OZ’S MATH

Lecture 10 Indefinite Integrals (Anti-derivatives)

§1 Basic Formulas and Methods

1. Definition
An integral or anti-derivative of a given function f(x) is another function F(x) such that
F’(x) = f(x). For example, x2 is an integral of 2x. It is traditional to write the anti-
derivative of a function using its upper-case letter.
From Lagrange’s theorem, if F’(x) = 0 on an interval I, then F(x) must be a constant on I.
So, If F(x) and G(x) are anti-derivatives of f, then there is a constant C such that G(x) =
F(x) + C.
Therefore, if F(x) is an integral or anti-derivative of f(x), then all of its anti-derivatives
can be written as F(x) + C, where C is any constant. And this set of functions is called the
indefinite integral of f(x), and it is written as
 f ( x)dx = F(x) + C.
The symbol  is called the integral sign; f(x) is called the integrand, and C is called the
integral constant.

 f ( x)dx = F(x) + C if and only if F’(x) = f(x) for every x in the domain of f(x).

2. The integrals of the six basic types of functions

1)  kdx = kx + C, where k is a constant.
1
x x
−1
2) m
dx = xm+1 +C, m ≠ −1; dx = ln|x| + C, for x ≠ 0.
m +1
1 ax
3)  ekx dx = ekx + C, k is a nonzero constant;  a dx =
x
+ C, a > 0, ≠ 1.
k ln a
4)  ln xdx = xlnx – x + C, for x > 0

5) ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cosx + C ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sinx + C

∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tanx + C ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −cotx + C
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = secx + c, ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥𝑑𝑥 = - cscx + C
1
6) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = arcsinx + C = −arccosx + C1
√1−𝑥2
1
7) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = arctanx + C = −arccotx + C1
1+𝑥
1
8) ∫ √1+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = ln(x + 1 + x 2 ) + C = sinh-1(x) + C
1
9) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2ln|√𝑥 − 1 + √𝑥 + 1| + C
√𝑥 −1

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3. The linear integration formula

 [kf ( x) + hg( x)]dx = k  f ( x)dx + h  g ( x)dx , where k and h are constants.
Exercise 1
Calculate the following integrals
1
 (1 − x ) dx (2)  (1 − x)(1 − 2 x)(1 − 3x)dx (3)  (1 − x ) dx
2 3 2
(1)

x2 x2 (1 − x ) 2 e3 x + 1
(4) 
1 + x2
dx (5)  1 − x2 dx (6)  x dx (7)  1 + e x dx
(8)  tan 2 xdx (9)  1 − sin 2 x dx (10)  (1 + sin x + cos 2 x)dx

4. Two Ways for integration

(A) Integration by substitution: Make a change of variables
(1) The purpose of substitution is to simplify the functions. The complexity of functions
increases as follows:
Constants → Polynomials → Rational Functions →Radicals →Exponents, Trig
Functions → Logarithms →Inverses of trig Functions → Composite Functions.
For example, in 1 − x 2 , if we let x = sint, then the square root is gone. Usually, we
substitute the following part for another variable:
(I) the inner part of a composite function;
(II) Those complicated parts like exponential functions, logarithms, radicals, the
inverses of the trig functions, etc.
(2) In  f ( x)dx , we can substitute x for another differentiable function x = g(t) to
simplify the integrand f(x):
 f ( x)dx =  f ( g (t ))dg(t ) =  f ( g (t ))g ' (t )dt
(This follows from the Chain Rule for differentiation)

Exercise 2
1
(1) Prove that, if  f ( x)dx = F(x) + C, then  f (ax + b)dx = a
F(ax + b) + C
Calculate
1 + x2 dx
 (2x − 3) dx (3)  (1 + x)10 dx (4)  1 − 3xdx (5)  1 + 2 x2
10 3
(2)

1 x 1 1 1
(6)  dx (7)  dx (8)  dx (9)  2 sin( )dx
1 + cos x 1 − x2 1 + x2 x x
dx ln2 x arctan x
(10)  xe− x dx (11)  (12)  dx (13) 
2
dx
x(x + 1) x 1 + x2

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(3) The u-substitution:

 f ( x) g ( x)dx =  f ( x)dG( x) , where G’(x) = g(x). If f(x) can be easily expressed as a
function of u = G(x), then
 f ( x) g ( x)dx =  f (G (u))du
−1

Your integration skills can be evaluated by how well you apply the u-substitutions. To
become familiar with this method, you need to memorize the following formulas:
1 1
(a) xm dx = d(xm+1) (m ≠ -1) and dx = d(ln|x|)
m +1 x
x
a
(b) axdx = d( )
ln a
(c) sinxdx = -d(cosx), cosxdx = d(sinx)
(d) sec2xdx = d(tanx), csc2xdx = -cotx

Exercise 3
Calculate the following indefinite integrals
 sin x cos xdx
5
(1)
(2)  tan xdx
dx
(3)  sin x = ln|tan(x/2)| + C
x14
(4)  ( x5 + 1)4 dx
dx
(5) 
(1 + x) x
sin x cos x
(6)  4 dx
sin x + cos4 x

(B) Integration by parts:

 f ( x) g ' ( x)dx = f(x)g(x) −  f ' ( x) g ( x)dx
It is perhaps easier to remember in the following notation. Let u = f(x) and v = g(x).
Then du = f '(x) dx and dv = g'(x) dx, so, the formula for integration by parts becomes

There are two rules for choosing u and v:

(a) u’(x) should be simpler than u(x), that is, u can be a logarithm, the inverse of a
trig function, a polynomial, or a trig function, an exponent function.
(b) v(x) should be easy to find: g(x) = e kx, sin(kx), cos(kx), etc.

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Example 1 Find  xsin xdx

Example 2 Find  x 2e x dx
Let u = x2, dv = exdx. Then du = 2xdx, v = ex. Integration by parts.

Example 3 Find  e x sin xdx

Let u = ex and dv = sinxdx. Then du = exdx and v = -cosx, so integration by parts gives

Similarly, we have

So,

This can be regarded as an equation to be solved for the unknown integral. Solving it, we
obtain

And dividing by 2 and adding the constant of integration, we get

Example 4
Prove the reduction formula

, where n > 2 is an integer

Let u = sinn – 1x, dv = sin x dx. Then du = (n – 1)sinn-2xcos xdx, v = − cosx, so integration by
parts gives

Since cos2x = 1 – sin2x, we have

Exercise 4
Calculate the following indefinite integrals:
(1)  xe− x dx (2)  x ln xdx (3)  x 2 sin(2 x)dx (4)  e x cos xdx

(5)  ln( x + 1 + x 2 )dx (6)  arcsin xdx and  arccos xdx

(7)  cos(ln x)dx (8)  arctan x dx

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§2 Integrals of Various Kinds of Functions

1. Rational functions
P( x)
Given a rational function f(x) = , where P and Q are polynomials.
Q( x)
Step1 If f is improper, that is, deg(P) > deg(Q), we can use polynomial division to
express f(x) as the sum of a polynomial and a proper fraction:

Step 2 we decompose the proper fraction as partial fractions, that is, express the fraction
1 kx + h
as the sum of some simple fractions like , .
( x − a) (ax + bx + c) n
n 2

Step 3 for large values of n, we need to find a recursive formula or substitute for trig
kx + h
functions if  dx is involved.
(ax + bx + c)n
2

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3

Example 4

Example 5

Example 6

Exercise 5
2x + 3 x2 + 1 1
(1)  ( x − 2)(x + 5) dx (2)  ( x + 1)2 ( x − 1) dx (3)  ( x + 1)(x 2
+ 1)
dx

x 1 1 + x2
(4)  8 dx (5)  dx (6)  1 + x4 dx
x −1 x( x10 + 1)2

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1
(7)Find the recursive formula for In =  dx (a ≠ 0).
(ax + bx + c)n
2

1 1
(8)  dx (9)  dx
1+ x + x
2 4
1 + x3

(4) Trigonometric functions

i. For an integral like  R(sin x, cos x)dx , where R(u, v) is a rational function of u and
v, the general method is to use the half-angle substitution:
x 2t 1− t2 2dt
Let tan( ) = t, then sinx = , cosx = , dx =
2 1+ t 2
1+ t 2
1+ t2
ii. Reduce the numerator to a sum, and the denominator to a product by trigonometric
identities.
iii. In the integral  sinm x cosn xdx , where m and n are integers, if one of m and n is
odd, the formula sinxdx = d(-cosx) or cosxdx = d(sinx) can be applied for a u-
substitution; if both of them are even, apply the formulas
dx dx
2
= d(tanx), = -d(cotx)
cos x sin2 x

Example 1 Evaluate  cos3 xdx .

Example 2 Find  sin5 x cos2 xdx

Example 3 Find  sin4 xdx .

Example 4 Find  tan 6 x sec4 xdx .

Example 5 Evaluate  tan 5 x sec7 xdx .

Example 6 Find  tan 3 xdx .

Example 7 Find  sec xdx .

1 cos x d (sin x) 1 1 1
 sec xdx =  cos x dx = 2
x
dx = 
 cos 1 − sin x
2
= (
2 1− u 1+ u
+ )du
1 1 1 + sin x 1 + sin x
= [− ln(1 − u) + ln(1 + u)] + C = ln + C = ln | | + C.
2 2 1 − sin x cos x

Example 8 Find  sec3 xdx .

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Example 9 Evaluate  sin 4 x cos5 xdx .

Example 10

Exercise 6
 cos xdx
5
1.
2.  cos5xsin xdx
dx
3.  sin x − sin a , where a is constant.
3sin x − 4 cos x
4.  sin x + 2 cos x dx

cos2 x
5.  sin x + 3 cos x dx
r − cos x
6.  1 − 2r cos x + r 2 dx , where 0 < r < 1.
dx
7.  a 2 sin2 x + b2 cos2 x
sin3 x
8.  (1 + cos x − sin x)4 dx
dx
9.  cos6 x + sin6 x
dx
10.  (2 + sin x)2
sin nx
11.  sin x dx , where n is any natural number.
cos x − sin x
12.  (1 + 2 sin x)n dx , *where n is any natural number.

(5) Radicals
ax + b
(I) If there is only a single radical like n , substitute it for a new variable t.
cx + d
(II) Euler’s substitution:
If a > 0, let ax2 + bx + c = x a + u;
If c > 0, let ax2 + bx + c = c + ux.

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(III) If ax2 + bx + c is involved in the integrand, first complete square for ax2 + bx + c:
b 2 4ac − b 2
a(x + ) + , then use trigonometric substitution to get rid of the square
2a 4a
root.
(IV) Trigonometric Substitutions

(V) For an integral like  x p (axq + b) r dx , first transform it to  u s (au + b) r du by

substituting xq = u. Only when at least one of s, r, and s + r is an integer, the integral
can be expressed by elementary functions.

Example 1

Example 2

9 − x2
Example 3 Evaluate  dx .
x2

1
Example 4 Find  dx .
x2 x2 + 4

x
Example 5 Find  dx .
x2 + 4

dx
Example 6 Find  , where a > 0.
x2 − a2

x
Example 7 Evaluate  dx .
3 − 2x − x2
We can transform the integrand into a function where trigonometric substitution is
appropriate by first completing the square under the root sign:
3 – 2x – x2 = 3 + 1 – (x2 + 2x +1) = 4 – (x + 1)2

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This suggests that we make the substitution x + 1 = 2sinθ. Then x = 2sinθ – 1and dx =
2cosθdθ, so

x +1
=  (2 sin − 1)d = -2cosθ – θ + C = - 4 − ( x + 1)2 − sin−1 ( ) + C.
2

Exercise 7
1 dx dx
(1)  dx (2)  (3) 
x(1 − x) x+ x3
1+ x + x +1
dx dx
(4)  (5)  (6)  x −1 / 2 (1 + x1 / 4 )1 / 3 dx
x + x + x +1
2
x x + x +1
2

x dx x2 + 2
(7)  dx (8) x (9)  dx
1− x x x4 − 2x2 − 1 x2 + 1

(6) Integration of logarithms and inverses of trigonometric functions:

Use substitution

Exercise 8
ln x 3
(I) (x
) dx : lnx = y
1+ x
(II)  x ln dx : ln(…) = u
1− x
(III)  ln( 1 − x + 1 + x )dx :
(IV)  x arcsin(1 − x)dx : arcsin(1 – x) = u
(V)  arcsin xdx : arcsin(…) = u
(VI)  x (1 + ln x)dx :
x

(VII)  e arcsin e dx
−x x

(VIII)  x arctan x  ln(1 + x )dx : arctanx = t

2

(7) Segmented functions

i. Integrate by segments first;
ii. Determine the constants by continuity.

Exercise 9
(1)  x | x | dx
(2)  | x | sin(x)dx
 max(1, x )dx
2
(3)

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(4)  x[ x]dx , where [x] is the greatest integer function.

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(5)  ({x} − 2 )dx , where {x} is the fractional part of x, i.e., {x} = x – [x].
 sin x, if x  0
(6) Let f(x) =  x . Calculate  f ( x − 1)dx .
e − 1, if x  0
(7) Suppose that f(u) is differentiable in R and f(0) = 0, f’(lnx) = x if x > 1, and f’(x)
= 1 for 0 < x ≤ 1. Find f(u).
(8)  sgn xdx , where sgnx = 1 if x is positive, and -1 if x is negative.

dx
(9)  x − 3 y , where y = y(x) is determined by the equation y(x – y)2 = x.
sin x
(10) If is an anti-derivative of the function of f(x), what is the analytic expression
x
of  xf ' ( x)dx ?

1
(11) If f ' (x2) = (x > 0), find f(x).
x
(12) If f ' (sin2x) = cos2x, find f(x).
(13) Let f ' (2 + cos x) = sin2x + tan2x, find f(x).
(14) Suppose f ' (e x ) = sinx, find f(x).

ax2 + bx + c
(15) For what values of a, b, and c, the integral  3 dx can be expressed as a
x ( x − 1) 2
rational function?

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