses an action, which was or was not in progress in a
particular time in the past.
E.g.
They boys were playing football in the lawn yesterday.
We were watching Pashto movie last night.
-----------------------------
2. Past Continuous tense also expresses a situation in which one action was in progress,
another action happened, may or may not interrupt (stop) the first action.
E.g.
He was watching Pashto movie when his father came.
Here the action can be interrupted and can’t be interrupted as well.
She was washing clothes when electricity went off.
Here the activity/action interrupts.
They were taking lunch when gusts came.
May or may not interrupt.
I was using computer when power went off.
Here When is used and after when Past Simple tense is used.
------------------------------------------------------
3. Past Continuous tense also expresses a situation in which two actions were in progress
at the same time in the past.
E.g.

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Hammed was studying Math while his brother was watching movie.
I was playing cricket while Ahmad was enjoying it.
While means during.
This can be further explained through diagram.

-------------------------------------------------
Past Present Future
--------------------------------------------------------
4. With the words (if and wish) Past Continuous tense expresses current unreal condition
and current unreal desire.
E.g.
If it were raining now, he would not go outside.
Current unreal condition
It means that it is not raining that’s why he is going outside
If he were not studying now, he would go to park.
Current unreal condition
It means that he is studying that’s why he can’t go to park.
He wishes he were living in Australia.
Current unreal desire
I wish I were playing in place of him.
Current unreal desire
Here were is used after all subjects. Was can be also used but it is not common or formal as compared to
were.
______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Past Continuous tense also expresses an action, which was in progress occasionally,
frequently, often in the past.
E.g.
The students were occasionally attending sport class last year.
I was often going to movie three years ago.
---------------------------------------------------------
How to change past continuous affirmative statements to negative statements or
interrogative sentences.
E.g.
The boys were playing cricket yesterday.
The boys were not playing cricket yesterday.
--------------------
He was taking lunch when guests came.
Main clause Time clause
Was he taking lunch when guests came?
Or
When guests came, was he taking lunch?
Note: Time Clause can’t be changed into question.
i.e.
When did guests come, he was taking lunch? (Wrong)
Time clause Main clause

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---------------------------------------------
Being
Today you are being very lazy.
It means that today you are feeling lazy while the rest of the time it is not the case and you are active.
It is used for limited time/duration.
Today he is being busy.
Rest of the days he does nothing but today is looking very busy.
Today you are being very smart.
Today she is being very attractive.
Today Patasa is being very silent.
He is being a teacher. (Wrong)
_______________________________________________________________________
PAST PERFECT TENSE
Structure: -
Subject + Had + IIIV +R\S
1. Past Perfect tense expresses an action or state, which was or was not completed before
another action or time in the past.
E.g.
Hammed had completed class ninth before he started class 10th.
Main clause Time clause
E.g.
She had taken dinner by the time (when) she slept in her room.
Main-clause Time-clause
E.g.
Tahir had completed his computer classes before 2009.
Main-clause Time-phrase
E.g.
She had been very sick before she got married.
Main clause Time clause
First she was sick but after marriage she was ok.
OR
Before she got married, she had been very sick. ([Link])
Time clause main clause
Here in this tense one activity/action completes first before another.
--------------------------------------------------
2. In general sentence past perfect tense expresses the completion of an action or state in
the past (late past).
E.g.
He had taken lunch. Completion of action
We had informed them. Completion of action
She had been busy. Completion of state
Ahmad had been sick. Completion of state
Late past is shown by these sentences or states.
Here been is past participle or third form of verb or main verb as well.
________________________________________________________________________

Some Perfective Sentences

I have just written a letter. Shows recent past

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I have written a letter. Shows Result

I wrote a letter yesterday. Shows specific time
I had written a letter. Shows past late
Ahmad has been writing a letter for ten minutes. Shows duration of action or state
He had written a letter before the power went off. Shows one action/activity completes
before another happens.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
3. Past perfect tense also expresses an action or state which was wanted, intended,
thought to happen but it didn’t happen in the past.
E.g.
He had wanted to buy a car, but he lost the money.
She had intended to marry soon but her father-in-law passed away.
-----------------------------------------------------------------
4. With the words (if and wish) past perfect tense expresses simple past meaning.
E.g.
If he had gotten the job last month, he would have arranged a party.
Past unreal meaning condition
It means he didn’t get the job and he didn’t arrange the party.
If he had studied hard, he would have secured first division.
Past unreal meaning condition
It means he didn’t study hard and he also didn’t obtain first division.
E.g.
She wishes she had gotten (been) married last year.
Past unreal meaning
It means she didn’t get married last year. Desire
Ahmad wishes he had bought an XLI last year.
Past unreal meaning desire
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. In reported speech past perfect tense expresses simple past meaning.
E.g.
Hammed said’ “I played football yesterday”.
Hammed said that he had played football the previous day.
Here the previous day shows simple past meaning.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Structure: -
Subject + had + been + Present Participle + +R\S
1. Past Perfect Continuous tense expresses an action or state, which was in progress
recent (close) to another action or time in the past.
E.g.
He had been playing cricket before he came to the class.
At 1.50.00 playing cricket at 2.00 came to class
E.g.
I had been studying computer classes before I got a job.
up to 20.06.2009 studying classes at 24.06.2009 got a job
E.g.
Ahmad had been tired before he came to class.
One activity another activity
Here one activity/action is very close to another.

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This usage is 15%.

-----------------------------------
2. Past Perfect continuous tense also expresses the length or duration of an
action which was or was not in progress before another action or time in the past.
E.g.
He had been studying class 6th for one year before he started class 7th.
Main clause Time clause
E.g.
She had been studying for two hours before she slept in her room.
Main clause Time clause
Tahir had been living in America for five years before 2009.
Main clause Time phrase
I had been studying school for ten years before I started college.
Main clause Time clause
Note: Time clause or time expression must be in simple past tense.
E.g.
I had been playing cricket for two hours before I attended the class.
Main clause Time clause
Since isn’t used in this case only for is used.
This case is used 85%.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Past perfect continuous tense also expresses past repeated action.
E.g.
The phone had been ringing.
The guests had been snorting.
The door had been knocking.
4. With the words if and wish past perfect continuous tense expresses past continuous
meaning.
E.g.
If he had been studying last night, he would not be watching TV.
Past continuous meaning
He was not studying that’s why he was watching TV.
He wishes he had been living in America last year.
Past continuous meaning
--------------------------------------------------------
5. In reported speech past perfect continuous tense expresses past continuous meaning.
E.g.
The students said’” we were attending the class last week”.
The students said that they had been attending the class previous week.

FUTURE FAMILY
WILL Begoingto
(Is, am, are etc) (Semi-modal)

1. Is Modal auxiliary verb 1. Is similar expression to modal auxiliary

2. Is used to show willingness. 2. Is not used to show willingness.
3. Is used to show new-planned action. 3. Is used to show old planned action.
4. Is used to make promise. 4. Is not used to make promise.

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5. Is used to make informal request. 5. Is not used to make informal request.

6. Is used to show present certainty. 6. Is not used to show present certainty.

Note: To talk about prediction, here both (will and Begoingto) have same usage.
E.g.
It is going to rain tonight.
It will rain tonight.
---------------------------------
New plane and old plan
He will buy a car tomorrow. (New plan)
It means that the person has recently thought of buying a car and so he will buy tomorrow.
She is going to buy a car tomorrow. (Old plan)
(Plan that was made previously for doing something.)
It means that this madam has the idea/plan of buying a car for almost a year but
she is going to buy the car tomorrow.
----------------------------------------
Certainty
E.g.
Don’t call him he will be sleeping now.
---------------------------------
Promise
I will buy you bracelet.
Don’t worry I will you my cell-phone.
----------------------------------
Willingness
Suppose you along with your friends sitting in a room and enjoying a movie. Suddenly someone
knocks at the door and you say to the others:
I will check the door.
I will see the door.
I will go.
Here will shows willingness. As you by yourself want to check the door.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE

Structure:
Subject + will/won’t + root form of verb + +R\S
Begoingto
1. Simple Future tense expresses an action or state, which will or will not happen in a
particular time in the future.
E.g.
Hammed will arrange a party tomorrow. (Action)
She won’t study Math tonight. (Action)
The students are going to attend the class next week. (Action)
The will be very busy tomorrow. (State)
Action is being performed while state can’t be performed and it only exists.
E.g.
He will be happy after marriage. (State)
Here be is main verb and then at that category its linking verb as well as it connects subject with
an adjective.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Future Continuous Tense

Structure:

Subject + will/won’t + be + present participle + +R\S

Begoingto (is, am, are)
Be is the root form of (is, am, are) and after Modal Auxiliary root form of verb is used.
1. Future continuous tense expresses an action, which will or will not be in progress in a
particular time in the future.
E.g.
The children will be playing football tomorrow morning.
She will not be watching movie tonight.
He will be playing cricket at 6.00 PM.
E.g.
They are going to be driving the car next month.
Continuous tenses can’t be formed/made without be verbs.
E.g
Is, am, are, was, were, being, been, be
Note: Be verbs can function as auxiliary verbs and can function as main verbs as well.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Future Perfect Tense
Structure:
Subject + will/won’t + have + III verb + +R\S
Note: In Future perfect tense only have is used as in Future tense there are Modal auxiliaries.
Modal auxiliaries are usually followed by Dictionary form/Root form. So root form is have and
not has. Has is not used in this tense.
Have and Begoingto are acceptable here in this tense while has isn’t acceptable.
1. Future perfect tense expresses an action or state, which will or will not be completed before
another action or time in the future.
E.g.
The students will have attended the class before they go home.
Main clause Time clause
He will have studied class 6th before he starts class 7th.
Main clause Time clause
E.g.
Hammed will have learned computer before 2010.
Main-Clause Time-Phrase
E.g.
I will have attended the marriage ceremony before we take meal.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
Before we take meal, this sentence is from present simple tense but it gives/expresses future
meaning because it is preceded by subordinating conjunction (before).
Further explanation:
E.g.
I will have attended the marriage ceremony before we take meal.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
1st activity 2nd activity
E.g.
Ahmad will have written a letter before he sends it to brother.
1st activity 2nd activity
Happens first Happens 2nd
It means here that first Ahmad will write a letter and after that he will send it his brother.

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E.g.
I will have earned much money before I returned back to Pakistan.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
1st activity 2nd activity
It means here that the person will first earn money and after earning much he will return
to Pakistan.
E.g.
I will have been busy before I come to class. (State)
Main-Clause Time-Clause
-----------------------------------------------------------
Two ways of expression
Ahmad will have written a letter before he sends it his brother.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
Happens first Happens second
OR
Ahmad is going to have written a letter before he sends it his brother.
Happens first Happens second
----------------------------------------------------------
Note: Time-Clause or Time-Phrase must be in simple present tense because here simple present
tense gives future meaning as it is preceded by/with subordinating conjunction (before).

______________________________________________________________________________
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Structure:
Subject + will/won’t + Have + Been + Present Participle + +R\S
1. Future perfect continuous tense expresses the length or duration of an action, which will or will
not be in progress before another action or time in the future.
E.g.
We will have been attending the class for two hours before we go home.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
E.g.
She will have been studying class 8th for one year before she starts class 9th.
Main-Clause Time-clause
E.g.
He will have been playing football for one hour before 3.00 PM.
Main-Clause Time-Phrase
E.g.
I will have been sleeping for two hours before I go to class.
Main-Clause Time-Clause
----------------------------------
Here in this tense (For) is used while the usage of (since) is impossible. For shows length or
duration of an action which is in progress. “Since” and “for” in Perfective tenses are called
preposition of time. “Since” shows starting point/time while “for” shows length or duration of an
action.

Up to here I have completed my notes.

STRUCTURE
In English grammar all sentences are made based on two structures:

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Structure
-----------------------------------------------------------------

Absolute Structure Ellipsis Structure

OR (Complete Structure)
1. Absolute: -
Absolute structure is a structure that introduces (shows) those sentences that they have all
their elements (parts) completely.

2. Ellipsis Structure: -
Ellipsis structure is a structure through which we omit (remove) that part of a sentence
which does not affect the meaning of a sentence completely.
------------------------------------
When do we use Ellipsis structure?
It is usually used in spoken English. It is used when both speaker and listener know about
a thing etc.
------------------------------------
When do we use Absolute structure?
It is usually used in written English as it gives complete meaning. In spoken English it is
also used at a time when the listener does not know about a thing. In this case the speaker
has to apply absolute structure.
E.g.
He went to school yesterday. Absolute structure
He went to school. Ellipsis structure
He went. Ellipsis structure
E.g.
They played football last Sunday. Absolute structure
They played football. Ellipsis structure
They played. Ellipsis structure
E.g.
He is at home. Absolute structure
He is home. Ellipsis structure
--------------------
What is ellipsation?
It means to make statements shorter.

________________________________________________________________________
Causative verbs:

Causatives verbs are those denote which denote that the subject of a sentence doesn’t
perform an activity but it cause another person to perform the action.
Causative verbs are also called countering verb.
Some causative verbs are listed below.
 Make: - Means to impel someone to force someone.
According to grammar make is a causative verb followed by a root form of verb.

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Structure: (sub+make+object+root form verb+rest of sentence)

Example, The parents make their wee daughter learn computer.
Note. In the above sentence Wee means Small.

 Have: - Means to choose someone to request someone to do something.

According to grammar have is a causative verb followed by root form of verb.
Structure: (sub+have+obj+root form verb+rest of sentence.)
Example, They have the machine fix their TV as soon as possible.

 Let: - Means to allow somebody to do something.

According to grammar let is a causative verb followed by root form of verb.
Structure: (sub+let+object+root form verb+rest of sentence.)
Example, I let my Brother spend his pocket money at school.

 Get: - Means to motivate someone to do something.

According to grammar get is a causative verb followed by (to+verb).
Structure: (sub+get+object+to+verb+rest of sentence).
Example, The teachers get the student to study hard.

 Help: - Means to assess someone to do something.

According to grammar help is a causative verb followed by either root form or verb
or (to+verb) form of verbs.
Structure: (sub+help+object+to+verb/root form verb+rest of sentence).
Example, They help their sister to clean the kitchen.
(To+verb)
They help their sister clean the kitchen.
Root form of verb
Structures

 Sample Structure.

Are those structure which have only one verb is called simple structure.

Structure: (sub+verb+object).
Example, I make a chair.

 Verb + Verb Structure.

Are those structure which have two verbs is called verb + verb structure.
Structure: (sub+verb+verb+object).
Example, I make Ali to study hard.
Note: when causative verb are used in (verb + verb) structure at function as causative
verb without this it function as a main verb.
Make, Have and Let + root form verb.
Get  to + verb form.
Help  to + verb / root form of verb.
Using causative verb in sentence.

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Voice

In English language the word voice can be translated in tow ways.

 According to dictionary voice means sound.

 According to grammar voice is the form of verb which denote what the subject does or
what happens to the subject.

Active Sentences VS Passive Sentences

Active Sentences: -
A  Active sentences are those sentences which denote that the subject is the doer of an
action.
B  Active sentences are those which denote what the subject does.
C  Active sentences are those which denote that the subject and object are in their own
places.

Passive Sentences: -
A  Passive sentences are those sentences which denote that the subject is the receiver
of an action.
B  Passive sentences are those sentences which denote what happens to the subject.
C  Passive sentences are those sentences which denote that the subject and object are
not in their own places.

Example, He killed a bird.  Active sentence

A bird was killed by him.  Passive sentence
Note: - The term active means alert and the term passive means inert.
Note, why do we use active sentence?
 When it’s important to know who performs the action.
 When it’s important to know what people or thing do.
 When who (subject) become more important then what (object).

 Why do we use passive sentence?

 When it’s important to know what happens to people or thing.

 When what (object) becomes more important than who (subject).

 When we want to bring changes in our utterance.

 How to change active to passive sentences?

 The main verb of active sentence should be transitive verb.

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 In transitive verb can’t be changed to passive from. As the subject of passive

sentence.

 The form (Be + 3Verb) is usually used in passive sentence.

General structure in the form of passive sentences.

 Simple Present tense.

Structure:
Sub + is, am, are + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
She helps me.  Active
I am helped by her.  Passive
She eats a cake.  Active
A cake is eaten by her.  Passive

 Present Continuous tense.

Structure:
Sub + is, am, are + being + 3verb+ rest of sentence.
Example,
The boys are playing football.  Active
Football is being played by them now.  Passive

 Present Perfect tense.

Structure:
Sub + have/has +been + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
He has written a letter.  Active
A letter has been written by her.  Passive

 Present Perfect continuous tense.

Structure:
Sub + have/has + been + being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
She has been watching movie for one hour.  Active
Movie has been being watched by her for one hour.  Passive

 Simple Past tense.

Structure:
Sub + was/were + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
Hameed wrote a letter yesterday.  Active

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A letter was written by him yesterday.  Passive

 Past Continuous tense.

Structure:
Sub + was/were + being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
Ali were playing cricket.  Active
Cricket was being played by them.  Passive

 Past Perfect tense.

Structure:
Sub + had + been + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
They had taken lunch before they came to class.  Active
The lunch had been taken by them before they came to class.  Passive

 Past Perfect Continuous tense.

Structure:
Sub + had + been + being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
The student had been playing cricket for one hour before they went home.  Active
Cricket had been being played by them for one hour before they went home.  Passive

 Simple Future tense.

Structure:
Sub + will/be going to won’t + be + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
He will write a letter tomorrow.  Active
Al letter will be written by him tomorrow.  Passive

 Future Continuous tense.

Structure:
Sub + will/won’t be going to + be + being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
They will be playing football tomorrow.  Active
Football will be being played by them tomorrow.  Passive

 Future Perfect tense.

Structure:
Sub + will/won’t be going to + have been + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
He will have written a letter before he sleeps in the room.  Active
A letter will have been written by him before he sleeps.  Passive

 Future Perfect Continuous tense.

Structure:

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Sub + will, won’t, be going to + have + been, being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
1. They will have been reading a book for ten minutes before they go outside.  Active
A Book will have been being read by them before they go outside.  Passive
2. They will have been reading book for ten minutes before they take lunch.  Active
A book will have been being read by them for ten minutes before lunch is taken by them.
 Passive

How to change Interrogative sentences from active form to passive?

Does he study computer?  Active
Is computer studied by him?  Passive
Did she write letter yesterday?  Active
Were the letter written by her?  Passive
Have you taken lunch yet?  Active
Has lunch been taken by you yet?  Passive

How to change Imperative sentences from active form to passive form?

When we want to change Imperative sentences from active form to passive form we use
the structure (let + object + be + 3verb)
Example,
 Close the door.  Active
 Let the door be closed.  Passive
 Answer the following question.  Active
 Let the question be answered.  Passive
 Write a letter.  Active
 Let the letter be written.  Passive

How to change transitive verb from active forms to passive forms?

Example,
She gives a flower to Ali.  Active
S + main verb+ objdir + in dir – obj
A flower is give by her to Ali.  Passive
Ali is given a flower by her.  Passive
The doctor prescribes medicine to Alim.  Active
Alim is prescribed medicine by the doctor.  Passive
Medicine is prescribed by the doctor to Alim.  Passive

 Some active sentences contain complete clauses as the object. So we take the
complete clause and use it as the subject of passive sentence.
Example,
She knows where his husband goes daily.
Where his husband goes daily is know to her.
It’s known where her husband goes daily.

Types of Passive Voice.

In English grammar passive is generally divided into seven types.

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1. Main Passive
2. Statue Passive
3. Modal Passive
4. Present Passive infinitive
5. Past Passive infinitive
6. Present Passive gerund
7. Past Passive gerund
Main Passive:
Main Passive is a Passive which is used almost in all tenses.

Example,
 He wrote a letter.
 A letter is written by him.  Main Passive
 She is writing a letter.
 A letter is being written by her.  Main Passive

Statue Passive:

Statue passive is Passive that shows a state not an action or statue passive that does not
have active form.
Example,
The chair is broken.  Statue Passive
The Market is closed.  Statue Passive

Modal Passive:
Modal Passive is a Passive that contains Modal Auxiliary.
Structure:
Sub + modal auxiliary +be + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
They can play Piano in the party.  Active
Piano can be played by them in the party.  Modal Passive
We should respect our elders.  Active
Our elders should be respect by us.  Modal Passive

Present Passive Infinitive:

Structure:
Sub + infinitive verb + to be + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
She wants to be taught by her brother.
He wishes to be invited by his girlfriend.

Past Passive Infinitive:

Structure:
Sub + infinitive verb + to have + been + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
Ali wants to have been helped by his brother.

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Ali wanted to have been helped by his brother.

Present Passive Gerund:

Structure:
Sub + gerund verb + being + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
They appreciate being invited to today party.
She enjoys being taught by her brother.

Past Passive Gerund:

Structure:
Sub + gerund verb + having + been + 3verb + rest of sentence.
Example,
I appreciate having been given the chance.

Passive by Phrase:
By phrase is also called passive agent or passive operator.
By phrase is composed of two parts.
 The Preposition (By)
 The Subject of active sentence.
By Phrase is used in passive sentences when it’s imported to know who perform the
action.
Example,
Nabi speaks French at school.  Active
French is spoken by him at school.  Passive
By phrase
People speak French at school.  Active
French is spoken at school.  Passive
Note: (By People) is not important when it’s important to know who perform the action
(By Phrase) is used.

Quoted Speech Vs Reported Speech:

Quoted Speech:
Quoted Speech is also called direct speech. Quoted speech is speeches through which we
convey someone exact word inside of quotation mark.
Reported Speech:
Reported Speech is also called indirect speech. Reported Speech is speeches through
which we convey someone exact idea by our own words.
Example,
The student said “we attend the class at school.”
The student said that they attended the class at school.
1. Quoted Speech or direct speech
2. Reported Speech or indirect speech
Simple Present:
She said, “I go to school.” Quoted Speech

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Reported Reporting
Speech Speech

Simple Past:
She said that she went to school.  Reported Speech
Prattle conjunction or noun clause marker.

Present Continuous tense:

Ali said, “I am reading a book.”

Past Continuous tense:

Ali said that he was reading a book.

Present Perfect tense:

Ahmad said, “I have seen him.”

Past Perfect tense:

Ahmad said that he had seen him.

Present Perfect Continuous tense:

Hameed said, “I have been working in the office since 8:00am.

Past Perfect Continuous tense:

Hameed said that he had been working in the office since 8:00am.

Past Family Quoted and Reported Speech:

Simple Past tense:

The student said, “We attended the class yesterday.”

Past Perfect tense:

The student said that they had attended the class the previous day.

Past Continuous tense:

Nabi said, “I was writing a letter yesterday.”

Past Perfect Continuous tense:

Nabi said that he had been writing a letter the previous day.

Past Perfect tense:  No change in tense form.

Hameed said, “I had taken lunch.”
Past Perfect tense:
Hameed said that he had taken lunch.

Past Perfect Continuous tense:

The Boys said, “We had been studying for two hours.”

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Past Perfect Continuous tense:

They Boys said that they had been studying for two hours.

Future Family Quoted and Reported Speech:

Will  change to  would
 Hameed said, “I will buy a car tomorrow.”
 Hameed said that he would buy a car the next day.
Won’t  change to  would not
 Habib said, “I won’t play cricket tomorrow.”
 Habib said that he wouldn’t play cricket the next day.
Be going to  changes to  was/were going to
 Wali said, “I am going to buy a car next year.”
 Wali said that he was going to buy a car the following year.

Shall  changes to  Should

 The student said, “We shall start a new class.”
 The student said that they should start a new class.
May  changes to  Might
 The girls said, “We may win the final match.”
 The girls said that they might win the final match.

Some other changes from Quoted Speech to Reported Speech:

 Can  change to  Could
 Must  change to  Had to
 Have to  change to  Had to
 Has to  change to  Had to
 Should  change to  Should (no change)
 This  change to  That
 These  change to  Those
 Here  change to  There
 Today  change to  That day
 Tonight  change to  That night
 Yesterday  change to  The previous day
 Tomorrow  change to  The next day, the following day.
 Two days ago  change to  The day before last
 Five years ago  change to  Five years later
 Now  change to  Then

Now  Then
 The student said we are studying now.
The student said that they were studying then.

Differences between Quoted Speech and Reported Speech:

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Quoted Speech Reported Speech

 We convey someone exact words.  We convey someone exact idea.
 We use comma.  No comma is used.
 We use quotation marks.  No quotation marks are used.
 We use the subject with capital  No capital letter is use.
letter.
 No change of pronoun.  Change of pronoun.
 No change of tense.  Change of tense. (usually)
 No change of (that).  (That) is used optionally.
 No change of adverb.  Change of adverb.

Note. Quoted Speech is composed of two main parts.

1. Reporting Clause 2. Reported Clause.
1. Hameed said, “I play football at school.  2,[Link] Reporting and 2 is Reported clause
Note: -
In English grammar reporting clause has three positions.
 At the beginning.
Ex, Hameed said, “I won the match.”
 In the middle.
Ex, “I won the match”, Hameed said I am happy.”
 At the end.
Ex, I won the match”, said Hameed.

How to change interrogative sentences from Quoted Speech to Reported Speech.

Quoted Speech to Reported Speech.

When we want to change interrogative sentences from quoted speech to reported speech
here we use (ask or wanted to know) instead of (say).
1. (WH) Question.
Structure:
Sub + ask/wanted to know + (WH) + sub + verb + full stop.
Example,
 Tahir said, “Where will she go next year.”  Quoted Speech
 Tahir asked me where she would go the following year.  Reported Speech.

Yes / No Question:
Structure:
Sub + ask/wanted to know + if /whether + sub +full stop.
Example,
 Will the match start tomorrow.  Quoted Speech
 Hameed said me if the match would start the coming day.  Reported Speech
 Hameed said, “Does the teacher attend the class?”  Quoted Speech
 Hammed said me if the teacher attended the class.  Reported Speech

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 Wali said, “Don’t the children go to park?”  Quoted Speech

 Wali ask me if the children didn’t go to park.  Reported Speech

How to change Imperative sentence from quoted speech to reported speech:

 The teacher said, “Open your books.”  Quoted Speech
 The teacher ordered us to open our books.  Reported Speech
 The father said, “Respect the elders.”  Quoted Speech
 The father advised us to respect the elders.  Reported Speech

Note:
If reporting clause contain (say) instead of said here no change happens in the form of
tense.
 Tawab said, “I play football.”  Quoted Speech
 Tawab said that he played football.  Reported Speech
Gerund and Infinitive:
Gerund and Infinitive starts from this structure.
Sub + verb + verb
If the second verbs is (to + verb) is Infinitive but if it’s (verb + ing) it’s Gerund.

Infinitive:
The non finite form of the verb which does not relate to any tense is called Infinitive.
Gerund:
Verb + ing functions as a noun is called gerund.
Example,
They decided to buy a car.
Infinitive
They enjoy playing football.
Gerund
Note:
Infinitive and Gerund are also called verbal nouns.

Tense Cycling:

Verb: 1. Finite Verb 2. Non Finite Verb

1. Finite Verb
Are those verbs that are affected by change of tense.
2. Non Finite Verb
Are those verbs which are not effect by the change of tense.
Example,
 She wants to play football.
Finite, Non finite verb
 She wanted to play football.
Finite, Non finite verb

Note:
In English grammar (verb + ing) have three main functions.

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Main Functions:
Verb + ing as progressive form of verb used in some continuous tenses.
Example,
They are playing football now.
Progressive form of verb
Verb + ing as noun called gerund.
Example,
They enjoy playing football.
Gerund
Verb + ing as a present participle form of adjective
Example,
The movie is interesting.
Present participle form of adj
Common usage of Gerund and Infinitive:
In English grammar both gerund and infinitive have the four following common usage.
1. Some common verb (want, decide, plan, wish, hope, demand) are followed by
infinitive in if gerund is used incorrect.
Example,
Hameed decided to start a business. Correct
(To + verb) = infinitive
Hameed decided starting business. Incorrect.
(Verb + ing) = gerund.
2. Some common verbs (appreciate, enjoy, mind, dany) are followed by gerund it
infinitive is used incorrect.
Example,
She enjoys watching American movie. Correct
(Verb + ing) = gerund
She enjoys to watch American movie. Incorrect
(To + verb) = infinitive
3. Some common verbs (hate, love, like, start, begin) are followed by either
infinitive or gerund with same meaning.
Example,
He likes to swim in the pool. Correct
To + verb = infinitive
He likes to swimming in the pool. Correct
Verb + ing = gerund
4. Some common verbs (stop, forget, remember, try) are followed by either
infinitive or gerund with different meaning.
Example,
She stopped to talk with her friend. Correct  infinitive
She stopped talking with her friend. Correct  gerund
 Forget + Infinitive
This structure shows someone duty or responsibility.
Example,
She forgot to wash the dishes.

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 Forget + Gerund
This structure shows that something happened in the past
Example,
She forgot fighting with her husband.

 Remember + Infinitive
This structure is used to show someone duty or responsibility.
Example,
He remembers to clean the kitchen.
 Remember + Gerund
This structure is used to show that something happened to in the past.
Example,
They remember going on the picnic.
 Try + Infinitive
This structure is used to show experiments with new result.
Example,
The room was dark we tried opening window then we try turning on the light.
 Regret + Infinitive
Is used when we tell a bad news to someone.
Example,
I regret to tell him that he failed the exam.

 Regret + Gerund
Is used that something in the past.
Example,
She regrets fighting with her mother in law.

The decided to start new class.

The decided to start new class.
She enjoys playing football at school.
She enjoys playing football at school.
Note:
 A verb which is followed by infinitive noun is infinitive verb.
 A verb which is followed by gerund noun is gerund verb.
 Infinitive noun + rest of sentence is called infinitive phrase.
 Gerund noun + rest of sentence is called gerund phrase.

Cases of Gerund:
In English grammar gerund is used in the following cases.
 Subject case of gerund.
In this case gerund (verb + ing) is used before main verb to function as the subject of
sentence.
Example,
Reading makes us tired.
 Object case of gerund.

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In this case gerund (verb + ing) comes after main verb (gerund verb) to function as
the object of sentence.
Example,
He enjoys reading books.
 Complement of preposition case of gerund.
In this case gerund (verb + ing) is preceded with a preposition to complete the
meaning of prepositions.
Example,
She is interested in learning Arabic.
They are happy about going to America.
 Complement of (be) case of gerund.
In this case gerund (verb + ing) completes the meaning of (be)
Example,
What she wishes is getting high education.
Cases of Infinitive:-
In English grammar Infinitive is used in the following cases.

 Subject Case of Infinitive:-

In this case Infinitive (to + verb) function as the subject used before the main verb in a
sentence.
Example,
To watch TV is stupidity.
To steal books has big reward.

Note: In modern English grammar subject case of Infinitive is introduced with the
structure.
(It’s + adjective + to +verb)
Example,
To learn computer is important. Old
It’s important to learn computer. Now
Infinitive subject case
 Objective case of Infinitive:-
In this case Infinitive (to + verb) is used after main verb to function as the object of
sentence.
Example,
They decided to earn much money.
 Complement of preposition case of Infinitive:-
In this case Infinitive (to + verb) is proceeded by a preposition to complete the meaning
of preposition.
Example,
Hameed near to die in these days.
She has no way, but to marry old man.
Infinitive complement of preposition.
 Complement of verb case of Infinitive:-
In English grammar Infinitive is divided into five types.
1- Absolute Infinitive, 2- Bared Infinitive, 3- Abridging Infinitive, 4- Split Infinitive

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5- Compound Infinitive.

 Absolute Infinitive:-
Is an Infinitive which is formed of (to + verb)
Note: - Absolute Infinitive is also called full Infinitive.
Example,
They want to play football.

 Bared Infinitive:-
Is an Infinitive which is formed without using (to). Mostly used after auxiliary verbs and
some causative verbs.
Example,
They can play football.

 Abridging Infinitive:-
Is also called shorten Infinitive. Is used to make short answers to some interrogative
sentences.
Example,
Do you want to buy a car?
Yes I want to.
Would you like to drink soda water?
Yes I like to.

 Split Infinitive:-
Is an Infinitive in which (to) is parted from the root form of verb by inserting adverb.
Example,
He wants to start business in America.
He wants to happily start business in America.
She wants to carefully drive the car.

 Compound Infinitive:-
Is an Infinitive which is formed of more than one Infinitive noun.
Example,
She wants to study and to learn computer.
They decided to start and to promote business in America.
Note: - Infinitive (to + verb)
In Infinitive (to) is not preposition it’s verb predicator.

 Elements of sentences:-
Are grammatical terms which denote how sentences are composed.
Sentences generally have two types of elements.
1- Main elements, 2- Sub elements
 Main Elements:-
Are those elements which are compulsory to use.
Main elements are two in numbers.

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1- Subject, 2- verb. (Predicator)

 Sub Elements:-
Are those elements which are not used marjorly some sub elements are listed here.
Object, Complement, Preposition, Adverb, Adjective etc.
Subject:- Noun, Pronoun, Noun Phrase, Noun Clause, that comes before main verb to
make the base of sentence is called subject.
Example, 1- Noun as Subject
Hameed plays football daily.
2- Pronoun as Subject.
They play cricket in the ground.
3- Noun Phrase as subject.
The red stylish car runs very fast.
4- Noun Clause s Subject.
What I heard was absurd.
 Predicator:-
Is a grammatical term which talks about the subject in a sentence.
Example,
They walk on the road.
Predicator
She is a student.
Predicator

 Sentence:-
Sentence is a group of related words that gives complete meaning or complete logic.
Example,
He plays football.

 Clause:-
Clause is a group of related words that contain subject main verb and usually completed
meaning.

Difference between Sentence and Clauses:-

Subject Clause
Always has complete meaning Usually has complete meaning
Is bigger than clause Is smaller than sentence
Always can be a clause Some time can’t be sentence
May have more than one clause May not have more than one clause

Example, Sentence
He loves a boy who has a black Honda car.
Example, Clause
She loves a boy who has a black Honda car.

 Types of Clause:-

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In English grammar clause are generally divided into two types.

1- Dependent Clause, 2- In dependent Clause

 In depended Clause
Is a clause which can stand alone it does not need another clause.

Note:- In depended clause is also called main clause, principal clause, chief clause,
coordinating clause

 Dependent Clause:-
Is a clause which cannot stand alone.
Note:- depended clause is also called relative clause, modifying clause, adjective clause
subordinating clause.

Example,
She slapped a man who offers a flower to her.
In dependent clause dependent clause

 With the structure. (The + noun of which) which refers to the possession of thing.
Example,
She bought a book the size of which is very big

Types of Dependent Clause:-

We have four types of dependent clause.
1- Adjective Clause, 2- Adverb Clause, 3- Noun Clause, 4- Comparative Clause.

 Adjective:-
A word that adds S. th to the meaning of noun is called adjective.
O psacom formula.
Op sh ACO M
Opinion shapeage colororigine method marker
Example,
It’s an pensive, cylendral, new black Pakistan, plastic marker.
What is and adjective clause?
A clause that modifies identifies or gives extra information about the antecedent
(referent) in the main clause.
Example,
She will marry the man who has a lot of money.
Antecedent
Note:-
An adjective is introduced by the using of relative pronoun conjunctive pronoun or
adjective clause marker.

Remember.

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An adjective clause is also called relative clause and relative clause expresses which
person or thing we are talking about.
1- Who, 2- Which and 3- That
 Relative Pronoun:-
1- A pronoun that connects an independent clause and dependent clause.
Example,
I met a boy. He is very rich.
I met a boy who is very rich.
Ind, clause Adjective clause
Function of relative pronoun.
As the subject of sentence
Note: a relative pronoun may function as the sub of sentence when ever it’s followed by a
verb.
I will buy a car which has red color.
She married a man who is very nice.
2- Possessive case of relative pronoun.
It is introduced in two ways.
 with the relative pronoun (whose) which refer to the possession of either person
or thing.

Example,
She bought a book whose size is very big.

 As the object of sentence:-

Note: when the relative pronoun replaces the object of a preposition it’s called the object
of the preposition.
Example,
I know the teacher you talked about him.
I know the teacher about whom you talked.

Deletion of Relative pronoun:

Note: The relative pronoun maybe deleted when they function as the objects of the
sentences.
Example,
I saw the girl whom you loved.
I saw the girl you loved.
Unmarked objective clause
Ellipsis:
A process in which the extra and travel words one removed from the sentence but the
meaning is understand form the come text is form ellipsis.
The position of relative pronoun.
Note: The relative shall be used as closed as possible to its antecedent.
Example,
The girl who won the match is happy.
(Embedded adjective clause)

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The girl is happy who won the match.

(None embedded adjective clause)
Difference of Whom and Who
Who –who can be used both subjectively and objectively.
Whom–whom can be used only objectively not subjectively.
Who:
I know the man who is very kind. Who as subject
I know the man who you like. Who as object
Whom:
I know the man whom you like.

Types of Adjective clause:

Adjective clauses are generally divided into three types.
1- Restrictive adjective clause, 2- Non Restrictive adjective clause and 3- connective
adjective clause.
Note: Restrictive adjective clause is also called modifying clause, essential clause.

 Non Restrictive adjective clause:

Is a clause that gives extra or additional information about noun or pronoun (antecedent).
Note: Non Restrictive adjective clause is also called Non Modifying clause, Non essential
clause.
 Some important information about Restrictive and Non Restrictive adjective clauses.
1- Restrictive clause modifies antecedent but Non Restrictive clause gives extra
information about antecedent.
2- Restrictive adjective clause usually starts with who and that but Non Restrictive
adjective clause usually start which who and which.
3- The antecedent of Restrictive adjective clause is usually a common noun but the
antecedent of Non Restrictive adjective clause is usually a proper noun.
4- Comma or Commas are usually not used in Restrictive clause but Commas or
Commas are usually used in Non Restrictive adjective clause.
Examples,
1- He knows a boy who is living in America.
Antecedent Restrictive adjective clause
He knows Hameed, who is living in America.
Antecedent Non restrictive adjective clause
2- She bought a car that is very expensive.
Antecedent Restrictive adjective clause
She bought a Honda car, which is very expensive.
Antecedent Non Restrictive adjective clause.
3- She lives in a city that is the capital of Pakistan.
Antecedent Restrictive adjective clause
She lives in Islamabad, which the capital of Pakistan.
Antecedent Non Restrictive adjective clause
4- The teacher was very friendly, He teaches Arabic.
The teacher was very friendly who teaches Arabic.
The teacher who teaches Arabic was very friendly.

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Restrictive adjective clause.

5- Islamabad is a city which is the capital of Pakistan.
Islamabad which is the capital of Pakistan is a city.
Non Restrictive adjective clause.

 Connective adjective clauses:

Are those clauses which carry on the idea from one clause to another clause they do not
modify antecedent.
Example,
She was really sick, which made all her family members fright on.

Connective adjective clause.

Reduction of adjective clause to adjective phrase.
Note: An adjective clause maybe changed to adjective phrase of it relative pronoun
function as the subjects of the sentences.
Example,
Clause – The man who usually calls me is my friend.
Phrase – The man usually calling me is my friend.
Remember:
Which and adjective clause is changed to an adjective phrase the adjective clause marker
maybe deleted and the verb shall be brought in to (ing) form of the verb.
Example,
The man who usually called me was my friend. Clause.
The man usually calling me was my friend. Adj Phrase

Exception  when the adjective clauses in passive voice the verb may not be changed in
the (ing) form.
Example,
The class which was taught by Ali was advance II. Clause
The class taught by Ali was advance II. Adjective phrase
The class which is being taught by Ali is advance II.
The class being taught by Ali is advance II.
Note: If the adjective clause requires comma adjective phrase may also be punctuated
with commas.
Example,
Ali, who is my friend, is from Peshawar.
Ali, my friend, is from Peshawar.

Grammar’s Compendium:
 To change an adjective we shall omit subject of the adjective or relative clause
(who, which, and that).
 An adjective clause may not be reduced when the pronoun (who, which and that)
function as object.
 The verb maybe brought in to ing form according to formal sequence of tense.
 In passive voice the verb may not be changed to (ing) form.
 If an adjective requires commas adjective clause phrase may also need commas.

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Changing adjective clause to adjective phrases:

When ever we want to change adjective clauses to adjective phrases we have to consider
the following rules.
 First rule.
If adjective clause contain either simple present or simple past tense, here we delete the
relative pronoun and change the verb of adjective clause to (ing) form.
Example,
He respects a teacher who teaches physics at school.
Adjective clause
He respects a teacher teaching physics school.
Adjective phrase
They met a woman who worked in the bank three years ago.
Adjective clause
They met a woman working in the bank three year ago.  adjective phrase
 Second Rule
If adjective clause contain either present continues or past continues tense, here we delete
the relative pronoun and the form of (Be).
Example,
He liked the girl who is dancing on the stage now.
Adjective clause
He liked the girl dancing on the stage now.
Adjective phrase
He sold the car which was running very fast.
Adjective clause
He sold the car running very fast.
Adjective phrase
 Third Rule
If adjective clause contains perfective tenses here we have two possibilities.
Example,
They invited a doctor who has worked in America.
Adjective clause
They invited a doctor having worked in America.
Adjective phrase
Or – The invited a doctor working in America.
Adjective phrase
 Forth Rule
If adjective clause contains the form of (be) as main verb here we delete the relative
pronoun and the form of (be).
Example,
They respect a man who is the head master of school.
Adjective clause
They respect a man the head master of school.
Adjective phrase
 Fifth Rule

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If adjective clause contains the form of passive here we delete the relative pronoun and
the form of (be).
Example,
He is reading a letter that is written by his father.  Adjective clause
He is reading a letter written by his father.  Adjective phrase
“Clause”
1- Independent clause
2- Dependent clause

 Dependent clause is divided into following categories.

1- Adjective Clause
2- Adverb Clause
3- Noun Clause

 Adverb Clause
Adverb Clause is a dependent clause that function as almost the same as adverb. Shows
time relation ship, cause and affect relation ship opposition and condition
Note;
1- Adverb clauses are introduced with subordinating conjunction (when, while, after,
since, by the time, as soon as, as long as, as much as, as, until it, unless, providing
that, provided that, in case that, because, tough, al though, even though etc)
2- These subordinating conjunctions are also called adverb clause marker.
3- Adverb clauses have two positions in sentences.
A, before main clause here comma separates two clauses
B, after main clause here no comma is used.
Example,
He will have studied before he sleeps in the room.
Main clause adverb clause shows time relationship
She was watching TV when her father came.
Main clause adverb clause shows time relationship
He went to Doctor because he was really sick.
Main clause adverb clause shows cause and affect relationship
She got first position at school because she studied hard.
Main clause adverb clause shows cause and affect
Hameed didn’t study although he got first position
Main clause adverb clause shows opposition
He doesn’t have money although he went to buy a car.
Main clause adverb clause show opposition
She will get first position if she studies hard.
Main clause adverb clause shows condition

 Adverb clauses of time relationship

Are those clauses which denote when the action of main clause happens or happened.
The following subordinating conjunction.

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After, before, when, while, until, by the time, since, as soon as, as long as, as much as,
the first time, the last time, the next time,
Example,
He slept in her room when he came home.
Main clause adverb clause with time relationship
He was sleeping in the room while his brother was studying.
Main clause adverb clause with time relationship
As and while gives same meaning.

 Adverb clauses with cause and effect relationship.

Are those adverb clauses which denote how the action of main clause happens or
happened? Adverb clauses of cause and effect relation ship are introduced with the
following subordinating conjunction.
Because, since, now that, as, as long as, as much as
Example,
He slept very early last night because he was so tired.
Main clause show affects adverb clause show cause
 Cause and effects relationship
Is a grammatical term that contains one particular cause for one specific result?
Example,
He got first position because he studied hard.
Effect cause
Note:
In English grammar cause and effect relationship is show through five ways.
1- Through subordinating conjunction (because, since, now that as)
e.g. because he was really sick he went to doctor.
2- Through some prepositions (because of, due to)
e.g. because of the rain we didn’t play football.
3- Through condition Conjunctions (so)
e.g. He was really tired so he slept early.
4- Through transition (there fore, consequently)
e.g. He worked very hard therefore he earns much money.
5- Through structure (such a/an +adjective+ nouns +that /so + adjective+adverb+that)
e.g. Arabic is such and interesting language that everybody wants to learn.

 Conditional Clause of adverb.

A clause that simply introduces a condition is called conditional clause.
Example,
If she comes to class. Conditional clause.
Note: A conditional clause is in complete as it’s a dependent clause it there for must be
connected to an independent clause.
Example,
If she comes to class, we will not let her.
If we study hard, we will pass the test.
 Conditional Sentences

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Is a sentence that is composed of conditional clause and result clause and talk about a
possible situation with its result or consequences.

 Types of conditional sentences.

1- Zero type or General Type conditional sentences.
Expresses the condition with its automatic result.
Example,
If we add 2 to 2 we get four.
If it’s rain we get wet.
Note: This type of conditional sentences usually contain simple present tense in both
parts.
Example,
If we eat poison we die.

2- Open conditional sentences.

If expresses the possible situation with there result.
Example,
If we study hard, we will pass the test.
Note: We can use both should and well in conditional clause.
Example,
If we should study very hard we might pass the test.
If we will see them we might ask them for help.

 Adverb Clause of opposition.

Are those adverb clauses which show unexpected result to main clause.
Adverb clauses of opposition are introduced with some subordinating conjunctions.
(Through, although, even though) these three gives same meaning (But)
Example,
He didn’t study though he got first position.
Main clause adverb clause of opposition.

Through  strong
Although  stronger give same meaning
Even though  strongest

 Opposition
Is a grammatical term that introduces two opposite idea or two opposite words?
Example,
Ali was busy although he attends the class.
Idea Idea
Tahir is rich, but Ali is poor.
Word word

Note: In English grammar opposition are introduced through four ways.

1- Through subordinating conjunction (though, although, even though)

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Example,
He is poor although he started business.  Opposition
2- Through Coordinating conjunctions. (but, yet)
Example,
She was really sick but she worked a lot at home.

3- Through Transition (however, never the less, none the less)

Example,
He went to school, never the less, he didn’t take anything.
4- Through some prepositions. (despite, in spite of)
Example,
They went to swimming despite of cold weather.
Note: These four sentences are called opposition.
 Types of Opposition
1- Direct Opposition
2- Indirect Opposition
1- Direct Opposition
Is an opposition that introduces two opposite words?
Note: direct opposition is also called factual opposition.
2- Indirect Opposition
Is an opposition that introduces two opposite ideas?
Note: indirect opposition is also called un factual opposition.
Example,
He is intelligent, but she is lazy. Direct opposition.
Word word
He was really tired, but he didn’t sleep. Indirect opposition
Idea Idea

 Adverb clauses of condition.

Are those adverb clauses which are used to show specific condition for a particular result.
Adverb clauses of condition are introduced with the following subordinating
conjunctions.
If, whether or not, providing that, provided that, incase that, in the event that, only, if,
even if, unless.
Example,
She will make much money if she works hard.
Result clause adverb clause of condition.

 Different usage of adverb clauses of condition marker.

 (Whether or not)  means if or if not
According to grammar it’s subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause of
condition to show that non of the condition can change the result.
Example,
He will get the job whether he passes the interview or not.
Whether they invite me or not I will go to the party.
 providing that means if

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 provided that means if

According to grammar they are subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clauses of
condition.
Example,
They will earn much money if they work hard.
They will earn much money providing that they work hard.
They will earn much money provided that they work hard.
 Even If  means just (if)
According to grammar it’s subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause of
condition. To show that only one particular condition can’t change the result.
Example,
We will go swimming even if it rains.  Adverb clause of condition.
 Incase that, in the event that  means (if)
According to grammar they are subordinating conjunctions introducing adverb clause of
condition to show something will not happen but if might happen.
Example,
Incase that it rains, close all the windows.
Adverb clause of condition
In the event that my brother comes today, call me as soon as possible.
Adverb clause of condition
 Unless  means (if not)
According to grammar it’s subordinating conjunction introducing negative adverb clause.
Example,
He will make much money if he works hard.
He will not make much money unless he works hard.
He will not make much money if he doesn’t works hard.
2-3 Are Negative adverb clause.

 Only if  mean (just if)

According to grammar it’s subordinating conjunction introducing adverb clause of
condition to show that only one particular condition can change the result.
Example,
The meeting will be canceled only if the director is absent.
Adverb clause of condition
We won’t play football only if it rains a lot.
Adverb clause of condition

 Changing adverb clauses to adverb phrases.

When we want to change adverb clauses to adverb phrases we have to consider the
following rules.
1- The subjects of main clause and adverb clause should be the same person if not,
reduction does not take place.
Example,
He attended the class before he came home.  Adverb clause
He attended the class before coming home.  Adverb phrase
He attended the class before his father came home.  No change

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2- If adverb clause contains either simple present tense or simple past tense here we
delete the subject and change the verb of adverb clause to (ing) form.
Example,
He will have taken lunch before he goes to school.
He will have taken lunch before going to school.
He had learned computer before he got the job.
He had learned computer before getting the job.
Note: 1- When ever we want to change adverb clauses to adverb phrases we always
delete (because).
2- Before and after can’t be deleted.
3- While is deleted optionally.
4- When is changed to upon.
When he came home.  Upon coming home.
3- If adverb clause contains either present continuous or past continuous tense here
we delete the subject and the forms of (Be).
Example,
While I am studying math I really get bored.
While studying math I really get bored.
She was yawning while she was washing the kitchen.
She was yawning while washing the kitchen.
4- If adverb clause contains perfective tense here we have two possibilities.
Example,
After the student had attended the class, they played football.
Adverb clause
After having attended the class, they played football.
Adverb phrase
After attending the class, they played football.
Adverb phrase
5- If adverb clause contains the form of (Be) as main verb here we delete the subject
and change the form of (Be) (Is, am, are, was, and were.) to (Being)
Example,
He is respected by all because he is very honest man.
He is respected by all being very honest man.  Adverb phrase

“Noun Clause”

Noun clause is a dependent clause that functions the same as noun, can be the subject
can be the object and can be the complement of sentence.
Note:
Noun clauses are introduced through three markers.
 The (W.H) word.
 The word (If/whether)
 The word (That)
Example,
Hameed studies hard will be successful.
Who ever studies hard will be successful.

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Noun clause (subject)

Australia is a beautiful place.
Where ever she lives is a nice place.
Noun clause (subject)
She bought a book yesterday.  Noun clause (Object)
She bought what she needed.  Noun clause (Object)
He is happy about the trip?  Noun clause (complement)
He is happy about where he goes?  Noun clause (complement)

 Cases of Noun clause

In English grammar noun clause have the following cases.
1- Subject case of Noun clause.
In this case Noun clause comes before main verb to function as the subject of
sentence.
Example,
The joke was interesting enough.
What she said was interesting enough.
If he studies or not is none of your business.
2- Object case of Noun clause.
In this case Noun clause comes after the main verb to function as the object of a sentence.
Example,
I heard the story.
I heard what you said.
3- Complement of Preposition case of Noun clause.
In this case Noun clause is preceded with a preposition to complete the meaning of
preposition.
Example,
He is sad about the meeting.
He is sad about what he is waiting for.
4-Complement of (Be) case of Noun clause.
In this case Noun clause is used to complete the meaning of (Be)
Example,
This is what I am trying to tell you.
It’s what we really want to have.

“Sentence”
Sentence is a unit of related words that contains subject, predicator (verb), complete
meaning and logic.
 Types of sentences.
Sentences are generally divided into two types.
1- According to meaning. 2- According to structure.
1- According to meaning.
Means what does a sentence shows according to meaning sentences are divided into six
types.
1- Declarative sentences. 2- Interrogative sentences. 3- Imperative sentences.
4- Exclamatory sentences. 5- Optative sentences. 6- Obsolete segment sentences.

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1- Declarative sentences.
Declarative sentences are those sentences which end with a period to show a statement
either positively or negatively.
Example,
She plays football everyday.
She doesn’t play football everyday.
2- Interrogative sentences.
Are those sentences which end with question mark to ask for information or
confirmation?
Example,
What did he buy yesterday?  Information
Are you a boy?  Confirmation
3- Imperative sentences.
Are those sentences through which commands are expresses either positively or
negatively?
Example,
Close the door.
Don’t talk in the class.
Bring me a cup of tea.
4- Exclamatory sentences.
Are those sentences which end with exclamation mark (!) to show sudden or strong
surprise or feeling?
Example,
What a beautiful car!
What a beautiful girl!
Wow, what nice weather!
5- Optative sentences.
Are those sentences which end with a period to show prayer, imprecation and wishes
ongoing?
Example,
Wish you ever lasting life.
Allah bless you my son.
Long life Pakistan.
Down with America.
6- Absolute segment sentences.
Are those sentences that they are in the forms of individual words but give as complete
meaning?
Congratulation, Go, Happy birthday.

Sentences according to structure.

Means how the sentences are composed or formed. Sentences according to structure
divided into four types.
1- Simple sentences
2- Compound sentences.
3- Complex sentences
4- Compound complex sentences.

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1- Simple Sentences.
Are those sentences which contain one independent clause?
Example,
Tahir plays football daily. Simple sentence.

Note:
A – Some time a simple sentence contain compound subject (more than one subject)
B – Some time simple sentences contain compound verb (more than one verb)
C – Some time simple sentences contain compound subject and compound verb (more
than one verb and one subject)
Example,
Tahir and Ali play football daily.  Compound subject simple sentence
Nabi studies and learn Arabic at school.  Compound verb simple sentence
Waheed and Tawab eat and sleep together.  Compound verbs and compound subject
simple sentence
2- Compound sentences.
Are those sentences which contain two or more independent clauses?
Example,
Hameed studies college and Wali Studies College.  Compound sentences
Independent clause Independent clause
3- Complex sentences.
Are those sentences which contain one independent clause and one dependent clause.
Example,
He knows a man who cuts pocket in the bus.
Independent clause dependent clause
4- Compound complex sentences.
Are those sentences which contain two or more independent clauses and at lest one
dependent clause.
Example,
Habib studies at school and wali studies at school where they made many friends.
Independent clause independent clause dependent clause.

 Different between sentences and statement.

Sentences Statement
Are general in form Are specific in for
Are not the part of statements Are the part of sentences
Can be general in meaning Can be only positive statement and
negative statement

 Determiners
Determiner is grammatical terms which signal; determine the coming of noun in a
Sentence.
 Different categories of deter miners.
1- The Article  (a, an, the)

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2- The Possessive  (my, his, her, it’s, our, their, your)

3- The Demonstrative  (this, that, these, those, such)
4- The Distributive  (each, every, either, neither)
5- The interrogative  (which, what)
6- The Number Expression  (one, two, three)
7- The Quantifiers  (some, a little, much, money)
 Types of Deter miners
Determiner is generally divided into three types.
1- Regular determiners
2- Pre determiners
3- Post determiners
These are the types of determiners.
Example,
He reads his book.
She has a car.

1- Regular Determiners
Are those determiners which are always used before Nouns in the form of article,
demonstratives and possessive?
Note: Regular determiners comes only one in sentence.
Example,
I read my book.  Regular determiner
I read my a book.  Wrong
2- Pre Determiners
Are those determiners which are used to precede regular determiners?
Example,
My entire friends live abroad.
3-Post Determiners
Are those determiners which are used of regular determiners?
Example,
(One, two, three, first, second, third)
The first two players play well.

 Different between Determiner and Adjective.

1- Adjective can change their form but determiners cannot change their form
2- Adjective can be use either before noun or after noun but determiners are always
used before noun.
Paragraph:
a group of sentences about the main topic
2 Order of Sentences:
3 Chronological: In this order of sentences, the sentences are written in a step by
step manner.
4 Any past Event
5 A story
6 Spatial: In this order of sentences, the sentences written, are from top to bottom
from left to right from inside to outside and from near to far.

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7 Mountain, Picture, Person

8 Empathic: In this order of sentences, the sentences are written from the least
important to the most important point of view.
9 When giving speech about a certain topic
10 When persuading people
11 Combined Order: In this order of sentences, the sentences are written with the
three above mentioned orders in mind.
12 When writing letters
13 In reports, proposals
14 Parts of Paragraph:
15 Topic Sentence: Is that sentence which presents the main idea of the paragraph.
Note: topic sentence is usually used at the beginning
1 Supporting Sentences: Are those sentences which give details of the topic
sentence.
2 Conclusion:
3 Is that sentence which brings the topic to a conclusion
Restatement
1 Is that sentence which states the topic sentence in different words
2 Note: Either conclusion/Restatement is used in a paragraph or sometimes even
none of them is used but they can never be used together in a paragraph.
Types of Paragraphs:
1. Narrative: Narrative is taken from “to narrate” which means “to tell a story”
thus, in a narrative paragraph we tell a story or talk about an event.
Points to keep in mind about Narrative Paragraph
• Most of the times we start the Narrative Paragraph with the phrases
• Once upon a time
• A long time ago
• Topic Sentence and supporting sentences are only used
• Topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph and is also called the
“Climax”
• The Order of sentences is Chronological

2. Descriptive: Descriptive is taken from “to describe” in a descriptive paragraph

we present the word picture of a person, place or thing.
Points to keep in mind about Descriptive Paragraph
• Sensory words (related to senses) must be used
• Sight
• Smell
• Sound
• Taste
• Touch
• Topic sentence & supporting sentences are used.
• The order of sentences is Spatial

3. Expository: Expository is taken from “to exposit” which means “to reveal” in
an Expository Paragraph we explain a subject to the reader.
Points to keep in mind about Expository Paragraph
• Two or Three questions are used at the beginning of the paragraph
(optional)
• Topic sentence, Supporting Sentences and Conclusion/Restatement are

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used.
• The order of sentences is Chronological
4. Persuasive: Persuasive is taken from “to persuade” which means “to
convince”. In a persuasive paragraph we try to persuade a listener or reader to
do something by providing some factual and logical reasons.
Points to keep in mind about Persuasive Paragraph
1 Two or Three factual or Logical reasons must be given
2 Topic Sentence, supporting sentences and conclusion/Restatement are
used
3 The order of sentences is Emphatic

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