OFFICERS’ IAS ACADEMY

GS-III SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY
Mains Harvest

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 MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR
Dear Aspirant,

This book is dedicated to YOU, the untiring civil service aspirant who has the drive and commitment to
persevere towards clearing this exam which is considered as one of the toughest exams in the world.

We congratulate you on choosing this book for “Science & Technology”. Our attempt here is to simplify
important concepts without losing the key points. Hence, we hope you will find this book useful in your
civil services journey.

About this book

This book is a distillation of the expertise of the faculty at Officers IAS academy, explained in simple and
easy to understand language. What you get to study in this book has been painstakingly collated by our
faculty through their years of teaching and mentoring thousands of aspirants.

A strong zeal from you to clear this exam combined with our coaching and textbook will, I am sure help
you scale great heights.

I wish you the very best in the most important endeavour of your life.

R. A. Israel Jebasingh
(IAS, 2004 Batch All India Rank 59)
Director of Officers IAS Academy
 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK?
Hello Aspirant!

There is a subtle difference between putting in effort and putting in the right and focussed effort.
That difference could determine whether you get into the civil services or not! This statement
becomes highly relevant during the UPSC Main Examination stage.

Aspirants know that every mark scored or missed in the Main examination determines their
presence as well as their place in the All-India Rank list. Unlike the Preliminary examination,
Main exams are fairly predictable. But with Mains, completing the examination on time becomes
the biggest challenge.

Even with persistent efforts, aspirants generally tend to struggle in completing the Mains
Syllabus. And even when the syllabus is covered, there is a struggle in recollecting appropriate
points during the examination.

Such challenges are faced by all UPSC Mains Candidates. This is because of the sheer
mindboggling number of topics, dimensions, and links with current affairs that aspirants have to
sift through in their mind before writing an answer – something that is indeed a herculean task.

We in the R&D team of the Officers IAS Academy, have been pondering over this challenge, and
have found a solution.

Our R&D team spent a year meticulously combing through the past 48 years’ Mains General
Studies question papers, to identify all possible topics and dimensions ever covered for each
subject in an UPSC Main examination. Our researchers, then set out to prepare a series of books
for each of the ‘Main exam subjects’ (pertaining to GS1, GS2, & GS3) where all relevant content is
covered in a scientific and precise manner. Aspirants can confidently use these books to
‘complete’ the UPSC Main Exam syllabus effectively and efficiently.

Please note, we do not advocate the use of these ‘Mains Harvest’ books as 'Standard' sources.
However, instead of reading endless number of books for the UPSC preparation, aspirants can
focus on the standard books (NCERTs) for foundational knowledge and then devout the rest of
their time in studying the Officers IAS Academy's Mains Harvest books.

For you, dear aspirants, we have practically ‘harvested’ the ‘essence’ of the UPSC main
examination to produce the ‘Mains Harvest’ book series. Use them well!

Thanking and wishing you all the very best in your preparations,

R&D Team,
Officers IAS Academy, Chennai.
 Contents
Nano-technology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1) Nano-Technology.................................................................................................................................................. 1
BioTechnology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Bioinformatics ..........................................................................................................................................................11
Biosensors ..................................................................................................................................................................13
Biosignatures ............................................................................................................................................................14
Genetics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
1) Genome...................................................................................................................................................................15
2) Molecular Genetics.............................................................................................................................................16
3) Application of Genetics.....................................................................................................................................19
QUESTIONS: ................................................................................................................................................................32
Biogas Technology -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
1) Biogas......................................................................................................................................................................33
2) Biofuels...................................................................................................................................................................35
Questions: ...................................................................................................................................................................38
Robotics---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
1) Robotics Technology .........................................................................................................................................39
2) Industrial Revolution 4.0.................................................................................................................................43
3) Artificial Intelligence ........................................................................................................................................45
4) Internet of Things (IoT) ...................................................................................................................................52
5) Additive manufacturing (3D printing) .......................................................................................................56
6) Quantum computing..........................................................................................................................................59
Questions: ...................................................................................................................................................................61
Computers------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
1) Supercomputers..................................................................................................................................................62
2) Cloud computing .................................................................................................................................................66
3) Edge Computing ..................................................................................................................................................70
4) Virtual Reality ......................................................................................................................................................71
5) Augmented Reality.............................................................................................................................................72
6) Metaverse ..............................................................................................................................................................74
QUESTIONS: ................................................................................................................................................................74
I
Health and Medicine-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
1) Stem cell technology ..........................................................................................................................................75
2) Antibiotics .............................................................................................................................................................77
3) Antimicrobial resistance .................................................................................................................................77
4) Vaccines..................................................................................................................................................................80
5) Transfat ..................................................................................................................................................................84
6) Bioremediation ...................................................................................................................................................85
7) Phyto remediation .............................................................................................................................................87
QUESTIONS: ................................................................................................................................................................87
Space Technology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------88
1) Orbits of Earth .....................................................................................................................................................88
2) Indian Space research Organisation (ISRO) .............................................................................................91
3) Hubble Space Telescope................................................................................................................................ 102
4) Space Applications .......................................................................................................................................... 103
5) Asteroids…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..107

QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................................................. 108

Defence Technology --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
1) Missile Technology.......................................................................................................................................... 110
2) Agni - V................................................................................................................................................................. 115
3) India's missile development programme............................................................................................... 117
4) Stealth technology ........................................................................................................................................... 117
5) Predator drones ............................................................................................................................................... 118
6) India’s L.C.A(Tejas) ......................................................................................................................................... 119
QUESTIONS: ............................................................................................................................................................. 119
Nuclear Technology---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 120
1) India’s nuclear power plants....................................................................................................................... 120
2) India Nuclear energy programme ............................................................................................................. 122
3) Fission and fusion reaction .......................................................................................................................... 123
4) Artificial sun ...................................................................................................................................................... 125
5) Nuclear winter .................................................................................................................................................. 126
6) Nuclear fallout .................................................................................................................................................. 127
7) Nuclear medicine............................................................................................................................................. 127
Energy --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129

II
 1) Renewable energy sources in India .......................................................................................................... 129
2) Solar energy ....................................................................................................................................................... 130
3) Hydroelectricity ............................................................................................................................................... 133
4) Integrated energy policy ............................................................................................................................... 135
Alternative fuels - Alternative energy source ------------------------------------------------------------------- 136
1) Biodiesel ............................................................................................................................................................. 136
2) Hydrogen fuel.................................................................................................................................................... 137
Technologies

1 ) Technology in Electronic Toll Collection……………………………………………………………………….140

2) Technologies to address water shortage………………………………………………………………………..143

3)Questions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..144

Miscellaneous…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….144

1) IPR…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………144

III
IV
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Nano-technology
1) Nano-Technology
What is Nano-technology?
• Nanotechnology is a technology that involves rearranging and processing of atoms and molecules
to fabricate materials to nano specifications such as a nanometre.
• This includes particles of a scale of 1 and 100 nanometers.
Nanomaterials
• Nanomaterials may be in the form of particles, tubes, rods or fibers.
• Properties of Nano materials
o They have a relatively larger surface area when compared to the same mass of material
produced in a larger form. This can make materials more chemically reactive and affect
their strength or electrical properties.
o Quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter at the nanoscale –
particularly at the lower end – affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of
materials.
• Nano materials can be both found naturally (particles that make up volcanic ash, smoke,
hemoglobin) and produced artificially (exhaust from fossil fuel-burning engines and some forms
of pollution).
• Fullerenes, Quantum dots, Nano-tubes, Graphene are all some of the Nano materials.
u.8
• Current applications include healthcare (in targeted drug delivery, regenerative medicine, and
diagnostics), electronics, cosmetics, textiles, information technology and environmental
protection. For example,
o Nanosilver appears in a range of products, including washing machines, socks, food
packaging, wound dressings and food supplements.
o Nanoclays are often used to coat packing materials as they strengthen the material’s heat
resistance and flame-retardant properties.
o Nano clays - containing naturally occurring nanoparticles have long been important as
construction materials and are undergoing continuous improvement. Clay particle-based
composites containing plastics and nano-sized flakes of clay are also finding applications
such as in car bumpers.
o Nano paints - Incorporating nanoparticles in paints could improve their performance, for
example by making them lighter and giving them different properties. For example, nano
paints on aircraft would reduce their weight, which could be beneficial to the
environment.
o Nanobiotechnology - is a new field of science that introduces special physio-chemical
and biological properties of nanostructures and their applications in various areas such as
▪ In Medicine
▪ Gene therapy
▪ Tissue engineering: graphene nanoribbons help repair spinal cord injuries.
▪ Drug delivery: Nanomicelles are used for targeted drug delivery.
▪ Cancer immunotherapy: Gold nanoparticles are used for the detection of
targeted sequences of nucleic acids, and they are also being clinically
investigated as potential treatments for cancer and other diseases.
▪ Wound healing

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Diagnostics: NanoFlares are used for detection of cancer cells in the

▪
bloodstream.
▪ In agriculture
▪ Pesticide delivery system - through bioactive nanoencapsulation: Liquid
nano urea replaces conventional urea in recent times.
▪ Used as Biosensors to detect and quantify pathogens.
▪ Can be used in alteration of food composition.
o Smart Dust

▪ Wireless devices that can monitor just about any environment, as well as store
and transmit data are now the size of a grain of salt.
▪ It is a system of many tiny MicroElectroMechanical systems (MEMS) such as
sensors, robots or other devices, that detect everything from light to vibrations to
temperature.
▪ They can:
▪ Collect data including acceleration, stress, pressure, humidity, sound and
more from sensors
▪ Store the data in memory
▪ Wirelessly communicate the data to the cloud, a base or other MEMs
o In cosmetics
▪ As UV filters (Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide) are used in sunscreens.
▪ As drug delivery agents (solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid
carriers)
▪ Penetration enhancer - Encapsulating or suspending key ingredients in so-called
nanospheres or nanoemulsions, increases their penetration into the skin.
o In Food and Agriculture

Fig: Application of Nanotechnology in Food and Agriculture

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Applications of specific nanomaterials

Fullerenes
• Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon atoms connected by
single and double bonds organized in hexagons and pentagons forming a cage-like structure.
• Fullerenes are atom-thick sheets of another carbon allotrope, graphene, rolled into spheres or
tubes.

Fig: Fullerenes
• Applications:
o Fullerene is used as a material for semiconductor technology such as diodes,
transistors, photocells, etc.
o Fullerenes and its different chemical derivatives are used in combination with
semiconducting polymers for the production of solar cells.
o Paints composed of fullerenes can be applied on any surface and become photovoltaic,
generating electricity but integrated into the environment.
o As an additive in fire retardant paint.
o Fullerene C60 - is a great antioxidant because of its ability to easily penetrate inside the
cells, in its nucleus and its mitochondria, making it a more effective intracellular free
radical scavenger that exists.
o In Nanomedicine - for controlled release of drugs enclosing beneficial molecules for the
organism inside fullerene balls and directing them to bacteria, or cancer cells. Upon
reaching the destination, the spheres are dissolved, releasing all their content at the
appropriate points, thus displaying all their effectiveness without being lost along the way.
Carbon nanotubes
• Carbon nanotubes are composed of carbon atoms linked in hexagonal shapes, with each carbon
atom covalently bonded to three other carbon atoms. Carbon nanotubes have diameters as small
as 1 nm and lengths up to several centimetres.
• Carbon nanotubes are remarkably strong and flexible. Carbon nanotubes are harder than
diamonds and more flexible than rubber.
• Applications:
o CNTs are mainly used as additives to synthetics.
o CNTs are spun into fibres and used for speciality textiles.
o a highly attractive alternative to conventional composite materials used in
▪ sporting goods (bicycle frames, tennis rackets, hockey sticks, kayaks, sports
arrows)
▪ Yachting (masts, hulls and other parts of sailboats)
▪ Textiles (smart textiles, bullet-proof vests, water-retardant and fire-retardant
textiles)
▪ Automotive, aeronautics and space (light-weight, high-strength composites)
▪ Industrial engineering (Coating of wind-turbine rotor blades, industrial robot
arms)
o In the electronics industry as transistors, sensors, and catalysts.

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Quantum dots (QD)

• Quantum dots are man-made semiconductor crystals that can transport electrons.
• Quantum dots can possess many varied properties, depending on their material and shape.
• QD emits light of a specific wavelength when a current is applied or exposed to light.
• Applications
o QD in medicine: These artificial semiconductor nanoparticles have found applications in
composites, solar cells (Grätzel cells) and fluorescent biological labels (for example
to trace a biological molecule) which use both the small particle size and tuneable energy
levels.
o QD in Solar cells:
▪ can be manufactured in an energy-saving room-temperature process.
▪ do not require extensive purification, as silicon does.
▪ and they can be applied to a variety of inexpensive and even flexible substrate
materials, such as lightweight plastics.
o The most commonly known use of quantum dots nowadays may be TV screens. Samsung
and LG launched their QLED TVs in 2015, and a few other companies followed not long
after.
o Quantum dots, because they are both photo-active (photoluminescent) and electro-
active (electroluminescent) and have unique physical properties, will be at the core of
next-generation displays.
Graphene
• A single layer (monolayer) sheet of carbon atoms that are bonded together in a repeating pattern
of hexagons.
• This sheet is only one atom thick.
• Monolayers of graphene stacked on top of each other form graphite.
• Since a typical carbon atom has a diameter of about 0.33 nanometers, there are about 3 million
layers of graphene in a 1 mm thick sheet of graphite.
• Harder than diamond yet more elastic than rubber; tougher than steel yet lighter than aluminium
– graphene is the strongest known material.
• Represents two-dimensional (2D) materials.
• Graphene is the basic building block for other graphitic materials like carbon nanotubes.

Fig: Graphene
• Forms of Graphene
o graphene oxide
o Graphdiyne
o Holey graphene
• Applications
o Energy storage and solar cells
▪ Graphene improves both energy capacity and charge rate in rechargeable
batteries.
▪ Activated graphene makes superior supercapacitors for energy storage.

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▪ Graphene electrodes may lead to a promising approach for making solar cells that
are inexpensive, lightweight and flexible
▪ multifunctional graphene mats are promising substrates for catalytic systems.
o Sensors
▪ The distinctive 2D structure of graphene oxide (GO), combined with its super
permeability to water molecules, leads to sensing devices with unprecedented
speed.
▪ Wireless graphene nanosensors onto biomaterials via silk biosorption.
▪ Graphene foam detects explosives, and emissions better than today’s gas sensors.
o Bio-medical
▪ Graphene as bio-sensors. For instance, Graphene-DNA biosensor
▪ Used as a biocompatible scaffold in stem cell therapies.
▪ Graphene oxides(GO) nanosheets tend to be hydrophilic and the surface
contains reactive groups for increased functionality or for loading drugs through
covalent and non-covalent interactions.
▪ A drug delivery technique that utilizes graphene strips as “flying carpets” to
deliver two anticancer drugs sequentially to cancer cells, with each drug targeting
the distinct part of the cell where it will be most effective.
▪ Replacing antibiotics with graphene-based photothermal agents to trap and kill
bacteria.
▪ Graphene nanoribbons can provide actuation.
o Graphene also is the world's thinnest known coating for protecting metals against
corrosion. It was found that graphene, whether made directly on copper or nickel or
transferred onto another metal, protects against corrosion.
NanoEngineering
• Nanoengineering is a branch of engineering that deals with all aspects of the design, building,
and use of engines, machines, and structures on the nanoscale. At its core, nanoengineering deals
with nanomaterials and how they interact to make useful materials, structures, devices and
systems.
• Nanomanufacturing is an economic activity with industrial production facilities with more or
less fully automated assembly lines.
• Nanofabrication is more of a research activity based on developing new materials and processes
– it's more a domain of skilled craftsmen and not of mass production.
• Nanoscale objects are difficult to manipulate, as they are too tiny to see directly by eye, far too
small to hold, and often have incompatible surfaces for assembling into ordered structures.
Therefore the fabrication of complex nano-architectures requires sophisticated techniques of
nanoscale engineering.
• NanoPatterning: There are different ways of fabricating functional nanostructures
o Top-down methods - predominantly done by photolithography, where a block of
material is reshaped into desired shape and size by removing bits and pieces.
o Bottom-up methods - driven by a combination of thermodynamics and kinetics, which
then determines the yield of the desired structure. This doesn’t need expensive tooling to
create nanoscale structures, and scaling to large volumes is potentially straightforward.
• DNA nanotechnology employs DNA as a programmable building material for self-assembled,
nanoscale structures with precisely controlled structures, that can lead to improved surface
properties relevant to biosensing, materials science, and cell biology.
• 3D printing - also called additive manufacturing, where desired products and structures can be
made independent of the complexity of their shapes. 3D printing can now be used to print
lithium-ion microbatteries the size of a grain of sand.

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Nanobots
• are quintessential NEMS (nanoelectromechanical systems) and raise all the important issues
that must be addressed in NEMS design: sensing, actuation, control, communications, power, and
interfacing across spatial scales and between organic and inorganic materials.
• Nanobots are molecules with a unique property that enables them to be programmed to carry
out a specific task and are ~50-100 nm wide.
• Most actively researched areas of nanorobotics today involve DNA assembly, particularly a
technique called DNA origami - which is used by nanotechnology researchers to fold DNA strands
into something resembling a programmable pegboard on which different nanocomponents can be
attached.
• Application
o In medicine
▪ deliver drugs to diseased cells. For instance, nanorobots can be programmed to
transport molecular payloads and cause on-site tumor blood supply blockages,
which can lead to tissue death and shrink the tumor.
▪ cell-like nanorobots clear bacteria and toxins from the blood - these nanobots
are built by coating gold nanowires with a hybrid of platelet and red blood cell
membranes.
▪ Special sensor nanobots can be inserted into the blood under the skin where
microchips, coated with human molecules and designed to emit an electrical
impulse signal, monitor the sugar level in the blood.
Government initiatives
• Mission on Nanoscience and Technology (Nano Mission):
o Launched in May 2007.
o It is an “umbrella capacity-building programme” to carry out very focused research in
Nanoscience and develop nanotechnology-based applications aimed at delivering
breakthroughs in Nano S&T and applications in a concerted manner.
o Nodal agency- Department of Science and Technology(DST) and steered by a Nano
Mission Council chaired by an eminent scientist.
o Target Audience: all scientists, institutions and industries in the country.
o Since 2016, the Indian Nano Initiative has achieved a significant milestone by securing the
third position in the global ranking through its contribution to Nanoscience and
technology publications.
o Some useful products like nano hydrogel-based eye drops, pesticide removal technology
for drinking water, water filters for arsenic and fluoride removal, nanosilver-based
antimicrobial textile coating, etc. are developed.
• Indian Nanoelectronics Users Programme-Idea to Innovation (INUP-i2i):
o It is a flagship programme initiated by MeitY (Nanotechnology Initiatives Division)
o It is being implemented at the Centre of Excellence in Nanoelectronics (CEN) at IISc, IIT
Bombay, IIT Delhi, IIT Madras, IIT Kharagpur and IIT Guwahati.
o It has provided a great opportunity for the R&D community all over the country to access
state of the art nanofabrication facilities for undertaking research and skill development
in Nanoelectronics.
o Research outcomes: A few of the technologies developed successfully such as the Portable
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) platform, Gas sensors, Soil moisture sensors, and
Nanomaterial based Air quality monitoring system.

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Concerns
• A missing element in India’s march towards becoming a nanotechnology powerhouse is the lack
of focus on risk analysis and regulation.
• Research showed that 95% of the practitioners recognised ethical issues in nanotech research.
• Adverse effects of nanotechnology on the environment and humans, their use as an undetectable
weapon in warfare, and the incorporation of nano-devices as performance enhancers in
human beings.
• Over-regulation may end up stifling further development while under-regulation could expose the
public to adverse health effects.
• Lack of investment in risk studies.
• Most of them are toxic. Ironically, the existence of heavy metals in QDs such as cadmium, a well-
established human toxicant and carcinogen, poses potential dangers, especially for future medical
applications, where q-dots are deliberately injected into the body.
• Nanopollution is the generic term that is used to describe the waste generated by the
nanodevices or nanomaterials during the manufacturing process.
Recommendations
• The Department of Science and Technology released the ‘Guidelines and best practices for safe
handling of nano-materials in research laboratories and industries’. The guidelines are
precautionary in nature, layout methods for the safe handling and disposal of nanoparticles by
researchers and the industry. Though much delayed, it is a welcome step towards safer
nanotechnology research in India.
• To fully harness the advances made in nanotechnology and consolidate our leadership in the field,
we must work towards building a regulatory framework encompassing public safety.

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BioTechnology
What is Biotechnology?
• Biotechnology is defined as the industrial application of living organisms, and their biological
processes(brewing, baking, wine making, cheese making etc.), cells or cell components such as
biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, to make the best use of the microorganisms
for the benefit of mankind.
• The significant applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, food processing,
bioremediation, waste treatment, production of energy and genetically modified crops to improve
agriculture.
Branches of Biotechnology based on color

Color designation Description

Gold biotechnology or Use of computational techniques for analysis of biological data.

Bioinformatics or
computational biology

Red Medicine and human health include the development of vaccines and
Biotechnology (Biopharma) drugs, Genetic engineering etc.

White Biotechnology industrial processes involving micro-organisms include designing

energy-efficient, less polluting, low resource consumption, etc.

Yellow Biotechnology Food and nutrition such as brewing, baking etc.

Grey Biotechnology Environment applications such as removal of pollutants and

contaminants

Green Biotechnology Agriculture - for creating new plant varieties, biopesticides, and
biofertilizers.

Blue Biotechnology Marine and aquatic

Violet Biotechnology Ethics, Law and Philosophy

Dark Biotechnology Bioterrorism, biological weapons and

biowarfare using microorganisms, and toxins to
cause diseases and death in humans, domestic
animals, and crops.

Techniques of Biotechnology
• Genetic Engineering Technology - The method involves the manipulation of the DNA of an
organism by inserting foreign DNA.
• Cell and Tissue Culture Technology - cells/tissues are grown under laboratory conditions to
produce an organism or new products.
• Antisense or RNAi(RNA interference) Technology - involves using small RNAs(less than 30
bases long) to regulate the expression of genes in eukaryotic organisms.
Bioinformatics Technology - Computational analysis of biological data, e.g., sequence analysis of
macromolecular structures, high-throughput profiling data analysis.

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• Genomics - used to determine the biological function of genes and their products.
Advances
• Health care
o India is now a leader in vaccine manufacture and development with several
advancements.
▪ Dengue vaccine, malaria vaccine
o DBT launched “Sohum” an innovative newborn hearing screening device
o Neonatal resuscitation device (Neo Breathe)
o Feto-maternal parameter monitoring system (BRUN)
o Bio-designs
▪ Emergency medical alert device
▪ Posture support device
▪ Fluid extraction device
• Agriculture
o Biotech-KISAN
▪ Farmer centric programme whose objective is to demonstrate, scale-up and
address issues of local farmers related to water, soil, seed and marketing, with
validated technologies.
▪ It also serves as an interaction platform between scientists and farmers.
o New programme for Brucella-free villages
▪ Brucella diagnostic kits were launched.
• Food and Nutrition
o Department of BioTechnology (DBT)supports food formulations for severe acute
malnutrition in children
▪ The Rady to use food (RUTF) supplement with the brand name BIB POSHAN, was
developed with financial support from DBT.
o Iron fortification in rice and wheat to address anemia in school children.
• Bio-Energy
o India’s first second-generation(2G) Ethanol plant was launched.
o Bio-CNG from industrial/ Municipal waste.
• Environment and sanitation
o Green remediation technology for wastewater - DBT is participating in the Swachh
Bharat Abhiyan through a range of initiatives including bioremediation of filthy water.
o Anaerobic membrane Bioreactor removes organic waste from municipal wastewater
with 95% efficiency.
o The Rhino Digester - A cost-effective appliance for decentralized waste processing
developed.
o Conversion of waste to green chemicals via biogas with the help of engineered strains.
o Novel Bio-Toilet technologies promise a cleaner India.
• Human Resources and development
o DBT’s Skill Development initiative launched in partnership with Indian institutions will
provide high-quality hands-on training for 10+2 students, fresh graduates, and faculty in
areas of biotechnology will speed up India’s development.
• Societal development
o DBT recognizes the Himalayan Environmental Studies and Conservation Organisation
(HESCO) for the “Biotechnology Social Development Award”.
▪ HESCO - NGO has been applying knowledge of the environmental and bio-sciences
and propagating simple technologies to bring consistent development to the rural
villages of the Himalayas.

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o Phyto-pharma plant Mission: Conservation and cultivation of endangered and

threatened endemic medicinal plants of North East India and discovery of new botanical
drugs for unmet medical needs using the rich traditional ethnobotanical knowledge and
biodiversity of these states.
o Brahmaputra Biodiversity and Biology Boat (B4): well-equipped laboratory would
contain facilities for analysis of all components of the entire ecosystem of the river and
surroundings.
Achievements
• India is among the top 12 biotech destinations in the world
• India ranks 2nd in Asia, after China
• India is the world’s largest producer of recombinant Hepatitis B vaccine.
• Bharat Biotech commercially launched the 1st novel ROTOVAC vaccine, to eradicate rotavirus
diarrhea, in India.
Government initiatives
• The National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2015-2020 programme is aimed at
ensuring strategic and focused investment in building human capital by setting up a Life Science
and Biotechnology Education Council which will spearhead the initiative.
• National Biotechnology Park scheme:
o The government will provide financial assistance for setting up new biotechnology parks
that lead to facilitating biotech product development, entrepreneurship, research and
innovation.
o Ministry/Department: Ministry of Science and Technology/ Department of
Biotechnology.
• National Biopharma mission - To enable and nurture an ecosystem for preparing India’s
Technological and product development capabilities on biopharmaceuticals to a level that will be
globally competitive over the next decade and transform the health standards of India’s
population.
o Ministry/Department: Ministry of Science and Technology/ Department of
Biotechnology.
o Objectives of NBM:

• Mission COVID Suraksha - The Indian COVID-19 vaccine development Mission.

• Biotech KISAN scheme:
o The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) launched a farmers-centric Mission
Programme known as Biotech Krishi Innovation Science Application Network, which will
link India’s farmers with Indian and global best in science for India’s future.
o Launched in 2007.

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o a scientist-farmer partnership scheme for agriculture innovation through participatory

research to connect science laboratories with the farmers to find out innovative solutions
and technologies to be developed and applied at the farm level.
• Atal Jai Anusandhan Biotech Mission: Undertaking Nationally Relevant Technology
Innovation (UNaTI) includes
o GARBH-INi: A mission to promote maternal and child health and develop prediction tools
for preterm birth.
o IndCEPI: A mission to develop affordable vaccines for endemic diseases.
o Clean Energy Mission: Innovative technology interventions for Swachh Bharat.
o POSHAN Abhiyan: Development of Biofortified and protein-rich wheat.
o Mission on Antimicrobial Resistance: for affordable diagnostics and therapeutics.

Bioinformatics
About
• Bioinformatics, as related to genetics and genomics, is a scientific subdiscipline that involves
using computer technology to collect, store, analyze and disseminate biological data and
information, such as DNA and amino acid sequences or annotations about those sequences.
• Bioinformatics has also been referred to as ‘computational biology’.
• It is a multi-disciplinary subject which combines the tools of Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics,
statics and computer science to understand life and its process.
• The main components of bioinformatics are
o development of software tools and algorithms
o analysis and interpretation of biological data by using a variety of software tools and
particular algorithms.
• Scientists and clinicians use databases that organize and index such biological information to
increase our understanding of health and disease and, in certain cases, as part of medical care.
• In India
o 1983 -Formation of the task group on bioinformatics by Dr S. Ramachandra.
o 1986 - the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) was established.
o 1987 - Biotechnology Information System Network (BTISNet) was established.
▪ India is the first country to establish BTISNet.
▪ It covers around 165 institutions from all over the country.
▪ BTISNet covers several interdisciplinary areas of biotechnology.
▪ It has also provided a strong linkage among scientists engaged in R & D
activities in India.
▪ To coordinate efforts to access biotechnology information worldwide
including establishing linkages with some of the international resources of
biotechnology information eg. Databanks on genetic materials, published
literature, patents and other information of scientific and commercial value.
o Indian Biological Data centre (IBDC)
o MANAV: Human Atlas Initiative Programme: for construction of the world’s most
comprehensive human atlas to date by assimilating all the known macro-level and micro-
level information from scientific literature and public databases.

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o Indo-Japan DAICENTER Programme: Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and the

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) Japan, have
initiated a programme called ‘DBT-AIST International Centre for Translational and
Environment Research (DAICENTER)’.
o DBT Apex BTIC
o North Western Himalayan Bioinformatics Grid
Indian Biological Data center (IBDC)
• India’s Biological Data life science data is an effort by the Government of India for the
deposition, storage, annotation and sharing of biological data.
• First National repository for life science data in India
• The data center is supported by the Government of India (GOI) through the Department of
Biotechnology (DBT).
• IBDC is mandated to archive all life science data generated from publicly-funded research in
India.
• It is being established at the regional centre of Biotechnology (RCB), Faridabad in the national
capital region in collaboration with the National Informatics Centre (NIC), India.
• It has a data storage capacity of about 4 petabytes and houses the ‘Brahm’ High-Performance
Computing (HPC) facility.
• It also hosts an online ‘Dashboard’ for the genomic surveillance data generated by the INSACOG
labs
• It has accumulated over 200 billion bases from 2,08,055 submissions from more than 50 research
labs across India.
Objectives
• Provide an IT platform for perpetually archiving biological data in the country.
• Development of standard operating Procedures (SOPs) for storing and sharing the data as per the
FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) Principle.
• Perform quality control, curation/annotation of data, data backup and management of data life
cycle.
• Development of web-based tools/APIs for data sharing/retrieval.
• Organization of training programs on ‘Big’ data analysis and benefits of data sharing.
Sections of IBDC
• IBDC has started nucleotide data submission services via two data portals.
o Indian Nucleotide Data Archive (INDA)
o Indian Nucleotide Data Archive - Controlled Access (INDA-CA)

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Biosensors
About
• Biosensors (Biological sensors) can be defined as analytical devices which include a
combination of biological detecting elements like a sensor system and a transducer.
• The main features of biosensors are stability, cost, sensitivity, and reproducibility.
• In this sensor, a biological element may be an enzyme, a nucleic acid otherwise an antibody. The
bio-element communicates through the analyte being checked & the biological reply can be
changed into an electrical signal using the transducer.
• The signal generated when the sensor interacts with the analyte may be electrical, optical or
thermal. It is then converted by means of a suitable transducer into a measurable electrical
parameter – usually a current or voltage
• Depending on their particular application, biosensors are also known as immuno sensors,
optrodes, resonant mirrors, chemical canaries, biochips, glucometers and biocomputers.
Application
• These devices are applicable in the medical, food industry, and the marine sector as they offer
good sensitivity & stability as compared with the usual techniques.
• In recent years, these sensors have become very popular, and they are applicable in different
fields which are mentioned below
• Biosensors are used for the detection of pathogens in food. The presence of Escherichia coli in
vegetables is a bioindicator of faecal contamination in food.
• Environment: Used to check the quality of air and water; to pick up traces of
organophosphates from pesticides or to check the toxicity levels of wastewater.
• Food industry: to measure carbohydrates, alcohols and acids, for example, during quality control
processes. The devices may also be used to check fermentation during the production of beer,
yoghurt and soft drinks.

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Biosignatures
About
• A biosignature is any characteristic, element, molecule, substance or feature that can be
used as evidence for past or present life. It also needs to be something that can’t be made
without the presence of life. - NASA
• Also called Chemical fossils or molecular fossils
• A biosignature can provide evidence for living organisms outside the Earth and can be directly
or indirectly detected by searching for their unique byproducts.
• It can be something like a leaf or a feather, but could also be fossils stored away in the rocks,
organic molecules made by life, and even differences in the chemistry of an atmosphere or a body
of water.
Types of biosignatures
• A morphological biosignature is one that we can tell was made from a life based on its shape
and size. For instance, microorganisms living together in goopy microbial mats in shallow waters
can create layered structures of minerals called stromatolites. If we were to go exploring another
world like Mars and found layered minerals from stromatolites in a rock, then that might be a
biosignature.
• Chemical biosignatures include a huge range of possible ways that life can leave its mark within
the chemistry of rocks, bodies of water, and even atmospheres. For instance, biological
macromolecules such as lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and proteins might all be used as
biosignatures.
Technosignatures: or technomarker is any measurable property or effect that provides scientific
evidence of past or present technology. This would indicate the existence of intelligent life beyond Earth.
It is part of SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence).

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Genetics
1) Genome
• It refers to the total genetic information present in a cell.
• The organization of the human genome is very complex. It comprises two genomes (Nuclear and
Mitochondrial).
• Nuclear genome
o The nuclear genome constitutes more than 99% of the total genome.
o The haploid genome is distributed in 23 different types of chromosomes (22 autosomes
and 1 allosome).
o Each chromosome contains many genes. The genes are not uniformly distributed on the
chromosomes. A certain area of the chromosome may be rich in genes while areas like
centromere and telomeres are largely devoid of genes. Some chromosomes are rich in
genes (22nd chromosome) some are gene-poor (4th chromosome).
• Mitochondrial genome
o The total amount of mitochondrial genome is <1%.
o In contrast to the nuclear genome, about 93% of the mtDNA is coding.
o mtDNA shows maternal inheritance because all the mitochondria received by the zygote
are from the ovum.
o Mutations in mtDNA are responsible for certain diseases in humans.
• There are pseudogenes in the genome which are nonfunctional copies of a functional gene eg.
pseudo beta in the beta-globin gene family.
Genetic code
• The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within
genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets, or codons) into proteins.
• Each gene’s code uses the four nucleotide bases of DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G)
and thymine (T) — in various ways to spell out three-letter “codons” that specify which amino
acid is needed at each position within a protein.
• Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links proteinogenic amino acids in an order
specified by messenger RNA (mRNA), using transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules to carry amino acids
and to read the mRNA three nucleotides at a time.
• The genetic code is a triplet: The code is read in 3 letter words. A group of three nucleotides
codes for one amino acid. Eg: UGU, CGA, AUG etc.
• The genetic code is degenerate, non-overlapping and occurs without any gap between two
codons. Eg: 5’AGCGCAAGCCGA…3’.
Genetic expression
• Gene expression is a process in which a protein is synthesised from a gene.
• It occurs in two major steps.
o The first step is transcription, in which the linear DNA is transcribed into linear mRNA. It
occurs in the nucleus in a 5’ → 3’ direction. It needs RNA polymerase, ribonucleotides
and several proteins for initiation.
o The second step is translation during which mRNA associates with the ribosomes present
in the cytoplasm and directs the synthesis of proteins. It requires mRNA, tRNA,
ribosomes, ATP and various protein factors. It occurs on ribosomes in the cytoplasm. It
also occurs in 5’→3’ direction.

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Fig: Gene Expression

2) Molecular Genetics
Chromosomes
• Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of protein (histones and non-histones),
a single molecule of DNA and also RNA that serve to carry the genomic information
from cell to cell.
• Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of each cell.
• Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labelled
the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labelled the “q arm.”
• Humans have 22 pairs of numbered chromosomes (autosomes) and one pair of sex
chromosomes (XX or XY)(allosomes), totalling 46.
• Each pair contains two chromosomes, one coming from each parent, which means that
children inherit half of their chromosomes from their mother and a half from their father.
• Typically, biologically female individuals have two X chromosomes (XX) while
biologically male individuals have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
• Chromosomes are also of different sizes. The human X chromosome is about three times
larger than the human Y chromosome, containing about 900 genes, while the Y
chromosome has about 55 genes.

Fig: Chromosome

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• Types: Based on the position of the centromere, the chromosomes can be

classified into four types
o metacentric chromosome: the middle centromere forming two equal
arms of the chromosome.
o sub-metacentric chromosome: centromere slightly away from the middle
of the chromosome resulting in one shorter arm and one long arm.
o acrocentric chromosome: centromere is situated close to its end forming
one extremely short and one very long arm.
o telocentric chromosome: terminal centromere.
• Sometimes a few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a
constant location. This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the
satellite.
• The chromosomes are considered the organs of heredity because of the following
reasons:
o They form the only link between two generations.
o A diploid chromosome(2n) set consists of two morphologically similar
(except the X and Y sex chromosomes) sets, one is derived from the
mother and another from the father at fertilization.
o The genetic material, DNA or RNA is localized in the chromosome and its
contents are relatively constant from one generation to the next.
o The chromosomes maintain and replicate the genetic information
contained in their DNA molecule and this information is transcribed at the
right time in proper sequence into the specific types of RNA molecules
which directs the synthesis of different types of proteins to form a body
form like the parents.
• Karyotype: A karyotype is an individual’s complete set of chromosomes.
o The term also refers to a laboratory-produced image of a person’s
chromosomes isolated from an individual cell and arranged in numerical
order.
o Karyotypes can be used for many purposes; such as, to study
chromosomal aberrations, cellular function, and taxonomic relationships,
and to gather information about past evolutionary events.
• Chromosomal aberrations or Chromosomal abnormalities: a disorder
characterized by a morphological or numerical alteration in single or multiple
chromosomes, affecting autosomes, sex chromosomes, or both.
o Autosomal Trisomies
▪ Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome): Karyotype - 47, XX or XY, +13
▪ Trisomy 18 (Edwards syndrome):
▪ Karyotype - 47, XX or XY, +18
▪ Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome): Karyotype - 47, XX or XY, +21
o Sex chromosome Aneuploidies
▪ Klinefelter syndrome: Karyotype - 47, XXY and 48, XXXY
▪ Triple X syndrome: Karyotype - 47, XXX
▪ XYY syndrome: Karyotype - 47, XYY
▪ Turner syndrome: Karyotype - 45, X
• Telomeres
o Telomeres are regions of repeated nucleotides at the end of
chromosomes.
o They protect the ends of the chromosome from being damaged or fusing
with other chromosomes.

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o Each time a cell divides and DNA is replicated, the telomere becomes
shorter.
Gene
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity.
• Genes are made up of DNA. Each chromosome contains many genes.
• Some genes act as instructions to make molecules called proteins.
• Every person has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent.
• Most genes are the same in all people, but a small number of genes (less than 1% of the total) are
slightly different between people.
DeoxyriboNucleic acid (DNA)
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA) is the molecule that carries the genetic information
for the development and functioning of an organism.
• DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains three components: a
phosphate group, which is one phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms; a sugar
molecule; and a nitrogen base.
• Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate groups.
• Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine
(T). The two strands are connected by chemical bonds between the bases: adenine bonds with
thymine(A – T), and cytosine bonds with guanine(C – G).
• Nucleotides are arranged in two long strands that form a spiral called a double helix.
• Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases, and more than 99% of those bases are the same in
all people.
• The sequence of the bases along DNA’s backbone encodes biological information, such as the
instructions for making a protein or RNA molecule.
• Transmission of all or part of an organism's DNA helps ensure a certain level of continuity from
one generation to the next, while still allowing for slight changes that contribute to the diversity of
life.
• An important property of DNA is that it can replicate, or make copies of itself. Each strand of DNA
in the double helix can serve as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases. This is critical
when cells divide because each new cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old
cell.
• Most DNA lives in the nuclei of cells and some exist in mitochondria, which are the
powerhouses of the cells.

Fig: DNA

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• Functions of DNA
o DNA carries the instructions for the development, growth, reproduction, and functioning
of all life.
o Protein creation (“The central dogma” of molecular biology)
▪ Transcription: The DNA code duplicates into messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA is a
copy of DNA, but it is normally single-stranded. Another difference is that RNA
does not contain the base thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine (T).
▪ Translation: The mRNA translates into amino acids by transfer RNA (tRNA).
▪ mRNA provides information on a particular amino acid via three-letter sections
called codons. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid or a building block of a
protein. For instance, the codon GUG codes for the amino acid valine.
• DNA mutation
o A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations can result from
errors in DNA replication during cell division, exposure to mutagens or a viral
infection.
o Germline mutations (that occur in eggs and sperm) can be passed to offspring, while
somatic mutations (that occur in body cells) are not passed on.
o Certain mutations in a person’s genetic code can lead to the development of a variety of
diseases or conditions.
o A person can inherit a gene that may cause problems with their health.
o Environmental factors can influence how these mutated genes manifest.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• RNA is a nucleic acid present in all living cells that has structural similarities to DNA. Unlike DNA,
however, RNA is most often single-stranded. An RNA molecule has a backbone made of
alternating phosphate groups and sugar ribose, rather than the deoxyribose found in DNA.
• Attached to each sugar is one of four bases: adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C) or guanine (G).
• Different types of RNA exist in cells: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and
transfer RNA (tRNA).
• In addition, some RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression. Certain viruses use RNA as
their genomic material.
• RNA contains ribose sugars rather than deoxyribose sugars, which makes RNA more unstable
and more prone to degradation.
• RNA is synthesized from DNA by an enzyme known as RNA polymerase during a process called
transcription.
• The new RNA sequences are complementary to their DNA template, rather than being identical
copies of the template. RNA is then translated into proteins by structures called ribosomes.
• Although some RNA molecules are passive copies of DNA, many play crucial, active roles in the
cell. For example, some RNA molecules are involved in switching genes on and off, and other
RNA molecules make up the critical protein synthesis machinery in ribosomes.

3) Application of Genetics
Gene therapy
• Gene therapy is a technique that uses a gene(s) to treat, prevent or cure a disease or medical
order. Often, gene therapy works by adding new copies of a gene that is broken, or by replacing a
defective or missing gene in a patient’s cells with a healthy version of that gene.
• Both inherited genetic diseases (e.g., haemophilia and sickle cell disease) and acquired
disorders (e.g., leukaemia) have been treated with gene therapy.
• Process of Gene therapy
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GOI (Gene of Interest): A DNA sequence which we want to insert in our target cells.
Vector: using the plasmid DNA like vectors the gene of interest is inserted into the host genome.
Vectors are kind of vehicles which transfer the genetic material.
Target cells: target cells are the population of cells whose genome we wish to manipulate or
change.

• Classification of Gene therapy

o Germ-line gene therapy is applied to germline or gametes which can be transmitted
vertically across generations. The concept of germ-line gene therapy is to introduce gene-
modified cells into the germline. However, germline or in-utero gene therapy is
prohibited in India, due to ethical and social considerations.
o Somatic cell gene therapy is viewed as the only and more socially acceptable approach
because it affects the targeted cells/tissue/organs in the patient, and is not passed on to
subsequent generations. This also includes genome modification as exemplified by
CRISPR-related and other technologies or epigenetic modulation by gene therapy
approaches with similar effects. Somatic gene therapy has two categories: ex vivo and in
vivo.
▪ ex vivo approach: cells obtained from an individual are genetically
modified/corrected outside the body followed by transplantation into the same or
a different individual. E.g. bone marrow, immune cells, stem cells etc.
▪ in vivo approach: the gene of interest is delivered directly to target
cells/tissues/organs in the patients. Gene delivery can be carried out by viral or
non-viral vector systems. These include the liver, pancreas, muscle, heart, skin,
spleen, lung, brain, bone marrow, eye and others.
• Methods of gene therapy
o Introduce a new gene into cells to help fight a disease.
o Introduce a non-faulty copy of a gene to stand in for the altered copy causing disease.
o Molecular cloning (Recombinant DNA)
o Genome editing (Gene editing) (CRISPR): Instead of introducing new genetic material
into cells, genome editing introduces molecular tools to change the existing DNA in the
cell. Genome editing technologies allow genetic material to be added, removed, or altered
at precise locations in the genome. CRISPR-Cas9 is a well-known type of genome editing.
• Ethical consideration
o involves the use of genetic science for human good and the avoidance of preventable
harms
o the control and confidentiality of results of genetic testing

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o possible discrimination against those found to have genetic diseases

o just allocation of beneficial genetic therapies.
o use of genetic science in ways that go beyond prevention and cure of disease - use as trait
enhancement and “neo‐eugenics” raise troubling ethical concerns.
Genetic Engineering
• Genetic engineering (also called Genetic modification, genetic manipulation, or genetic
alterations) comprises multiple techniques for the intentional manipulation of genetic material
(primarily deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA) to alter, repair, or enhance form or function.
• For example, genetic engineering may involve adding a gene from one species to an organism
from a different species to produce a desired trait.
• The first recombinant DNA was constructed by Paul Berg in 1972.
• Used in research and industry, genetic engineering has been applied to the production of cancer
therapies, brewing yeasts, genetically modified plants and livestock, and more.
• How does Genetic Engineering work? (Basic steps)
o The isolation of DNA fragments from a donor organism.

o The insertion of an isolated donor DNA fragment into a vector genome

o The growth of a recombinant vector in an appropriate host.

o For instance, Fig: shows the production of human insulin using the genetic engineering
process.
o A small piece of circular DNA called a plasmid, which is extracted from the
bacteria or yeast cell.

▪ A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid by restriction enzymes,
‘Molecular scissors’.

▪ The gene for human insulin is inserted into the gap in the plasmid. This plasmid is
now genetically modified.

▪ The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a bacteria or yeast cell.

▪ This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.

▪ To create large amounts of the cells, the genetically modified bacteria or yeast are
grown in large fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients they need. The
more the cells divide, the more insulin is produced.

▪ When the fermentation is complete, the mixture is filtered to release the insulin.

▪ The insulin is then purified and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for
distribution to patients with diabetes.

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• Purpose of developing Genetic Engineering

o Construction of genetically modified plant species.
o Abiotic and biotic stress-resistant plant species.
o Economically important plant species
o Commercially valuable organism
o For the production of therapeutic drugs
o Prevention of genetic abnormalities.
• Techniques of Genetic Engineering
o Recombinant DNA: in which an artificial DNA molecule is constructed by ligating two
different DNAs using physical methods. For that, the gene of interest is inserted into the
plasmid vector and used for gene transfer experiments.
o Gene delivering: Gene delivering technique is employed for the insertion of a gene of
interest into the host genome. Electroporation, solicitation and viral vector-mediated gene
transfer, liposome-mediated gene transfer, and transposon-mediated gene transfer are
some of the methods used for that.

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o Gene editing: A gene-editing technique is used to edit the genome in which an undesired
DNA sequence is removed or a new gene can be inserted into the host genome. CRISPR-
CAS9, TALEN and ZFN are some known gene-editing tools used in gene therapy
experiments.
• Application of Genetic Engineering:
o Genetic engineering has great industrial and agricultural value. It is practiced in medicine,
genetic research, agriculture, the development of genetically modified organisms, crop
improvement, and for production of therapeutic drugs.
Genetically modified Organisms:
• A genetically modified organism contains DNA that has been altered using genetic engineering.
• Genetically modified animals are mainly used for research purposes, while genetically modified
plants are common in today’s food supply.
• Conventional methods of modifying plants and animals—selective breeding and
crossbreeding—can take a long time. Moreover, selective breeding and crossbreeding often
produce mixed results, with unwanted traits appearing alongside desired characteristics.
• The specifically targeted modification of DNA using biotechnology has allowed scientists to
avoid this problem and improve the genetic makeup of an organism without unwanted
characteristics tagging along.
• Genetically modified plants:
o The first genetically engineered plants to be produced for human consumption were
introduced in the mid-1990s. Today, approximately 90% of the corn, soybeans, and sugar
beets on the market are GMOs.
o Genetically engineered crops produce higher yields, have a longer shelf life, are
resistant to diseases and pests, and even taste better.
o GMO crops can thus be kinder to the environment than conventionally grown crops.
• Genetically modified animals:
o Most animals that are GMOs are produced for use in laboratory research. These animals
are used as “models” to study the function of specific genes and, typically, how the genes
are related to health and disease.
o Some GMO animals, however, are produced for human consumption. Salmon, for
example, has been genetically engineered to mature faster.
• In India:
o Regulating authority: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee (GEAC) under the Union
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate change.
o India has the world‟s fourth largest GM crop acreage
o Bt cotton: first product in the country modified with modern molecular genetic
techniques(2002) and remains India’s only approved genetically engineered crop. It
greatly reduced the utilization of toxic pesticides. Bt cotton produces a standard soil
bacterium, Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt). It is a natural pest-repelling bacteria that is
toxic to several worms and pests which will harm the crop but isn’t hazardous to humans.
As a result of the adoption of Bt cotton, India has become the most important cotton
producer in the world.
o Bt Brinjal was cleared for commercialization by GEAC, in 2009. But got deregulated
following opposition from civil society groups and brinjal-growing states.
o Field trials for 21 GM food crops, including GM vegetables and cereals have been
approved by the government, and commercial cultivation of GM food has not been
permitted by any State government in India till now.
• Advantages:
o It improves production and raises farmers' income.

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o It reduces the utilization of pesticides and insecticides during farming which may be a
great move towards the betterment of the quality of the food supply.
o It can feed a rapidly increasing population because it shows dramatically increased yields
(produce more in a small area of land).
• Disadvantages:
o The assembly of genes imposes high risks to the disruption of ecosystem and
biodiversity as it influences the natural process of gene flow and hence the natural
selection.
o Health risks
▪ Toxins in plants: possible risk of unexpected allergic reactions to some GMO
foods.
▪ The excessive production of genetically modified foods is going to be rendered
ineffective over time.
▪ “Gene pollution” of the environment resulting in “superweeds,” antibiotic-
resistant microbes
o The long-term impacts of these GMOs are unknown.
o Environmental harm:
▪ the possibility of the genetically engineered foreign DNA spreading to non-GMO
plants and animals
▪ Use of these herbicides has led to a decline in native plants, which has downstream
effects on biodiversity.
o Agriculture:
▪ emergence of pesticide-resistant “superweeds” and “superbugs,” which can only
be killed by spraying more toxic chemicals.
▪ Restrictive license agreements erode farmers' right to save seed - posing a serious
threat to farmer sovereignty and national food security.
▪ It increases the worth of cultivation and is more inclined towards the
marketization of farming.
• Way forward:
o Food security is not about production alone; it is also about bio-safety, and access to food
for the poorest.
o An appropriately streamlined regulation of GE crop cultivation and educating the public
on GE technology should pave the way for the acceptance of GE crops.
o GMOs should be used for sustainable agriculture to meet the increasing food, feed and
fibre demand of the growing population of India.

GM Mustard - Does India need GM Mustard?

• Genetically modified (GM) Mustard, named Dhara Mustard Hybrid (DMH-11), developed in
2002, was approved by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate change (MoEFCC).
This means it can be grown in open fields for trials, demonstrations and seeds - before it is
approved for commercial cultivation.
• Importance of GM Mustard:
o Mustard contributes 40% of total edible oil production in India (Soyabean and
groundnut, the other major oilseed crops, account for 18 percent and 15 per cent of the
total edible oil production). By 2025-26 India will need 34 million tonnes of edible oils,
which will put significant pressure on the country’s foreign exchange reserves.
o Today, mustard is grown on 8 million hectares, with 1-1.3 tonnes yield per hectare.
The government claims that transgenic seeds could potentially raise the yields to 3-3.5
tonnes per hectare while being resistant to pests that cause white rust.

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o developing high-yielding and pest-resistant varieties of mustard using traditional cross-

breeding methods is challenging.
o The DMH-11 plant is self-pollinating. This means that genetic manipulation prevents
problems faced in cross-breeding and directly changes the genetic makeup of a plant.
• Issue with GM Mustard
o DMH-11 has been opposed by the Coalition for a GM-Free India because of the
introduction of foreign genetic materials in the crop.
o Mustard honey crystallizes quickly and makes exporting to the US and EU feasible. But
these countries also demand GM-free certification. Almost half of the 150, 000 tonnes of
honey produced in India is exported under non-GMO verification programmes. The future
of apiculture export will be threatened if GM mustard receives commercial approval,
according to honey exporters.
o Botanists say that pests and insects may grow resistant to the transgenic crop after a
decade or so, triggering the need for newer versions of the seeds.
o Honeybees could transfer the genes of GM mustard to other plants which may lead to
horizontal and undesirable gene transfer among plants causing the growth of unwanted
and invasive weeds.
• Do we really need GM Mustard in India?
o The yield of any crop depends on its genotype, environment and management, with the
latter playing around 80 per cent of the role.
o According to ICAR, DMH-11 will have an average yield advantage of 28 per cent over its
parent, Varuna. Comparing GM mustard with other high-yielding varieties will reveal its
poor performance.
o Data available with the Union government think tank NITI Aayog shows that in the six
years between 2014-15 and 2019-20 mustard oil production has increased from 6.28
million tonnes to 9.12 million tonnes.
o In 2021-22 the Centre implemented the Special Mustard Mission to further increase the
area under mustard by 20 per cent and production by 15 per cent.
o The oilseed production in India doubled from around 11 million tonnes to 22 million
tonnes in the 1990s after the launch of the oilseed technology mission in the 1980s. This
was termed the yellow revolution. India was the net exporter at that time. The
turnaround happened without any GM crop.
o We are yet to see concrete measures taken to establish the long-term safety and
profitability of transgenic varieties.
Recombinant DNA technology
• Recombinant DNA technology involves using enzymes and various laboratory techniques to
manipulate and isolate DNA segments of interest. This method can be used to combine (or
splice) DNA from different species or to create genes with new functions. The resulting copies are
often referred to as recombinant DNA.
• Such work typically involves propagating the recombinant DNA in a bacterial or yeast cell,
whose cellular machinery copies the engineered DNA along with its own.
• Making recombinant DNA: Isolate DNA ⇾ Cut with restriction enzymes ⇾ Ligate into cloning
vector ⇾ transform recombinant DNA molecule into host cell ⇾ each transformed cell will
divide many, many times to form a colony of millions of cells, each of which carries the
recombinant DNA molecule (DNA clone)
• Application of rDNA:

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• Bio-Pharmaceuticals: Recombinant DNA technology has been effectively used to produce

various human proteins in microorganisms, such as insulin, interferon and growth hormone,
used in the treatment of diseases.
• Gene Therapy: aims to treat/cure/prevent disease by replacing a defective gene with a normal
one using recombinant DNA technology.
• Biotechnology: Recombinant DNA technology ushered in a new era characterized by our ability
to harness biological processes. We have used this power to create new therapeutics, engineer
crops, and produce transportation fuels and chemicals for industrial manufacturing.
• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are developed using rDNA technology.
• Biofuels:
o Biohydrogen: Is hydrogen that is produced biologically. Hydrogen is a clean fuel and can
be readily produced from certain kinds of biomass. Photolysis of water by green algae or
cyanobacteria, directly or indirectly, converts light into hydrogen during photosynthesis
using hydrogenase or nitrogenase.
o Bioethanol: Bioethanol fuel is mainly produced by the hydrolysis and sugar fermentation
process. The main sources of sugar required to produce ethanol are fuel or energy crops
(including corn, maize and wheat crops, waste straw, willow and popular trees, and
sawdust).
o Bio methanol: is simply produced from biomass and other non-fossil sources. Methanol,
the alcohol with the simplest chemical structure (CH3OH), is a colourless, tasteless liquid
with a faint odour. It is commonly known as wood alcohol and can be produced from a
variety of feedstocks.
Transgenes
• Transgene is a gene that is taken from the genome of one organism and introduced into the
genome of another organism by artificial techniques.
• Transgenesis: The process of transferring an exogenous DNA segment or gene (transgene) to an
animal so it can pass the transgene on to all of the offspring.

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• Transgenic refers to an organism or cell whose genome has been altered by the introduction of
one or more foreign DNA sequences from another species by artificial means. Transgenic
organisms are generated in the laboratory for research purposes. Transgenic DNA can be
dichotomised into two types:
o natural (from another organism)
o recombinant (i.e., synthesised cDNA)
• For example, production of α1- proteinase inhibitor protein in transgenic sheep carrying
transgene of human origin.
Transgenic animals
• An animal that has stably incorporated engineered DNA into its germ line. Such an organism can
pass the transgene on to all the offspring. It should be stressed that all the cells of a transgenic
individual contain the transgene.
• Common methods for making transgenic animals
o Pronuclear Injection
o Germ Cell Transplantation
o Nuclear Transfer "Cloning"
o Embryonic Stem Cells
• The production of transgenic livestock has the opportunity to significantly
o Improve human health. Eg.: enhancing the omega-3 fatty acid in fish consumed by
humans may contribute to a decreased occurrence of coronary heart disease
o Enhance nutrition.
o Reduced Environmental impact. Eg.: Improved production efficiencies of milk and meat
would decrease the amount of manure, slow the direct competition for human food,
decrease the amount of water required for the animals and the production facilities, and
decrease the land necessary for livestock operations.
o Enhanced animal welfare through improved Disease resistance
o decreased livestock disease
Challenges and Risk of Genetic engineering
• Introduced in 1996, the genetic engineering of plants and animals today looms as one of the
greatest and most intractable environmental challenges of the 21st Century.
• Potential Health harms
o New Allergens in the food supply: Genetically engineered crops could bring, and some
scientists believe they have already brought, new allergens into foods that sensitive
individuals would not know to avoid. An example is transferring the gene for one of the
many allergenic proteins found in milk into vegetables like carrots. Mothers who know to
avoid giving their sensitive children milk would not know to avoid giving them genetically
engineered carrots containing milk proteins.
o Antibiotic Resistance: Most genetically engineered plant foods carry fully functioning
antibiotic-resistance genes. The presence of antibiotic-resistance genes in foods could
have two harmful effects.
▪ eating these foods could reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics to fight disease
when these antibiotics are taken with meals.
▪ Antibiotic-resistance genes produce enzymes that can degrade antibiotics.
o Production of new toxins: plants contain inactive pathways leading to toxic substances.
The addition of new genetic material through genetic engineering could reactivate these
inactive pathways or otherwise increase the levels of toxic substances within the plants.
• Potential Environmental Harms
o Contamination: The Center for Food Safety says the following are just a few of the dozens
of episodes in which pollen or seeds from genetically engineered (GE) crops have

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contaminated conventional crops, often causing seed or product recalls, and other
problems for farmers and consumers.
o Increased weediness: A new combination of traits produced as a result of genetic
engineering might enable crops to thrive unaided in the environment in circumstances
where they would then be considered new or worse weeds. One example would be a rice
plant engineered to be salt-tolerant that escaped cultivation and invaded nearby marine
estuaries.
o Poisoned wildlife: The addition of foreign genes to plants could also have serious
consequences for wildlife in several circumstances. For example, engineering crop
plants, such as tobacco or rice, to produce plastics or pharmaceuticals could endanger
mice or deer who consume crop debris left in the fields after harvesting. Fish that have
been engineered to contain metal-sequestering proteins (such fish have been suggested as
living pollution clean-up devices) could be harmful if consumed by other fish or animals
i.e. bears, raccoons, etc
o Creation of New or Worse Viruses: Virus-tolerant crops produced by engineering
components of viruses into the plant genomes. They pose the risk of creating new or
worse viruses through two mechanisms:
▪ Recombination
▪ transcapsidation
• No law mandating labeling ingredients as genetically modified, which ignores consumers’ right to
choose.
• Uncertainty about the behavior of these new life forms in the future, so the limited risk
assessments conducted to date are poor predictors of the safety of GMOs over the long term.
• The government risk assessment is suspect because it does not research on its own. Health
and safety reviews rely almost entirely on data supplied by the very companies seeking approvals
for their new GMO products.
• GMOs are created using processes that do not occur naturally, which poses questions about their
safety, and their introduction into the environment is irreversible.
• Some say that GMO stands for “God Move Over”, i.e. that scientists and big agribusinesses are
taking on the role of creating new life forms themselves without the knowledge or understanding
to do so.
Genetic counseling
• Is a process of counseling in which specialists or doctors provide awareness to patients or
relatives about the inheritance pattern, the genetic and genomic basis of traits and clinical
disorders.
• They help identify families at possible risk of a genetic condition by gathering and analyzing
family history and inheritance patterns and calculating chances of recurrence. They provide
information about genetic testing and related procedures.
• Education about inheritance, testing, management, prevention, and resources.
• Counseling to promote informed choices, adaptation to the risk or condition and support in
reaching out to relatives that are also at risk.
• Board of Genetic counseling, India: is the organization looking after education, training and
practicing genetic counseling as a profession in India.
Genetic Conservation
• Conservation genetics is an applied science, involving the application of evolutionary and
molecular genetics to biodiversity conservation.
• Conservation Biology + Genetics = Conservation Genetics

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• The science of Conservation Biology looks at individuals and populations that have been affected
by habitat loss, exploitation, and/or environmental change. The information gained from studying
these organisms informs decisions that will ensure their survival into the future.
• The science of Genetics looks at inherited characteristics and the genes that underlie them.
• Put the two together and you get the science of Conservation Genetics.
• Conservation genetics uses a combination of ecology, molecular biology, population genetics,
mathematical modeling, and evolutionary taxonomy (the study of family relationships) .
• Justification for maintaining biodiversity
o the economic value of bioresources
o ecosystem services
o aesthetics
o rights of living organisms to exist.
• Destroying or changing habitats can endanger the animals, plants, and other organisms that live
there. By effectively managing these ecosystems, we can help preserve threatened and
endangered species.
• IUCN recognizes the need to conserve biodiversity at three levels; genetic diversity, species
diversity, and ecosystem diversity. The genetics involved in all three of these.
• When is Conservation Genetics used?
o Habitat destruction - due to human interference and natural factors like storms and
diseases.
o Change in population size: Survival of small populations is critical, as they are more
sensitive to factors such as genetic drift (Change in the frequency of an existing gene
variant in the population due to random chance), geographical isolation (When a new
barrier is imposed through a habitat), Founder effect (establishing a new population
from only a few individuals) and random or unpredictable events such as natural
catastrophes, environmental changes, or genetic mutations.
o Understanding the relationship between evolutionary factors including mutations, non-
random mating, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection in population/species
survival is very important in the current situations where many natural populations are
declining towards species extinctions.
• Techniques: Specific genetic techniques are used to assess the genomes of a species regarding
specific conservation issues as well as general population structure. This analysis can be done in
two ways, with the current DNA of individuals or with historic DNA.
o Molecular genetic techniques: protein electrophoresis, analysis of mitochondrial DNA
and highly variable nuclear genes (including DNA fingerprinting).
o Pedigree analysis: to evaluate the breeding priority of particular individuals.
o DNA sequencing: the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence - the order of
nucleotides in DNA.
DNA fingerprinting
• DNA fingerprinting (also called DNA profiling or forensic genetics) is a laboratory technique used
to determine the probable identity of a person based on the nucleotide sequencing of certain
regions of human DNA that are unique to individuals.
• DNA fingerprinting is used in a variety of situations, such as criminal investigations, other
forensic purposes and paternity testing. In these situations, one aims to “match” two DNA
fingerprints in one another, such as a DNA sample from a known person and one from an
unknown person.
• Although more than 99.1% of the genome is the same throughout the human population, the
remaining 0.9% of human DNA shows variations between individuals. These variable DNA

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sequences, termed polymorphic markers, can be used to both differentiate and correlate
individuals.
• DNA fingerprinting was invented in 1984 by professor Sir Alec Jeffreys after he realised you
could detect variations in human DNA, in the form of minisatellites (short sequences of repetitive
DNA that show greater variation from one person to the next, than other parts of the genome).
• DNA fingerprinting is a technique that simultaneously detects lots of minisatellites in the genome
to produce a pattern unique to an individual. This is a DNA fingerprint.
• The probability of having two people with the same DNA fingerprint that are not identical twins is
very small.
• How was the first DNA fingerprint produced?

Fig: Steps in DNA fingerprinting

o Extracting DNA from a biological sample.
o Molecular scissors called restriction enzymes were used to cut the DNA. This resulted
in thousands of pieces of DNA with a variety of different lengths.
o Pieces were then separated according to size by a process called gel electrophoresis. In
which an electric current is passed through the porous gel loaded with DNA. This pulls the

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negatively charged DNA through the gel. The shorter pieces of DNA move fastest and
travel farthest. As a result DNA pieces had been separated in order of size.
o Transferring or blotting DNA out of gel on to a robust piece of nylon membrane and
unzipped to produce single strand of DNA
o Nylon membrane was incubated with radioactive probes (small fragments of minisatellite
DNA tagged with radioactive phosphorous). The probes only attach to the pieces of DNA
that they re complementary to - in this case they attach to the minisatellites in the
genome.
o The minisatellites that the probes have attached to were then visualised by exposing the
nylon membrane to X-ray film.
▪ When exposed to radioactivity a pattern of more than 30 dark bands appeared on
the film where the labeled DNA was. This pattern was the DNA fingerprint.
▪ To compare two or more different DNA fingerprints the different DNA samples
were run side-by-side on the same electrophoresis gel.

• DNA profiling (modern-day)

o Also called STR analysis relies on microsatellites (short tandem repeats - shorter relative
of minisatellites) rather than minisatellites
• Utility/ Application
o Establishing paternity and maternity
o Identification of a missing child and mutilated body
o Identification of criminals in case of rape, murder and assassination
o Immigration purposes
o Pedigree analysis of farm animals
o Assessment of inbreeding
o Plant variety identification
o Sexing of biological samples
o Wildlife forensics
o Wildlife conservation
o Biodiversity conservation
• In India
Human genome project
• The Human Genome Project was a landmark global scientific effort whose signature goal was to
generate the first sequence of the human genome.
• Initially, the modern way to determine a human genetic map ➡ then a physical map of the
human genome ➡ finally the sequence map.
• DNA sequencing involves determining the exact order of the bases in DNA — the As, Cs, Gs and
Ts that make up segments of DNA. Because the Human Genome Project aimed to sequence all of
the DNA (i.e., the genome) of a set of organisms, significant effort was made to improve the
methods for DNA sequencing. Ultimately, the project used one particular method for DNA
sequencing, called Sanger DNA sequencing, but first significantly advanced this primary method
through a series of major technical innovations.
• The Human Genome Project has transformed biology through its integrated big science
approach to deciphering a reference human genome sequence and the complete sequences of key
model organisms.
• The genome sequences of microbes, plants and animals have revolutionised many fields of
science, including microbiology, virology, infectious disease and plant biology.
• Moreover, deeper knowledge of human sequence variation has begun to alter the practice of
medicine.

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• The Human Genome Project has inspired subsequent large-scale data acquisition initiatives such
as the International HapMap Project, 1000 Genomes, and The Cancer Genome Atlas, as well
as the recently announced Human Brain Project and the emerging Human Proteome Project.
• Impact on Biology and Technology
o led to the emergence of proteomics, a discipline focused on identifying and quantifying
the proteins present in discrete biological compartments, such as a cellular organelle, an
organ or the blood.
o Our understanding of evolution has been transformed. Since the completion of the HGP,
over 4,000 finished or quality draft genome sequences have been produced, mostly from
bacterial species but including 183 eukaryotes. These genomes provide insights into how
diverse organisms from microbes to humans are connected on the genealogical tree of life
- clearly demonstrating that all of the species that exist today descended from a single
ancestor.
o The HGP drove the development of sophisticated computational and mathematical
approaches to data and brought computer scientists, mathematicians, engineers and
theoretical physicists together with biologists, fostering a more cross-disciplinary
culture. It is important to note that the HGP popularized the idea of making data available
to the public immediately in user-friendly databases such as GenBank and the UCSC
Genome Browser.

QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by 'Genetic Engineering'? What are the promises and dangers associated with it?
Do you recommend that India should go ahead in developing this technology?(1981)
2. What is biotechnology? Discuss how the promotion and progress of this technology can bring
spectacular change in the areas of health, energy, food and agriculture. (1984)
3. What is meant by DNA finger printing? (1986)
4. Explain the meaning and the uses of gene therapy. (1988)
5. Describe how biotechnology is finding use in medicine. Give a few current examples. (1993)
6. What is DNA fingerprinting? Which research institution in India is working in this area? (1994)
7. What are transgenic organisms? What are they used for? (1996)
8. what a genetic engineering? Why is it getting increasingly important these days? (1998)
9. Why are transgenic orgasms important? (1998)
1. 10 What is the Human Genome Project? Discuss briefly its importance? (1999)
10. What are biosensors? Describe their uses (1999)
11. Docs Human Genome. (2000)
12. How are transgenic plants different from hybrid plants and what is their relevance in modern
agriculture? Elaborate. (2000)
13. What are stem cells? Why have they been in the news recently? Discuss. (2001)
14. What is Biotechnology? Discuss the important applications of Biotechnology. (2004)
15. Short note on Genome (2003)
16. Define ‘Bionformatics’, how does it work? What are major branches and applications? (2009)
17. Explain: DNA Finger Printing and its utility. (2009)

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Biogas Technology
1) Biogas
• Biogas is a renewable fuel produced by a breakdown of organic matter such as food scraps and
animal waste in the absence of oxygen in a process called anaerobic digestion.
• Biogas can occur naturally or as part of an industrial process to intentionally create it as a fuel.
• Biogas is most commonly known as biomethane. It’s also sometimes called marsh gas, sewer gas,
compost gas and swamp gas in the US.
• Produced from: A wide variety of waste material breaks down into biogas, including animal
manure, municipal rubbish or waste, plant material, food waste or sewage.
• Composition: Biogas is a mixture of different components and the composition varies depending
upon the characteristics of feed materials, amount of degradation, etc. Biogas predominantly
consists of 50% to 70% methane, 30% to 40% carbon dioxide and a low amount of other
gases. Methane is a combustible gas. The energy content of biogas depends on the amount of
methane it contains. Methane content varies from about 50% to 70%.
• Uses of biogas
o To fuel vehicles – if biogas is compressed it can be used as a vehicle fuel.
o As a replacement for natural gas – if biogas is cleaned up and upgraded to natural gas
standards, it’s then known as biomethane and can be used in a similar way to methane;
this can include cooking and heating.
• Biogas and biomass: the similarities and differences
o Biomass and biogas are both biofuels; they can be burnt to produce energy. But biomass is
a solid, organic material. Biomass has been used as an energy source since humans first
discovered fire and burnt wood, plants and animal dung to create energy.
o Today, many power stations run by burning biomass of compressed wood pellets – a by-
product of timber and furniture-making. By replacing fossil-fuel coal, biomass enables
renewable electricity to be produced.
o When biomass decomposes naturally, or at an industrial scale in an anaerobic digester,
biogas is produced.
o Biomass is the raw material and Biogas is the end product.
Biogas production
• The production of biogas from organic material under anaerobic conditions involves a sequence
of microbial reactions.
• to sugar, alcohols, pesticides and amino acids by acid-producing bacteria. The resultant products
are then used to produce methane by another category of bacteria.
• The biogas production process involves three stages namely:
o Hydrolysis
o Acid formation
o Methane formation
• The process of degradation of organic material in every step is done by a range of bacteria, which
are specialized in the reduction of intermediate products formed. Better digestion, shorter
retention time and efficient gas production.
• Hydrolysis
o The complex organic molecules like fats, starches and proteins which are water-insoluble
and contained in cellulosic biomass are broken down into simple compounds with the
help of enzymes secreted by bacteria. This stage is also known as the polymer breakdown
stage (polymer to monomer). The primary end product is glucose which is a simple
product.

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• Acid formation
o The resultant product (monomers) obtained in the hydrolysis stage serve as input for acid
formation stage bacteria. Products produced in the previous stage are fermented under
anaerobic conditions to form different acids. The major products produced at the end of
this stage are acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and ethanol.
• Methane formation
o The acetic acid produced in the previous stages is converted into methane and carbon
dioxide by a group of microorganisms called “Methanogens”.
o They are obligate anaerobic and very sensitive to environmental changes. Methanogens
utilize the intermediate products of the preceding stages and convert them into
methane, carbon dioxide, and water. It is these components that make up the majority of
the biogas emitted from the system.

o CO2 + 4H2 ⇾ CH4 + 2H2O

Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Methane Water

o 2CH3CH2OH + CO2 ⇾ CH4 + 2CH3COOH

Ethanol Carbon dioxide Methane Acetic acid

o CH3COOH ⇾ CH4 + CO2

Acetic acid Methane carbon dioxide
Nisargruna of BARC
• Indigenous Biogas plant based on biodegradable waste resources.
• Developed at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) under the Department of Atomic Energy.
• This plant can process biodegradable waste such as kitchen waste, paper, grass, gobar and dry
leaves.
• It offers “Zero garbage and Zero effluent“ and provides high-quality manure and methane gas.
Advantages
• Weed-free manure obtained from such waste has high nitrogen contents and acts as an excellent
soil conditioner.
• This plant could be set up for eco-friendly disposal of wet waste generated in
kitchens/canteens of big Hospitals/Hotels/Factories/residential complexes and can avoid health
hazards due to dump sites.
• Generation of a fairly good amount of fuel biogas, which will definitely support the dwindling
energy resources. The gas can be used as fuel in the kitchen or for power generation.
• This technology of biphasic bio methanation has a high potential of solving the solid waste
management problems of urban areas and provides organic manure and bio-gas as a fuel.
Applications
• The Biogas plants are useful for Municipal Corporations, Hospitals, Hotels, Housing Societies,
Govt. Establishments, Abattoirs, Nagar Palika, Grampanchayat, Farmers. At present, 160
Nisargruna plants are functional in the country.

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2) Biofuels
• Biofuels are renewable transportation fuels produced from biomass.
• Renewable Hydrocarbon biofuels also known as drop-in fuels, can serve as petroleum
substitutes in existing refineries, tanks, pipelines, pumps, vehicles, and smaller engines. Biomass-
based renewable hydrocarbon fuels are nearly identical to the petroleum-based fuels they are
designed to replace- so they’re compatible with today’s engines, pumps and other infrastructure.
• The two most common types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel, both of which
represent the first generation of biofuel technology.
• The liquid biofuels are biodiesel or bioethanol and gaseous biofuel is compressed biogas (CBG) or
Bio-CNG.
• The U.S. is the largest producer of bioethanol, while the EU is the largest producer of
biodiesel. The energy content in the global production of bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.8
EJ per year, respectively.
• Bioethanol: is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar
or starch crops such as maize, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from
non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol
production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form (E100), but it is usually used
as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and improve vehicle emissions.
• Biodiesel: is produced from oils or fats using transesterification. It can be used as a fuel for
vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane ratings and
improve vehicle emissions.
• Generations:
o First: First-generation biofuels are fuels made from food crops grown on arable land.
The crop's sugar, starch, or oil content is converted into biodiesel or ethanol, using
transesterification, or yeast fermentation.
o Second: Second-generation biofuels are fuels made from lignocellulosic or woody
biomass, or agricultural residues/waste. The feedstock used to make the fuels either
grows on arable land but are byproducts of the main crop, or they are grown on marginal
land. Second-generation feedstocks include straw, bagasse, perennial grasses, jatropha,
waste vegetable oil, municipal solid waste and so forth
o Third: Algae can be produced in ponds or tanks on land, and out at sea. Algal fuels have
high yields, can be grown with minimal impact on freshwater resources, can be produced
using saline water and wastewater, have a high ignition point, and are biodegradable
and relatively harmless to the environment if it spills. Production requires large amounts
of energy and fertilizer, the produced fuel degrades faster than other biofuels, and it does
not flow well in cold temperatures. By 2017, due to economic considerations, most efforts
to produce fuel from algae have been abandoned or changed to other applications.
o Fourth: This class of biofuels includes electro-fuels and solar fuels. Electrofuels are
made by storing electrical energy in the chemical bonds of liquids and gases. The
primary targets are butanol, biodiesel, and hydrogen, but include other alcohols
and carbon-containing gases such as methane and butane. Solar fuel is a synthetic
chemical fuel produced from solar energy. Light is converted to chemical energy,
typically by reducing protons to hydrogen, or carbon dioxide to organic
[Link]-generation biofuels also include biofuels that are produced by
bioengineered organisms i.e. algae and cyanobacteria. Algae and cyanobacteria will use
water, carbon dioxide, and solar energy to produce biofuels. This method of biofuel
production is still at the research level. The biofuels that are secreted by bioengineered
organisms are expected to have higher photon-to-fuel conversion efficiency, compared to
older generations of biofuels. One of the advantages of this class of biofuels is that the

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cultivation of the organisms that produce the biofuels does not require the use of arable
land. The disadvantages include the cost of cultivating the biofuel-producing organisms
being very high.
• Benefits of Biofuels
o Energy security
o reduction of import dependency
o cleaner environment
o Municipality Solid waste (MSW) management
o health benefits
o infrastructures investment in rural areas
o employment generation
o overall additional income to farmers
• In India: The current status and key challenges for biofuels
o According to projections by the IEA (International Energy Agency), India is expected to
overtake China to become the third largest producer of ethanol by 2023 to claim the
third spot after the USA and Brazil.
o 12.83% of the total renewable energy generation is contributed by biofuels alone.
o In 2001, India started a modest 5% ethanol blending pilot programme.
o The biofuel mission was adopted in 2003 with the launch of the National Mission on
Biodiesel which sought to achieve 20% biodiesel blending in a diesel by 2011–12.
o National Policy on Biofuel (NPB) in 2009
▪ The objective of NPB 2009 was to facilitate the optimal development of domestic
biomass feedstock for biofuel production.
▪ optional blending target of 20% for both ethanol and biodiesel by 2017
▪ laid down the vision, goals and strategy for the development of biofuels and
proposed an enabling framework of financial, institutional and technological
interventions.
o National policy on Biofuels 2018
▪ recommended an indicative target of E20 (20% Ethanol) blending in petrol and
5% biodiesel (B5) blending in diesel by 2030.
▪ Biofuels are categorised as Basic Biofuels (1G), Advanced Biofuels (2G), and 3rd
Generation Biofuels (3G).
▪ Scope of raw materials from ethanol expands to include sugar and starch-
containing materials unfit for human consumption.
▪ Allow the use of surplus food grains for ethanol production.
▪ Thrust on Advanced Biofuel (2G) with Viability Gap funding (VGF) of ₹5000cr in 6
years.
▪ Setting up supply chain mechanisms for biodiesel production from non-edible
oilseeds and used cooking oil.
o Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation (SATAT)
▪ A new revolution in Transportation fuel - Compressed Biogas (CBG) - a step
towards a sustainable future.
▪ Encourages entrepreneurs to set up CBG plants, produce & supply CBG to Oil
Marketing Companies (OMCs) for sale as automotive and industrial fuels.
▪ Developmental effort to benefit vehicle users as well as farmers and
entrepreneurs.
▪ Efficient tackling of urban air pollution due to farm stubble-burning and carbon
emissions.
▪ Reduce dependency on crude oil imports and realise PM’s vision of enhancing
farmers’ income, rural employment and entrepreneurship
▪ Efficient treatment and disposal of municipal solid waste

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▪ Promotion of organic farming by using Fermented Organic Manure (FOM)

produced from CBG plants.
o Key Challenges
2G Bioethanol

▪ no policy mechanism incentivising farmers to collect and deliver biomass

residues to a next-generation ethanol plant.
▪ Lack of government backing
▪ In order to reduce supply chain uncertainties and high market risk associated with
the 2nd generation biofuel industry, a supply chain should be designed and
operated to maximize economic potential and social benefit, and minimize
environmental impact.
▪ Utilization of carbon dioxide generated from the plant is a major concern.

Biodiesel

▪ Biodiesel derived from edible oil requires suitable land for cultivation and also
challenges food security.
▪ production from non-edible oil sources has disadvantages like diminishing
performance in cold climates, possible contamination and impurities in animal fats
and the lack of a centralized system for collecting such raw materials.

BioCNG

▪ Fluctuations in feedstock availability and quality might impede plant production

efficiency, affecting plant profitability in the long term.
▪ Individual household biogas plants require financial investment, which yields only
non-monetary benefits, such as biogas which is generally used as cooking fuel.
▪ Some challenges to biogas production in rural areas includes high up-front
installation cost, delays in getting financial support, competition from other fuels,
inadequate supply of feedstock, lack of social acceptance and awareness for biogas
from substrates like night soil, human excreta, dead animal carcass, lack of proper
training and capacity building programmes, and awareness regarding its
environmental benefits.
▪ Proper segregation, collection, and transportation technologies/strategies are not
implemented in cities for MSW, which is one of the primary reasons for the slow
growth of the waste-to-energy sector.

Algal Biofuel

▪ The utilization of CO2 by algae could lead to uncontrolled pH rise after the
conversion to carbonic acid, hence resulting in ionization in the algae production
medium.
▪ difficulty of sunlight radiation penetrating the depth of large algae bloom.
▪ The information regarding interest and research into algae biofuel is still limited.
▪ Requirement of high lipid content
▪ Complicated Process: Production of algal biofuel takes many steps to become a
usable fuel source. This process is complicated and takes time.
▪ High Fertilizer Use
▪ Large Water Demand: Sometimes, a high temperature evaporates water level
and hampers growth.

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▪ Expensive to Produce: The cost of algal biofuel production is still much higher
than fossil fuels to date.
▪ Land Use: Regardless of the growth strategy employed and the efficiency of oil
extraction, the scale of implementation that is required to replace a meaningful
amount of fossil fuel is significant.
▪ Nutrient Challenge: Algae need light, nutrients, water and a carbon source, most
often CO2, for efficient growth. The major nutrients required by most algae include
nitrogen, iron, phosphorous and sulphur.
o Way forward:
o New policies and strategies or modifications in the existing strategies may help
in eliminating some of the barriers
o To boost the biofuel industry in India, the need for popularisation of biofuel
usage by blending with conventional fuel should be made mandatory along with
subsidized rates.
o While favorable government policies and active involvement from the local
community and private enterprises can keep the programme running in the short
term, it is critical to have a solid long-term strategy in place.
o A significant research effort on the development of second and third-generation
feedstock is required to meet the country's future bio-energy demands.

Questions:
1. Discuss several ways in which microorganisms can help in meeting the current fuel shortage.
(2023)

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Robotics
1) Robotics Technology
• Robotics is an interdisciplinary sector of science and engineering dedicated to the design,
construction and use of mechanical robots
• Robotics is the intersection of science, engineering and technology that produces machines, called
robots, that replicate or substitute for human actions.
• What is a Robot? A robot is a programmable machine that can complete a task, while the
term robotics describes the field of study focused on developing robots and automation. Each
robot has a different level of autonomy. These levels range from human-controlled bots that carry
out tasks to fully-autonomous bots that perform tasks without any external influences.
• The word robot is derived from the Czech word robota, which means “forced labor.” The word
first appeared in the 1920 play R.U.R., about the play’s characters who were mass-produced
workers incapable of creative thinking.
• In 2005, 90% of all robots could be found assembling cars in automotive factories. These
robots consist mainly of mechanical arms tasked with welding or screwing on certain parts of a
car.
• Today, we’re seeing an evolved and expanded definition of robotics that includes the
development, creation and use of bots that accomplish tasks like exploring the planet’s harshest
conditions, assisting law enforcement, streamlining surgical procedures and undertaking
rescue missions.
Characteristics of Robotics
• Robots consist of mechanical construction. The mechanical aspect of a robot helps it complete
tasks in the environment for which it’s designed. For example, the Mars 2020 Rover’s wheels
are individually motorized and made of titanium tubing that helps it firmly grip the harsh terrain
of the red planet.
• Robots need electrical components that control and power the machinery. Essentially, an
electric current — a battery, for example — is needed to power a large majority of robots.
• Robots contain at least some level of computer programming. Inserting a program into a robot
gives it the ability to know when and how to carry out a task.
Types of Robotics
Mechanical bots come in all shapes and sizes to efficiently carry out the task for which they are designed.
All robots vary in design, functionality and degree of autonomy. From the 0.2 millimeter-long
“RoboBee” to the 200-meter-long robotic shipping vessel “Vindskip,” robots are emerging to carry out
tasks that humans simply can’t.
Five distinct types of robots perform tasks depending on their capabilities.
• Pre-Programmed Robots: Pre-programmed robots operate in a controlled environment
where they do simple, monotonous tasks. An example of a pre-programmed robot would be a
mechanical arm on an automotive assembly line. The arm serves one function — to weld a door
on, to insert a certain part into the engine, etc. — and its job is to perform that task longer, faster
and more efficiently than a human.
• Humanoid Robots: Humanoid robots are robots that look like or mimic human behavior.
These robots usually perform human-like activities (like running, jumping and carrying objects),
and are sometimes designed to look like us, even having human faces and expressions. Two of the
most prominent examples of humanoid robots are Hanson Robotics’ Sophia and Boston
Dynamics’ Atlas.
• Autonomous Robots: Autonomous robots operate independently of human operators. These
robots are usually designed to carry out tasks in open environments that do not require human
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supervision. They are unique because they use sensors to perceive the world around them, and
then employ decision-making structures (usually a computer) to take the optimal next step
based on their data and mission. One example of an autonomous robot is the Roomba vacuum
cleaner, which uses sensors to roam freely throughout a home. Other Examples include Lawn
trimming bots, Hospitality bots, Autonomous drones and medical Assistant bots.
• Teleoperated Robots: Teleoperated robots are semi-autonomous bots that use a wireless
network to enable human control from a safe distance. These robots usually work in extreme
geographical conditions, weather and circumstances. Examples of teleoperated robots are the
human-controlled submarines used to fix underwater pipe leaks during the BP oil spill or drones
used to detect landmines on a battlefield.
• Augmenting Robots: Augmenting robots, also known as VR robots, either enhance current
human capabilities or replace the capabilities a human may have lost. The field of robotics for
human augmentation is a field where science fiction could become reality very soon, with bots
that can redefine the definition of humanity by making humans faster and stronger. Some
examples of current augmenting robots are robotic prosthetic limbs or exoskeletons used to lift
hefty weights.
Software Robotics - Bot
• Software robotics, also called bots, are computer programs which carry out tasks
autonomously.
• Software robots only exist on the internet and originate within a computer, which means they
are not considered robots. In order to be considered a robot, a device must have a physical form,
such as a body or a chassis.
• Types of Bots:
o Chatbots: carry out simple conversations, often in a customer service setting.
o Spam Bots: collect email addresses and send spam mail.
o Download Bots: download software and apps automatically.
o Search Engine Crawler Bots: scan websites and make them visible on search engines.
o Monitoring Bots: report on website speed and status.
Components of a Robot
Robots are built to present solutions to a variety of needs and fulfill several different purposes, and
therefore, require a variety of specialized components to complete these tasks.
• Control System: Computation includes all of the components that make up a robot’s central
processing unit (CPU), often referred to as its control system. Control systems are programmed to
tell a robot how to utilize its specific components, similar in some ways to how the human brain
sends signals throughout the body, in order to complete a specific task. These robotic tasks could
comprise anything from minimally invasive surgery to assembly line packing.
• Sensors: a component that provides stimuli in the form of electrical signals that are processed by
the controller and allow a robot to interact with the world. Common sensors found within robots
include video cameras that function as eyes, photoresistors that react to light and microphones
that operate like ears. These sensors allow the robot to capture its surroundings and process the
most logical conclusion based on the current moment and allow the controller to relay commands
to the additional components.
• Actuators: the motor parts that are responsible for a robot’s movement. Actuators can be made of
a variety of materials, such as metal or elastic, and are commonly operated by the use of
compressed air (pneumatic actuators) or oil (hydraulic actuators) but come in a variety of
formats to best fulfil their specialized roles.
• Power Supply: the battery that supplies power to a robot. Some potential power sources for
future robotic development also include pneumatic power from compressed gasses, solar power,

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hydraulic power, flywheel energy storage organic garbage through anaerobic digestion and
nuclear power.
• End Effectors: End effectors are the physical, typically external components that allow robots to
finish carrying out their tasks. Robots in factories often have interchangeable tools like paint
sprayers and drills, surgical robots may be equipped with scalpels and other kinds of robots can
be built with gripping claws or even hands for tasks like deliveries, packing, bomb diffusion and
much more.
Applications and uses of Robotics
Robots have a wide variety of use cases that make them the ideal technology for the future. Soon, we will
see robots almost everywhere. We’ll see them in hospitals, hotels and even on roads.
• Robotics in Manufacturing:
o The manufacturing industry is probably the oldest and most well-known user of robots.
These robots and co-bots (bots that work alongside humans) work to efficiently test and
assemble products, like cars and industrial equipment. It’s estimated that there are more
than three million industrial robots in use right now.
o There are several advantages of using robots instead of humans in the manufacturing
industries:
▪ A robot can execute heavy, monotonous and dangerous tasks, improving
occupational health and safety (OHS) for humans.
▪ A robot is able to perform tasks repetitively and very precisely, leading to
improved quality and decreased line rejection
▪ A robot doesn’t require any salary and is more efficient, leading to cheaper
production.
• Logistics Robots: Shipping, handling and quality control robots are becoming a must-have for
most retailers and logistics companies. They help maximize time efficiency. Additionally, a rise
in last-mile robots (robots that will autonomously deliver your package to your door) ensures
that you’ll have a face-to-metal-face encounter with a logistics bot in the near future.
• Robots in daily life:
o Robots can be seen all over our homes, helping with chores, reminding us of our schedules
and even entertaining our kids. The most well-known example of a home robot is the
autonomous vacuum cleaner Roomba.
o Collaborative Robots (Cobots): can be controlled by a human operator, making them
safe for use in factories and other workplaces where humans are present. This is also
called Robotic staff augmentation. They are typically used in industrial settings,
factories, warehouses, or households. They have the potential to boost productivity while
reducing workplace accidents. For example, the Baxter robot.
o Additionally, robots have now evolved to do everything from autonomously mowing grass
to cleaning pools.
• Travel and Tourism:
o Self-driving vehicles: by the combination of Data Science and Robotics. Rideshare
companies Uber are also developing autonomous rideshare vehicles that don’t require
humans to operate the vehicle. Automating transport could boost safety, reliability and
efficiency.
o Social robots for hotels (receptionists) and hospitality (Welcoming and attracting guests,
directing them to their rooms, giving information about local facilities).
o Robots in Museums: they can answer questions about exhibits and history, provide
supplementary information, tell visitors the way to different exhibits, and notify people of
opening and closing times.

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o Robots in Public Parks and Gardens - they can tell people the way to different areas,
provide information about the history of the park, and identify the trees, shrubs and
flowers in the vicinity.
• Medical field and Healthcare Robotics:
o Telepresence: to help them examine and treat patients in rural or remote locations,
giving them a “telepresence” in the room.
o Surgical Assistants: assist surgeons with performing procedures, typically those that are
minimally invasive.
o Rehabilitation robots: play a crucial role in the recovery of people with disabilities in
areas such as improved mobility, strength, coordination, and quality of life.
o Medical Transportation: deliver supplies, medications, and meals to patients and staff
thereby optimizing communication between doctors, hospital staff members, and patients.
o Sanitation and Disinfection: will limit pathogen exposure while helping reduce hospital-
acquired infections (HAIs).
• Agriculture and Farming:
o Crop condition identification and corresponding chemical application, micro-spraying or
harvesting, as required by the fruit or plant.
o Autonomous precision seeding - the combination of robotics and geo-mapping, the
mechanism can place the seeds exactly where it needs to be for good growth.
o Robots to remove weeds
o LiDAR-powered robots to collect data on plants’ health, physiology, and stress response
and use it to improve the condition.
o Robot-assisted precision irrigation - reduce water wastage by targeting specific plants
• Social Robots
o Interact directly with humans.
o Can be used in long-term care environments to provide social interaction and monitoring.
o In hospitals, they reduce caregiver workloads and improve patients’ emotional well-being.
• Robots in Prohibitive labours
o Prohibitive labours include Manual scavenging, Sewage treatment, Underground mining,
rescue and rehabilitation in times of disaster.
o Manual Scavenging could lead to asphyxiation(suffocation due to the absence of
oxygen) due to poisonous gases. As per the census 2011, around 794,000 cases of manual
scavenging were reported across India. The state of Maharashtra topped the chart with a
score of 63,173 cases; the other states that followed the list were: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Tripura and Karnataka.
o HomoSEP - Indian scientists from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Tamil
Nadu have come up with a robot, called- 'HomoSEP' that could save and transform the
lives of manual scavengers and help terminate the inhumane practice of manual
scavenging forever.
o Genrobotics' flagship product, the Bandicoot robot, is a robotic scavenger that helps
clean confined spaces such as sewers, sewer wells, stormwater drains and oily water
sewers and stormwater sewers in refineries. Urban local bodies, refineries, MNCs, and
housing colonies across 14 states are using Bandicoot robots.
o In subterranean environments like underground coal mines, accidents involving roof fall
and sidewall collapse are common occurrences, resulting in loss of human life. According
to the Ministry of Labour and Employment, 377 workers involved in the mining of coal,
minerals, and oil were killed in accidents between 2015 and 2017. This number was 352
in 2014 and 962 in 2004.

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2) Industrial Revolution 4.0

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• Industry 4.0 is used interchangeably with the fourth industrial revolution and represents a
new stage in the organization and control of the industrial value chain.
• From the first industrial revolution (mechanization through water and steam power) to the mass
production and assembly lines using electricity in the second, the fourth industrial revolution will
take what was started in the third with the adoption of computers and automation and enhance it
with smart and autonomous systems fueled by data and machine learning (Industry 4.0
optimizes the computerization of Industry 3.0).
• Industry 4.0 is revolutionizing the way companies manufacture, improve and distribute their
products. The possibilities of billions of people connected by mobile devices, with unprecedented
processing power, storage capacity, and access to knowledge, are unlimited. And these
possibilities will be multiplied by emerging technology breakthroughs in fields such as artificial
intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things, autonomous vehicles, 3-D printing,
nanotechnology, biotechnology, materials science, energy storage, and quantum computing.
• There are three reasons why today’s transformations represent not merely a prolongation of the
Third Industrial Revolution but rather the arrival of a Fourth and distinct one: velocity, scope,
and systems impact.
o The speed of current breakthroughs has no historical precedent. When compared with
previous industrial revolutions, the Fourth is evolving at an exponential rather than a
linear pace.
o Moreover, it is disrupting almost every industry in every country.
o And the breadth and depth of these changes herald the transformation of entire
systems of production, management, and governance.
Challenges and Opportunities
• Like the revolutions that preceded it, the Fourth Industrial Revolution has the potential to raise
global income levels and improve the quality of life for populations around the world.
• Technology has made possible new products and services that increase the efficiency and
pleasure of our personal lives.
• Ordering a cab, booking a flight, buying a product, making a payment, listening to music, watching
a film, or playing a game—any of these can now be done remotely.
• In the future, technological innovation will also lead to a supply-side miracle, with long-term
gains in efficiency and productivity.
• Transportation and communication costs will drop, logistics and global supply chains will become
more effective, and the cost of trade will diminish, all of which will open new markets and drive
economic growth.
• The revolution could yield greater inequality, particularly in its potential to disrupt labour
markets. As automation substitutes for labour across the entire economy, the net displacement of
workers by machines might exacerbate the gap between returns to capital and returns to labor.
• On the other hand, it is also possible that the displacement of workers by technology will, in the
aggregate, result in a net increase in safe and rewarding jobs.
• In the future, talent, more than capital, will represent the critical factor of production. This will
give rise to a job market increasingly segregated into “low-skill/low-pay” and “high-skill/high-
pay” segments, which in turn will lead to an increase in social tensions.
• A winner-takes-all economy that offers only limited access to the middle class is a recipe for
democratic malaise and dereliction.
• More than 30% of the global population now uses social media platforms to connect, learn, and
share information. In an ideal world, these interactions would provide an opportunity for cross-
cultural understanding and cohesion. However, they can also create and propagate unrealistic
expectations as to what constitutes success for an individual or a group, as well as offer
opportunities for extreme ideas and ideologies to spread.
• There are four main effects that the Fourth Industrial Revolution has on business—on customer
expectations, on product enhancement, on collaborative innovation, and on organizational forms.
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3) Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a technique that enables computers to mimic human intelligence.
It includes machine learning.
• Artificial intelligence is the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines,
especially computer systems. Specific applications of AI include expert systems, natural
language processing, speech recognition and machine vision.
• At its simplest form, artificial intelligence is a field, which combines computer science and robust
datasets, to enable problem-solving. It also encompasses sub-fields of machine learning and deep
learning, which are frequently mentioned in conjunction with artificial intelligence. These
disciplines are comprised of AI algorithms which seek to create expert systems which make
predictions or classifications based on input data.
Types
• Weak AI
o Also called Narrow AI or Artificial Narrow Intelligence (ANI) is AI trained and focused
to perform specific tasks.
o Weak AI drives most of the AI that surrounds us today. ‘Narrow’ might be a more accurate
descriptor for this type of AI as it is anything but weak;
o It enables some very robust applications, such as Apple's Siri, Amazon's Alexa, IBM
Watson, and autonomous vehicles.
• Strong AI
o Is made up of Artificial General Intelligence (AGI) and Artificial Super Intelligence
(ASI).
o Artificial general intelligence (AGI), or general AI, is a theoretical form of AI where a
machine would have an intelligence equal to humans; it would have a self-aware
consciousness that has the ability to solve problems, learn, and plan for the future.
o Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI)—also known as superintelligence—would surpass
the intelligence and ability of the human brain. While strong AI is still entirely theoretical
with no practical examples in use today, that doesn't mean AI researchers aren't also
exploring its development. In the meantime, the best examples of ASI might be from
science fiction, such as HAL, the superhuman, and the rogue computer assistant in 2001: A
Space Odyssey.
AI Technologies
• Machine learning: This is the science of getting a computer to act without programming.
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that, in very simple terms, can be thought of as the
automation of predictive analytics. There are three types of machine learning algorithms:
o Supervised learning: Data sets are labeled so that patterns can be detected and used to
label new data sets.
o Unsupervised learning: Data sets aren't labeled and are sorted according to similarities
or differences.
o Reinforcement learning: Data sets aren't labeled but, after performing an action or
several actions, the AI system is given feedback.
• Natural language processing (NLP) is another branch of machine learning that deals with how
machines can understand human language. You can find this type of machine learning with
technologies like virtual assistants (Siri, Alexa, and Google Assist), business chatbots, and speech
recognition software.
• Machine vision:

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o This technology gives a machine the ability to see. Machine vision captures and
analyzes visual information using a camera, analog-to-digital conversion and digital
signal processing.
o It is often compared to human eyesight, but machine vision isn't bound by biology and
can be programmed to see through walls.
o For example It is used in a range of applications from signature identification to
medical image analysis.
o Computer vision, which is focused on machine-based image processing, is often conflated
with machine vision.
• Self-driving cars: Autonomous vehicles use a combination of computer vision, image recognition
and deep learning to build automated skills at piloting a vehicle while staying in a given lane and
avoiding unexpected obstructions, such as pedestrians.
Importance
• It can give enterprises insights into their operations that they may not have been aware of
previously because, in some cases, AI can perform tasks better than humans.
• Particularly when it comes to repetitive, detail-oriented tasks like analyzing large numbers of
legal documents to ensure relevant fields are filled in properly, AI tools often complete jobs
quickly and with relatively few errors.
• It opened the door to entirely new business opportunities for some larger enterprises.

Advantages
• Good at detail-oriented jobs;
• Reduced time for data-heavy tasks;
• Delivers consistent results; and
• AI-powered virtual agents are always available.

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Disadvantages
• Expensive;
• Requires deep technical expertise;
• Limited supply of qualified workers to build AI tools;
• only knows what it's been shown; and
• Lack of ability to generalize from one task to another.
Applications
• Speech recognition: It is also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), computer speech
recognition, or speech-to-text, and it is a capability which uses natural language processing
(NLP) to process human speech into a written format. Many mobile devices incorporate speech
recognition into their systems to conduct voice searches—e.g. Siri—or provide more accessibility
around texting.
• Customer service: Online virtual agents are replacing human agents along the customer journey.
They answer frequently asked questions (FAQs) around topics, like shipping, or provide
personalized advice, cross-selling products or suggesting sizes for users, changing the way we
think about customer engagement across websites and social media platforms. Examples include
messaging bots on e-commerce sites with virtual agents, messaging apps, such as Slack and
Facebook Messenger, and tasks usually done by virtual assistants and voice assistants.
• Computer vision: This AI technology enables computers and systems to derive meaningful
information from digital images, videos and other visual inputs, and based on those inputs, it
can take action. This ability to provide recommendations distinguishes it from image recognition
tasks. Powered by convolutional neural networks, computer vision has applications within photo
tagging in social media, radiology imaging in healthcare, and self-driving cars within the
automotive industry.
• Recommendation engines: Using past consumption behaviour data, AI algorithms can help to
discover data trends that can be used to develop more effective cross-selling strategies. This is
used to make relevant add-on recommendations to customers during the checkout process for
online retailers.
• Automated stock trading: Designed to optimize stock portfolios, AI-driven high-frequency
trading platforms make thousands or even millions of trades per day without human intervention.
• AI Cybersecurity: As cyberattacks grow in volume and complexity, artificial intelligence (AI) is
helping under-resourced security operations analysts stay ahead of threats.
o Improves how security experts analyze, study and understand cybercrime.
o AI identifies unknown threats from ravaging a company.
o Can handle a lot of data - which can detect any threat hidden in this traffic.
o Better vulnerability management.
o Reduction in duplicate processes - helps check for basic security threats and prevent them
on a regular basis.
o Accelerates detection and Response times.
o Securing Authentication
• AI in Healthcare: The biggest bets are on improving patient outcomes and reducing costs.
Companies are applying machine learning to make better and faster diagnoses than humans.
o One of the best-known healthcare technologies is IBM Watson. It understands natural
language and can respond to questions asked of it.
o Other AI applications include using online virtual health assistants and chatbots to help
patients and healthcare customers find medical information, schedule appointments,
understand the billing process and complete other administrative processes. An array of
AI technologies is also being used to predict, fight and understand pandemics such as
COVID-19.

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• AI in clinical diagnosis
o AI Algorithms Can process and analyze Electronic health records (EHRs), imaging
technology, genetic data, and portable sensor data which can yield insightful information
to help with medical diagnosis.
o Machine learning(ML) and Deep Learning(DL) algorithms have transformed medical
imaging analysis by improving tumor identification, categorization, and classification
efficiency.
o AI algorithms can analyze a vast amount of data to detect patterns and make
predictions resulting in more precise diagnoses and individualized treatment strategies.
o AI can process X-ray images, MRIs, and CT scans in a fraction of the time, and has
demonstrated outstanding proficiency in identifying and locating tumors, anomalies, and
other medical problems using medical images.
o AI can assess biomarkers, including blood tests and imaging results, to find disease-
related early warning symptoms that could still not be clinically evident.
o AI Can Assist In Differential Diagnosis And Treatment Decision-Making.
o Chatbots and Virtual Health Assistants: AI-driven chatbots and virtual assistants can
conduct symptom analysis, provide preliminary diagnoses, and offer treatment
suggestions based on patient input.
• Threat to privacy in the use of AI in healthcare
o Data Security: The improper handling or security breaches of patient data that AI heavily
relies on can lead to privacy violations and identity theft.
o Unauthorized Access: There is a risk of unauthorized access to sensitive health data by
healthcare providers, AI developers, or hackers.
o Data Aggregation: As AI systems gather and analyze large datasets, there is the potential
for sensitive information to be aggregated, de-anonymized, or used for purposes beyond
the original intent, which could violate individuals' privacy.
o Informed Consent: Patients may not fully understand how their data is being used or how
AI is influencing their care. Informed consent becomes more challenging as AI systems
become increasingly complex.

• AI in Education:
o AI can automate grading, giving educators more time.
o It can assess students and adapt to their needs, helping them work at their own pace.
o AI tutors can provide additional support to students, ensuring they stay on track.
o And it could change where and how students learn, perhaps even replacing some teachers.
• AI in Banking:
o Banks are successfully employing chatbots to make their customers aware of services and
offerings and to handle transactions that don't require human intervention.
o AI virtual assistants are being used to improve and cut the costs of compliance with
banking regulations.
o Banking organizations are also using AI to improve their decision-making for loans and
set credit limits and identify investment opportunities.
• AI in transportation. In addition to AI's fundamental role in operating autonomous vehicles, AI
technologies are used in transportation to manage traffic, predict flight delays, and make ocean
shipping safer and more efficient.

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Ethics in AI

Artificial Intelligence in India

• India’s national strategy for artificial intelligence prepared by NITI Aayog has formulated the
way forward to harness the power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in various fields.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) practices and efforts benefit India in addressing societal needs in
areas such as healthcare, education, agriculture, smart cities and infrastructure, including smart
mobility and transportation using such dynamic data.
• Evolution of AI

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• What constitutes AI

• The field of AI has tremendously evolved since the introduction of sophisticated techniques and
algorithms. Various AI-based algorithms were used for the purpose of clustering, regression,
identification, classification detection, translation etc.
• Accenture, in its recent AI research reports provides a framework for evaluating the economic
impact of AI for select G20 countries and estimates AI to boost India’s annual growth rate by 1.3
percentage points by 2035.
• India has 386 of a total of 22,000 PhD educated researchers worldwide and ranked 10th
globally in research.
• India was ranked 13th globally, with 44 top-notch presenters at leading AI conferences globally.
• AI research concentrated mostly at institutes, like IITs, IIITs and IISc.
• AIRAWAT (AI research, analytics and knowledge assimilation platform)
o AIRAWAT will be a cloud platform for Big Data Analytics and Assimilation, with a
large, power-optimized AI Computing infrastructure using advanced AI processing.
o The proposed Infrastructure will be equipped with facilities for world’s leading machine
learning including deep learning, high performance high throughput supercomputing,
infrastructure to store, process, simulate and analyze big data sets like images, video, text,
sound, speech.
o AIRAWAT will support advancement of AI-based developments in image recognition,
speech recognition, natural language processing for research, development and creation
of varieties of new applications for the support of advancements in the fields of
Agriculture & Healthcare.
• AI in India: Opportunities
AI has the potential to drive growth through enabling:
o Intelligent automation i.e. ability to automate complex physical world tasks that require
adaptability and agility across industries,
o Labor and capital augmentation: enabling humans to focus on parts of their role that
add the most value, complementing human capabilities and improving capital efficiency
o Innovation diffusion i.e. propelling innovations as it diffuses through the economy
• Crucial factors determining the readiness of large scale AI adoption:
o Technical feasibility
o Availability of structured data
o Regulatory barriers
o Privacy considerations
o Ethical issues
o Preference for human relationship

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Augmented intelligence vs. artificial intelligence

Some industry experts believe the term artificial intelligence is too closely linked to popular culture, and
this has caused the general public to have improbable expectations about how AI will change the
workplace and life in general.
• Augmented intelligence is a design pattern for a human-centered partnership model of people
and Artificial intelligence (AI) working together to enhance cognitive performance, including
learning, decision making and new experiences.
• Artificial intelligence seeks to automate processes, delve deep into data to yield answers and
operate autonomously. Augmented intelligence uses AI but in a fashion where humans are kept
in the loop and play a key role in making decisions.
• Artificial intelligence is one of many, many different technologies, and augmented intelligence
is a manifestation or outcome of how you choose to implement those AI technologies.
• The goal of AI is to show intelligent behaviour that mimics the human mind and can ultimately
automate processes and make decisions without any human intervention. Augmented intelligence
is designed to show intelligent behaviour too, but its differentiator is working with humans to
improve the task to be done or decision to be made.
• AI systems don’t need to have much social intelligence because they are designed to work
autonomously. But with augmented intelligence, social intelligence is required because it needs to
give humans explanations about what it is doing and allow people to advise it about what it
should be doing in a way similar to how humans interact with one another.
• When teamed with humans, augmented intelligence systems have the benefit “of a bigger
picture on common sense,” which AI systems tend to lack due to their deep and narrow view of
data and information. For example, two supercomputers programmed to play chess may attempt
to finish the game despite a fire in their office, whereas a supercomputer playing chess against a
human would be instructed by the human to turn itself off.
• Tesla vehicles use augmented intelligence. Although they can largely navigate roads on
autopilot, there are times when they require human intervention in certain emergencies, like cars
suddenly pulling into the driver’s lane or slamming on the brakes on short notice.
Deep learning Vs. Machine learning
• Machine learning and deep learning are both types of AI. In short, machine learning is AI that can
automatically adapt with minimal human interference. Deep learning is a subset of machine
learning that uses artificial neural networks to mimic the learning process of the human brain.
• Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that's based on artificial neural networks. The
learning process is deep because the structure of artificial neural networks consists of multiple
input, output, and hidden layers. Each layer contains units that transform the input data into
information that the next layer can use for a certain predictive task. Thus a machine can learn
through its own data processing.
• Deep learning is used for Named-entity recognition, Object detection, Image caption generation,
Machine translation, and Text analytics.
• Machine learning: This is the science of getting a computer to act without programming.
Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that, in very simple terms, can be thought of as the
automation of predictive analytics. There are three types of machine learning algorithms:
o Supervised learning: Data sets are labeled so that patterns can be detected and used to
label new data sets.
o Unsupervised learning: Data sets aren't labeled and are sorted according to similarities
or differences.
o Reinforcement learning: Data sets aren't labeled but, after performing an action or
several actions, the AI system is given feedback.

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Machine Learning Deep Learning

A subset of AI A subset of machine learning

Can train on smaller data sets Requires large amounts of data

Require more human intervention to correct Learns on its own from the environment and past
and learn mistakes

Shorter training and lower accuracy Longer training and higher accuracy

Makes simple, linear correlations Make non-linear, complex correlations

Can train on a CPU (central processing unit) Needs a specialized GPU (graphics processing
unit) to train

Transfer Learning
• Transfer learning is a technique that applies knowledge gained from solving one problem to a
different but related problem.
• For example, if you trained a simple classifier to predict whether an image contains a backpack,
you could use the knowledge that the model gained during its training to recognize other objects
like sunglasses.
• The general idea is to use the knowledge a model has learned from a task with a lot of available
labeled training data in a new task that doesn't have much data. Instead of starting the learning
process from scratch, we start with patterns learned from solving a related task.
• Transfer learning is mostly used in computer vision and natural language processing tasks like
sentiment analysis due to the huge amount of computational power required.
• Transfer learning isn’t really a machine learning technique but can be seen as a “design
methodology” within the field, for example, active learning. It is also not an exclusive part or
study area of machine learning. Nevertheless, it has become quite popular in combination with
neural networks that require huge amounts of data and computational power.
• Transfer learning has several benefits, but the main advantages are
o saving training time
o better performance of neural networks (in most cases)
o not needing a lot of data

4) Internet of Things (IoT)

• The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines, objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs)
and the ability to transfer data over a network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-
computer interaction.
• In simple terms, the Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the digitally connected universe of smart
devices. These devices are embedded with internet connectivity, sensors and other hardware that
allow communication and control via the web.
• Types of network connections can include Wi-Fi connections, Bluetooth connections, and near-
field communication (NFC).
• The IoT can be found in an array of devices, industries and settings. From smart blackboards in
school classrooms to medical devices that can detect signs of Parkinson’s disease, IoT is rapidly
making the world smarter by connecting the physical and the digital.

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• The information picked up by connected devices enables me to make smart decisions about
which components to stock up on, based on real-time information, which helps me save time
and money.
• Smart objects and systems can automate certain tasks, particularly when these are repetitive,
mundane, time-consuming or even dangerous.
• The number of IoT-connected devices grew by 8% in 2021 and is projected to leap by another
22% through 2025, reaching 27 billion devices, according to market research platform IoT
Analytics. Examples of the Internet of Things span industries, from manufacturing and automotive
to healthcare and retail.
• The IoT includes devices such as "smart" appliances, like refrigerators and thermostats; home
security systems; computer peripherals, like webcams and printers; wearable technology,
such as Apple Watches and Fitbits; routers; and smart speaker devices, like Amazon Echo and
Google Home.
IoT Technologies

• Devices have the hardware, like sensors, that collect data.

• The data collected by the sensors is then shared via the cloud and integrated with the software.
• The software then analyzes and transmits the data to users via an app or website.
• IoT technologies can be divided into two categories:
o IoT data protocols that allow information to be exchanged between devices even
without an internet connection.
o IoT network protocols that link devices to one another and to the internet.

Applications of IoT
• Thermostats and security systems for smart homes
• Wearables for health and fitness tracking
• Diagnostics for autonomous vehicles
• Automation for smart factories
• Lighting and traffic systems for smart cities
• Crop monitoring
• Retail supply chain tracking
• Monitoring and diagnosing diseases.

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Challenges in IoT
• IoT Security
o IoT devices have earned a bad reputation when it comes to security.
o IoT devices are often basic gadgets with stripped-down Oses .
o They are designed for individual tasks and minimal human interaction, and cannot be
patched, monitored or updated.
o Vulnerable to hacking because many IoT devices are ultimately running in Linux
version.
o Lack of privacy - every bit of information goes into a data lake that can help companies
produce a surprisingly complete picture of your life.
• Lack of regulations about IoT
o government regulation often takes a long time to catch up with the current state of
technology
o Quality control of IoT can be particularly tricky as huge numbers of IoT devices are being
imported from countries like China that have different standards of quality and security.
o strong and universal security standards for IoT technology should be formulated.
• Challenges with compatibility
o Different devices have different versions and software which will be a challenge for
compatibility of all devices.
o Example: Home mesh networks - few use Bluetooth and few other uses Zigbee and z-wave
etc.
o Continued compatibility for IoT devices depends upon users keeping their devices
updated and patched, which will be pretty difficult.
o When IoT devices that have to talk to each other are running different software versions,
all kinds of performance issues and security vulnerabilities can result.
• Lack of encryption
o Encryption sounds like the ultimate answer to security issues. But hackers may
manipulate these algorithms and turn a protective system into the most serious loophole.
• Lack of sufficient testing and updating
o With the increasing market of IoT, production has to be faster. To compete in the race of
production, manufacturers lack tests and updates. The main focus of IoT manufacturers
now seems to be production, not security. Thus products lack proper and regular testing
and updates. This makes IOTs prone to being attacked by hackers.
• Weak login detail
o With every device asking for login details, it may at times turn difficult to produce tough
credentials. This leads to easy hacking, wherein the user, out of leniency, fills in weak
credentials and login details.
• Battery sizes
o Providing users with extended battery life and smaller, handy products is a great
challenge for the manufacturers of IoT products. Manufacturers continuously face the
challenge of delivering the best in the smallest and lightest products.
• Connectivity
o So far, we have learned correctly that connectivity is the backbone of IoT. Without good
connectivity, the products are ordinary physical products that have no connection with
the technology of IoT. Poor connectivity will lead to no data collection, no data storage,
and no data sharing, making IOTs useless.
• Need for skill set
o To handle these technical challenges in the internet of things (IoT), skilled manpower
needs to be in place. Only those with skills and the ability to think critically will be able to
solve the various challenges faced by this forever-changing technology.

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Potential solutions
• Data collection and Management
o Effective Data Privacy Law for proper management of data; to check data breaching; and
for data protection.
o Development of cloud computing delivers extended infrastructure to support greater
storage.
• Timely and regular tests
o Accompanied by relevant updates
o Proper testing before release into the market
o To ensure that the system is bug-free.
• Strict Data Encryption
o Encrypt data both at rest and in transit.
o To make sure that a minimum number of individuals are allowed access to it.
o Users must ensure that effective and relevant anti-virus, anti-malware and firewalls are in
place to check any irrelevant activity.
IoT in India
• The Indian government started the 100 smart cities mission in 2016, which will be completed
in 2024.
• State governments have used around Rs 2 lakh crore in smart cities projects and Rs 4.5 lakh crore
is in the pipeline.
• There are numerous IoT applications in smart cities. Traffic management, energy harvesting by
using solar panels on buildings and LED streetlights, saving water using a smart meter, etc, are a
few of the smart technologies used in IoT.
• For IoT implementation, data analytics, cloud computing and network security are the key
enabling technologies.
• Several companies offer cloud services in India, reducing the cost of smart solutions for smart
cities.
• IoT use increases with 5G network deployment in our country. With 5G connectivity, IoT solutions
will be crucial for home automation, security, and several other industrial issues.
• The government of India is working on 5G deployment in some cities by the end of 2022. the 5G
network is already deployed in many countries like China, Korea, Japan, and America.

IoT initiatives in India

1. Draft IoT Policy 2015: Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY, earlier
referred to as DeitY) launched India’s first draft of the IoT Policy Document in 2015 – a strong
governance framework for holistic implementation and execution of IoT-related policies
2. National Digital Communications Policy (NDCP) 2018: Futuristic goals and policy initiatives
undertaken by NDCP to address the problem of communications and access to digital services in
India
3. Smart Cities Mission (SCM) 2015: Smart City Mission was launched in 2015 to drive economic
growth and improve quality of life by using technology as a means to create smarter outcomes
4. IoT Centre of Excellence (CoE) by NASSCOM, MeitY and ERNET: CoE is specifically designed to
help Indian IoT Start-ups to create market-leading products. CoE is India’s largest deep-tech
innovation ecosystem.
5. IoT lab, a partnership between IIT Delhi and Samsung: MoU between IIT Delhi and Samsung was
signed in 2016, to enhance research capabilities and industry collaboration in the IoT space.

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5) Additive manufacturing (3D printing)

• Additive manufacturing (AM) or additive layer manufacturing (ALM) is the industrial
production name for 3D printing, a computer-controlled process that creates three-dimensional
objects by depositing materials, usually in layers.
• AM has the potential to transform manufacturing due to design freedom, shape optimisation
potential, reduced time-to-market, ease of making changes and low Capex requirements.
• Furthermore, AM plays a key role in bringing about Industrial Revolution 4.0.
• Working: Using computer-aided design (CAD) or 3D object scanners, additive manufacturing
allows for the creation of objects with precise geometric shapes. These are built layer by layer,
as with a 3D printing process, which is in contrast to traditional manufacturing (subtractive
manufacturing) that often requires machining or other techniques to remove surplus material.
• Materials used in Additive manufacturing
o Biochemicals: include silicon, calcium phosphate and zinc while bio-inks fabricated from
stem cells are also being explored. These materials are generally used for healthcare
applications.
o Ceramics: A range of ceramics are used in AM, including alumina, tricalcium phosphate
and zirconia as well as powdered glass which can be baked together with adhesives to
create new types of glass products.
o Metals: A wide variety of metals and metal alloys are used for additive manufacturing,
including gold and silver, stainless steels and titanium amongst others. These can be made
to create a variety of different metal parts, ranging from jewellery to aerospace
components.
o Thermoplastics: Thermoplastic polymers are the most commonly used AM materials and
include various types with their advantages and applications. These include acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS), polylactic acid (PLA) and polycarbonate (PC) as well as water-

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soluble polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) which can provide temporary support before being
dissolved.
• Application of Additive manufacturing
o Medical: Medical manufacturers are utilizing a wide range of high-strength and
biocompatible 3D printing materials, from rigid to flexible and opaque to transparent, to
customize designs like never before. Some applications shaking up the medical industry
are orthopedic implant devices, dental devices, pre-surgery models from CT scans, custom
saw and drill guides, enclosures and specialized instrumentation.
o Aerospace: Common applications include environmental control systems (ECS) ducting,
custom cosmetic aircraft interior components, rocket engine components, combustor
liners, tooling for composites, oil and fuel tanks and UAV components.
o Transportation:
o Art and Design
o Robotics
o Architecture and construction

• Advantages of using Additive manufacturing

o With additive manufacturing, much of the supply chain’s intermediate steps are removed.
The speed at which you can get to a single part is much faster. With traditional
manufacturing, the entire supply chain can take months and require an investment.
o Design flexibility: With additive manufacturing, you produce — layer by layer — pretty
much any geometry you want to create. You can create 3-D entities that are much more
complex and have different material properties.
o Ability to do complex structures: Manufacturing something additively also makes it
possible to create objects with functionally-graded materials — meaning they can have
different materials on the inside and outside. For example, On the outside, you have
abrasion-resistant materials, like ceramics, and on the inside, you have conductive
materials, like metals. Creating something like that is quite difficult to do with
conventional manufacturing.

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o Product customization: This makes customizing products, like prosthetics or implants,

easier, and could result in better outcomes for patients. Hearing aids, customized for each
person, are almost entirely additively manufactured.
o Cost-benefit: setup costs are mostly eliminated, so creating just a handful of objects
becomes more reasonable.
o Ease of redesigning
o Reducing waste
o Employment opportunities
• Issues with additive manufacturing
o Additive manufacturing machines are expensive, sometimes hundreds of thousands of
dollars.
o AM technology has still not matured enough so that it can be employed in real-world
applications.
o Limit on the part size: creating large lot sizes takes longer than traditional manufacturing.
o Low manufacturing efficiency
o Poor accuracy
o Layer misalignment
o Mass production and limitations in the use of materials are the challenges that need
further analysis and exploration.
o making sure that your final part has good properties is the biggest challenge.
Additive manufacturing in India
• India has an excellent opportunity as the world begins to adopt AM techniques. Additive
manufacturing development and adoption can help India in becoming a leading manufacturing
hub.
• National Strategy on Additive manufacturing
o Formulated by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY)
o Aims to create a conducive environment for the development, design and deployment of
AM technologies.
o The strategy aims to increase India’s share in global AM to 5% in the next three years.
MeitY estimates that AM can add US$ 1 billion to India’s GDP by that time.
Recommendations
o Establishment of National Additive Manufacturing Centre (NAMC) – a dedicated
agency to promote the adoption of AM technologies, through a public-private partnership
(PPP) model.
o Strengthening Technology Leadership: to address the need for a skilled workforce. This
can be developed on a PPP framework and modeled around the ‘Maker Village', a
collaboration between MeitY, IIITM-K, the Government of Kerala and the Kerala Start-up
Mission.
o Research and IP Creation: promoting R&D in AM, encouraging competition, and creating
a next-generation workforce.
o Supply Chain Development: procurement policies to include AM machines. Furthermore,
the government can provide incentives to small businesses aligned with the AM
Technology Advancement Plan and include AM in various schemes and incentives.
• Atal Innovation Mission(AIM) - Atal Tinkering Labs (ATL) Initiative
o government’s flagship initiative to create and promote entrepreneurship and
innovation across the country.
o ATL aims to foster creativity and innovation in young minds and focuses on Science,
Technology, Engineering and Math (STEM) concepts.
o Dedicated workspaces have been set up with do-it-yourself (DIY) kits including 3D
printers, robotics and miniaturized electronics are installed.
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o Some initiatives such as 3D design were also undertaken. AIM is also being complimented
by the Digital India initiative.
• State Government Initiatives:
o The Gujarat government signed an MoU with the US Institute of 3D Technology and OEM
3D Systems to set up seven 3D printing Centers of Excellence in technical institutes and
engineering colleges.
o The Andhra Pradesh MedTech Zone collaborated with the University of Wollongong to
establish a 3D bioprinting lab.
o The Department of Heavy Industries COE at IISc Bengaluru collaborated with Wipro to
build India’s first industrial-grade 3D printer.

Hybrid Manufacturing
• Machines that offer both additive and finishing capabilities together are known as hybrid
manufacturing machines.
• Both processes on their own have remarkable capabilities, but when combined, it opens up a
whole new level of design and manufacturing.
• The most common types of hybrid machines combine one type of AM (Additive Manufacturing)
with CNC(Computer Numerical Control) machining so parts can be printed and finished in the
same setup.
• Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, is used to build up a component, part or
structure within another part; traditional subtractive manufacturing, or computer numerical
control (CNC) milling, is used to fabricate, spot mill, polish and so on.
• Some hybrid machines can combine more than two processes such as additive, subtractive, and
inspection offering the capability of a micro-factory.
• Fabrication and precision can be attained in a more efficient and unified environment.
• The combination is meant to enable greater design freedom, flexibility and intricacy in creating
complicated parts or those with radical geometries that conventional manufacturing was not able
to produce.
• Hybrid manufacturing seeks to close the gap between the unlimited potential of CAD (computer-
aided design) visualizations and the myriad constraints of what can be produced in real life. Other
benefits include shorter processing times, the need for fewer machines and easier inspection.

6) Quantum computing
• Quantum computing is a multidisciplinary field comprising aspects of computer science,
physics, and mathematics that utilizes quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster
than on classical computers.
• The field of quantum computing includes hardware research and application development.
• Quantum computers are able to solve certain types of problems faster than classical computers by
taking advantage of quantum mechanical effects, such as superposition and quantum
interference.
• Some applications where quantum computers can provide such a speed boost include machine
learning (ML), optimization, and simulation of physical systems. Eventual use cases could be
portfolio optimization in finance or the simulation of chemical systems, solving problems that are
currently impossible for even the most powerful supercomputers on the market.
• Quantum mechanics: Quantum mechanics is the area of physics that studies the behavior of
particles at a microscopic level. At subatomic levels, the equations that describe how particles
behave are different from those that describe the macroscopic world around us.
• Quantum bits (qubits)

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o Quantum bits, or qubits, are represented by quantum particles. The manipulation of

qubits by control devices is at the core of a quantum computer's processing power.
Qubits in quantum computers are analogous to bits in classical computers. At its core, a
classical machine's processor does all its work by manipulating bits. Similarly, the
quantum processor does all its work by processing qubits.
o In classical computing, a bit is an electronic signal that is either on or off. The value of the
classical bit can thus be one (on) or zero (off). However, because the qubit is based on the
laws of quantum mechanics it can be placed in a superposition of states.
• Principles of Quantum computing
o Superposition
▪ Superposition states that, much like waves in classical physics, you can add two or
more quantum states and the result will be another valid quantum state.
▪ This superposition of qubits gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism,
allowing them to process millions of operations simultaneously.
o Entanglement
▪ Entanglement is the ability of qubits to correlate their state with other qubits.
▪ Quantum entanglement occurs when two systems link so closely that knowledge
about one gives you immediate knowledge about the other, no matter how far
apart they are.
▪ For example, they can determine that if one qubit spins upward, the other will
always spin downward, and vice versa.
▪ Quantum entanglement allows quantum computers to solve complex problems
faster.
o Decoherence
▪ Decoherence is the loss of the quantum state in a qubit.
▪ Environmental factors, like radiation, can cause the quantum state of the qubits to
collapse.
▪ A large engineering challenge in constructing a quantum computer is designing the
various features that attempt to delay the decoherence of the state, such as
building speciality structures that shield the qubits from external fields.
• Advantages of quantum computing
o They’re fast. In 2019, for example, Google claimed to carry out a calculation in about 200
seconds that would take a classical supercomputer around 10,000 years.
o They can solve complex problems.
o They can run complex simulations: a quantum computer could simulate many intricate
systems, allowing us to understand some of life’s great mysteries better.
• Disadvantages
o Are only prototypes that are still bulky, complicated and expensive.
o The entanglement of many qubits at once is currently just as difficult as maintaining the
necessary state for quantum operations.
o At the same time, the developers of the systems are struggling with an error rate that is
still far too high
o Secure communication or any kind of transaction over the internet could be cracked and
the data misused or resold
o Due to their incomparable computing power, all currently used encryption mechanisms
would be useless from one day to the next.
• Application of quantum computing
o Cryptography: The ordinary computers we use today make it infeasible to break the
encryption that uses very large prime number factorisation (300+ integers). This
decryption could become trivial with quantum computers, leading to much stronger

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protection of our digital lives and assets. Also, be able to break traditional encryption
much faster.
o Aviation: Aiding in the routing and scheduling of aircraft has enormous commercial
benefits for time and costs
o Data Analytics: A field of study called topological analysis where geometric shapes
behave in specific ways describes computations that are simply impossible with today’s
conventional computers due to the data set used
o NASA is looking at using quantum computing for analyzing the enormous amount of data
they collect about the universe, as well as research better and safer methods of space
travel.
o Forecasting: Predicting and forecasting various scenarios rely on large and complex data
sets. Traditional simulation of, for example, the weather is limited in the inputs that can be
handled with classic computing. If you add too many factors, then the simulation takes
longer than the actual weather to evolve
o Pattern Matching: Finding patterns in data and using these to predict future patterns is
highly valuable. Volkswagen is currently looking into how they can use quantum
computing to inform drivers of traffic conditions 45 minutes in advance. Matching traffic
patterns and predicting the behaviour of a system as complex as modern-day traffic is so
far not possible for today’s computers, but this is going to change with quantum
computers.
o Medical Research: Improving the front end of the process with quantum computing can
dramatically cut costs and time to market, repurpose pre-approved drugs more easily for
new applications, and empower computational chemists to make discoveries faster that
could lead to cures for a range of diseases.
o Self-Driving Cars: Car companies like Tesla and tech companies like Apple and Google are
actively developing driverless cars. Not only will these improve the standard of living for
most people, but also cut pollution, reduce congestion and bring about a bunch of other
benefits.

Questions:
1. Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you
perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare? (2023)

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Computers
1) Supercomputers
• Supercomputers divide problems or tasks into multiple parts that are worked on
simultaneously by thousands of processors, making them dramatically faster than the everyday
laptop or desktop computer.
• Supercomputing technology comprises supercomputers, the fastest computers in the world.
• In May 2020, researchers at US Oak Ridge National Lab ran thousands of simulations to find
drug compounds that could stop the covid-19 virus from infecting host cells. They completed the
simulations in just 2-3 days using IBM’s Summit supercomputer.
• Supercomputers are made up of interconnects, I/O systems, and memory and processor cores.
• Unlike traditional computers, supercomputers use more than one central processing unit (CPU).
These CPUs are grouped into compute nodes, comprising a processor or a group of processors—
symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)—and a memory block.
• At scale, a supercomputer can contain tens of thousands of nodes. With interconnect
communication capabilities, these nodes can collaborate on solving a specific problem. Nodes also
use interconnects to communicate with I/O systems, like data storage and networking.
• The computing power of a supercomputer is measured in floating-point operations per second
or FLOPS. One PetaFlops is equal to 1,000,000,000,000,000 (one quadrillion) FLOPS, or one
thousand TeraFlops. The world’s fastest supercomputer, Frontier, located at the Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, offers a peak performance of 1,685 PFlops.
• Supercomputers consume lots of power. As a result, they generate so much heat that they need
to be stored in cooling systems.
• Traditionally, supercomputers have been used for scientific and engineering applications that
must handle massive databases, do a great amount of computation or both.
• Supercomputers can be utilized for a large number of things in certain areas like chemistry
formulations, protein folding, and biomedicine. They can also be used in space for satellite
placements, which are very, very difficult to solve with classical computers.
• Advances like multicore processors and general-purpose graphics processing units have enabled
powerful machines that could be called desktop supercomputers or GPU supercomputers.
Applications of supercomputers
Supercomputers perform resource-intensive calculations that general-purpose computers can't
handle. They often run engineering and computational sciences applications, such as the following:
• Weather forecasting: to predict the impact of extreme storms and floods;
• Oil and gas exploration: to collect huge quantities of geophysical seismic data to aid in finding
and developing oil reserves;
• Molecular modeling: for calculating and analyzing the structures and properties of chemical
compounds and crystals;
• Physical simulations: like modeling supernovas and the birth of the universe;
• Aerodynamics: such as designing a car with the lowest air drag coefficient;
• Nuclear fusion research: to build a nuclear fusion reactor that derives energy from plasma
reactions;
• Medical research: to develop new cancer drugs, understand the genetic factors that contribute to
opioid addiction and find treatments for COVID-19;
• Next-gen materials identification: to find new materials for manufacturing; and
• Cryptanalysis: to analyze cyphertext, ciphers and cryptosystems to understand how they work
and identify ways of defeating them.
Like any computer, supercomputers are used to simulate reality but on a larger scale. Some of
the functions of a supercomputer can also be carried out with cloud computing. Like
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supercomputers, cloud computing combines the power of multiple processors to achieve power
that is impossible on a PC.
Supercomputers around the world
• 10 fastest supercomputers in the world (source: TOP500)
o Frontier (U.S.)
o Fugaku (Japan)
o LUMI (Finland)
o Summit (U.S.)
o Sierra (U.S.)
o Sunway TaihuLight (China)
o Perlmutter (U.S.)
o Selene (U.S.)
o Tianhe-2A (China)
o Adastra (France)
Supercomputers in India
• In 1991, India got its first supercomputer PARAM 8000 (PARAllel Machine 8000), with
processing power in GFlops as per the first mission of C-DAC.
• In 1992/93, India released PARAM 8600.
• India got its first supercomputer to be ranked in the world, PARAM Padma, in 2002, fulfilling the
third mission of the C-DAC.
• The newest supercomputer in India is PARAM Ananta.
• The fastest supercomputer in India: PARAM Siddhi AI is also AI-based with 210 AI Petaflops
launched on 16 November 2020 and holds 63 ranks among the top 500 non-distributed
supercomputers of the world. It was designed and developed jointly by the Department of Science
& Technology (DST) and the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology at C-DAC
(Center for Development of Advanced Computing), Pune, under the National Supercomputing
Mission (NSM).
• Supercomputers are the future of the Nation and are the path to making India “Atma Nirbhar” by
shaking hands with the dreams of making digital India and Made in India.
Rankings of Indian Supercomputers
• Param Siddhi, which offers a peak performance of 5.27 PFlops, had the distinction of being
ranked as the 63rd fastest supercomputer in the world when it was launched in November
2020, according to the Top 500 global ranking service. It has since slipped to the 111th spot.
• Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology’s (IITM) Pratyush supercomputer, which used to be in
the top 100, is now ranked 132.
• Overall, India has three supercomputers in the top 500’s overall list.
• China and the US account for nearly two-thirds of the top 500 supercomputers in the world, with
173 and 128 of the 500 most powerful supercomputers in the world, respectively.
National Supercomputing Mission (NSM)
• India has showcased its talent in building supercomputers at low cost with its PARAM series. To
further enhance its capacity and meet requirements, the Government of India launched National
Supercomputing Mission (NSM) in 2015.
• India is devoted to making the best of the supercomputers, and PARAM series supercomputers
are its witness.
• National Knowledge Network (NKN): The NKN is another programme of the government which
connects academic institutions and R&D labs over a high-speed network.

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• The Mission would be implemented and steered jointly by the Department of Science and
Technology (DST) and the Department of Electronics and Information Technology (DeitY) at an
estimated cost of Rs.4500 crore over a period of seven years.
• A department of MeitY, Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) is
responsible for designing, developing, and commissioning supercomputers under NSM.
Pillars of NSM
• Infrastructure
• Applications
• Research and development (R&D)
• Human Resource Development (HRD)
has been functioning efficiently to realize the goal of developing the indigenous supercomputing
ecosystem of the nation.
Different Phases of Mission
National Supercomputing Mission was planned in three phases:
• Phase 1: Plan was to install 6 supercomputers with 30% value additions done in India. The
focus of this phase was to create an ecosystem for the assembly of system components within
the country.
• Phase 2: started in April 2021 aimed at manufacturing supercomputers in the country with an
indigenous software stack.
• Phase 3: initiated in 2021. Focus is on design and manufacturing in the country and is expected
to take computing speed to 45 PF.
• By way of all three phases, the mission is expected to provide access to High-Performance
Computing (HPC) facilities to around 75 institutions in India and more than 1000 active
researchers and academicians who are working through National Knowledge Network (NKN).
Objectives of NSM
• To make India one of the world leaders in Supercomputing and to enhance India’s capability in
solving grand challenge problems of national and global relevance
• To empower scientists and researchers with state-of-the-art supercomputing facilities and enable
them to conduct cutting-edge research in their respective domains
• To minimize redundancies and duplication of efforts and optimize investments in
supercomputing
• To attain global competitiveness and ensure self-reliance in the strategic area of supercomputing
technology
Supercomputers installed and commissioned in India as a part of NSM

• PARAM Shivay: First indigenously assembled supercomputer.

• PARAM Shakti
• PARAM Brahma
• PARAM Sanganak
• PARAM Seva
• PARAM Yukti
• PARAM Smriti
• PARAM Utkarsh
• PARAM Sidhi
• PARAM Pravega
• PARAM Ganga

Benefits and application

• India is currently focusing on value additions using supercomputers in areas like Artificial
Intelligence (AI), Big Data Analytics, Smart infrastructure, climate change etc.
• NSM Platform for Genomics and Drug Discovery.

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• Urban Modeling: Science-Based Decision Support Framework to Address Urban Environment

Issues (Meteorology, Hydrology, Air Quality).
• Flood Early Warning and Prediction System for River Basins of India.
• HPC Software Suite for Seismic Imaging to aid Oil and Gas Exploration.
• MPPLAB: Telecom Network Optimization.

Recent development
• The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) has installed four
supercomputers at various institutions in the country. Fifteen supercomputers,
• Under Phase 1 & Phase 2 total of 15 systems with computer power of 22 Petaflops (PF) with an
aggregate, compute capacity of 24 petaflops has been built at IIT’s, C-DAC, NIT, JNCASR, and
IISER.
• NSM has deployed “PARAM Ganga”, a supercomputer at IIT Roorkee on 7th March 2022 with a
supercomputing capacity of 1.66 Petaflops as a part of phase 2.
• Large parts of the components used to build this system are manufactured and assembled in India
along with a software stack developed by C-DAC as a part of make in India initiative.
• PARAM Siddhi-AI is the fastest supercomputer in India built under NSM with a capacity of 5.26 PF
and according to the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, PARAM Siddhi-AI will
play a key role in the nation’s plan to become an AI powerhouse.
PARAM Siddhi AI
• PARAM Siddhi AI ranks 63 among the world’s top 500 supercomputers and is the fastest
supercomputer in India to date.
• It is a non-distributed supercomputer, and all parts are interconnected at C-DAC, Pune. Non-
Distributed supercomputers are computers whose all processors are not geographically apart and
are located in the same place.
• It is built with a three-layer security system to maintain the security of confidential data using AI
features.
• PARAM, an acronym for PARAllel Machine, means all computations are carried out by parallel
processing. A complex task is divided into chunks and distributed to each processor. They
combine the result of all processors to get the final output.
• Its Rpeak value is 5.267 Petaflops and Rmax is 4.6 Petaflops.
• Its Rmax and Rpeak values are performance measure parameters that score a supercomputer
using LINPACK Benchmark.
• PARAM Siddhi AI is an Artificial Intelligence-based supercomputer that is intelligent enough to
learn from experience and can make future predictions on its own.
• Its AI technology will help strengthen the R&D department, Medical science, and flood-prone
metro cities.
• It is from the PARAM series of supercomputers under the NSM of India.
• It is built with high accuracies and skills like deep learning, machine learning, visual reality,
accelerated computing, and many more.
• It is the most outstanding and honorable achievement of Indian scientists and researchers.
• Application areas
o increasing computational demands of academia, researchers, MSMEs, and startups in
areas like oil exploration, flood prediction as well as genomics, and drug discovery, but
also firm up the indigenous capability of developing supercomputers.
o helps in speeding up the war against COVID-19 by strengthening the R & D department
through more effective medical imaging, simulation, genome forecasting, and future
prediction.
o help the country predict the weather conditions and help farmers and people’s lives.

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Challenges India faces

• India's supercomputer output has been dropping off the list of the world’s most powerful
machines. China and the US are looking at exascale level computing and that is the next milestone
that India also has to reach.
• India faces a dual challenge of expanding its capability and also making such resources for more
researchers and institutes.
• Budget constraints are another challenge.
Road ahead
• India has made its mark in the technology landscape and has come a long way since the
introduction of the first supercomputer.
• To capture further progress and compete with major global players like China and U.S., require
capital as well as investments in talent.
• At present, the focus is to design and develop parts like server boards, interconnects, and storage
domestically.

2) Cloud computing
• Cloud computing is the delivery of different services through the Internet. These resources
include tools and applications like data storage, servers, databases, networking, and software.
• Rather than keeping files on a proprietary hard drive or local storage device, cloud-based storage
makes it possible to save them to a remote database. As long as an electronic device has access to
the web, it has access to the data and the software programs to run it.
• Cloud computing is a popular option for people and businesses for a number of reasons including
cost savings, increased productivity, speed and efficiency, performance, and security.
• Cloud-based storage makes it possible to save files to a remote database and retrieve them on
demand.

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• Cloud computing is still a fairly new service but is being used by a number of different
organizations from big corporations to small businesses, nonprofits to government agencies, and
even individual consumers.
Cloud computing deployment models
• Public cloud services are provided online for a free
• Private cloud services are hosted on a network to specific clients.
• Hybrid clouds are, as the name implies, a combination of both public and private services. This
type of model allows the user more flexibility and helps optimize the user's infrastructure and
security.

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Types of Cloud Services

• Regardless of the kind of service, cloud computing services provide users with a series of
functions including
o Email
o Storage, backup, and data retrieval
o Creating and testing apps
o Analyzing data
o Audio and video streaming
o Delivering software on demand

Types of Cloud Computing

It is not a single piece of technology like a microchip or a cellphone. Instead, it's a system primarily
comprised of three services: software-as-a-service (SaaS), infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS), and
platform-as-a-service (PaaS).
• IaaS provides IT infrastructure to end-users via the internet and is commonly associated with
serverless computing. Popular examples of the IaaS system include IBM Cloud and Microsoft
Azure.
• PaaS serves both software and hardware to end-users, who are generally software developers.
PaaS allows users to develop, run, and manage their own apps without having to build and
maintain the infrastructure. This model includes platforms like [Link] and Heroku.
• SaaS is a software licensing model that allows access to software on a subscription basis using
external servers without downloading and installing them locally. This type of system can be
found in Microsoft Office 365.

Advantages of Cloud Computing

• the ability to use software from any device either via a native app or a browser.
• users can carry their files and settings over to other devices in a completely seamless manner.
• can check their email on any computer and store files using services such as Dropbox and Google
Drive.
• to back up their music, files, and photos, ensuring those files are immediately available in the
event of a hard drive crash.

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• Cost: Cloud computing eliminates the capital expense of buying hardware and software and
setting up and running on-site data centres - the racks of servers, the round-the-clock electricity
for power and cooling, and the IT experts for managing the infrastructure. It adds up fast.
• Speed: Most cloud computing services are provided self-service and on demand, so even vast
amounts of computing resources can be provisioned in minutes, typically with just a few mouse
clicks, giving businesses a lot of flexibility and taking the pressure off capacity planning.
• Reliability: Cloud computing makes data backup, disaster recovery, and business continuity
easier and less expensive because data can be mirrored at multiple redundant sites on the cloud
provider’s network.
• Security: Many cloud providers offer a broad set of policies, technologies, and controls that
strengthen your security posture overall, helping protect your data, apps, and infrastructure from
potential threats.
• to save storage space on their desktops or laptops.
• upgrade software more quickly because software companies can offer their products via the
web rather than through more traditional, tangible methods involving discs or flash drives. For
example, Adobe customers can access applications in its Creative Cloud through an Internet-based
subscription.
Disadvantages of the Cloud
• Cloud Security has been a big concern with the cloud especially when it comes to sensitive
medical records and financial information.
• there is a lack of transparency regarding how and where sensitive information entrusted to the
cloud provider is handled.
• Cost unpredictability: Pay-as-you-go subscription plans for cloud use, along with scaling
resources to accommodate fluctuating workload demands, can make it tough to define and predict
final costs.
• Lack of capability and expertise: With cloud-supporting technologies rapidly advancing,
organizations are struggling to keep up with the growing demand for tools and employees with
the proper skill sets and knowledge needed to architect, deploy, and manage workloads and data
in a cloud.
• IT governance: The emphasis on do-it-yourself capability in cloud computing can make IT
governance difficult, as there is no control over provisioning, de-provisioning and management of
infrastructure operations. This can make it challenging to properly manage risks and security, IT
compliance and data quality.
• Compliance with industry laws: When transferring data from on-premises local storage into
cloud storage, it can be difficult to manage compliance with industry regulations through a third
party.
• Management of multiple clouds: Every cloud is different, so multi-cloud deployments can
disjoint efforts to address more general cloud computing challenges.
• Building a private cloud: Architecting, building and managing private clouds -- whether for its
purpose or a hybrid cloud goal -- can be a daunting task for IT departments and staff.
• Cloud migration: The process of moving applications and other data to the cloud often causes
complications. Migration projects frequently take longer than anticipated and go over budget. The
issue of workload and data repatriation -- moving from the cloud back to a local data center -- is
often overlooked until unforeseen cost or performance problems arise.
• Vendor lock-in: Often, switching between cloud providers can cause significant issues. This
includes technical incompatibilities, legal and regulatory limitations and substantial costs
incurred from sizable data migrations.
• Encryption protects vital information, but if that encryption key is lost, the data disappears.
• may fall victim to natural disasters, internal bugs, and power outages, too.

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• individuals accessing and manipulating information through a single portal, inadvertent mistakes
can transfer across an entire system.
Cloud computing examples and use cases
• Google Docs, Microsoft 365. Users can access Google Docs and Microsoft 365 through the
internet. Users can be more productive because they can access work presentations and
spreadsheets stored in the cloud at any time from anywhere on any device.
• Email, Calendar, Skype, WhatsApp. Emails, calendars, Skype and WhatsApp take advantage of
the cloud's ability to provide users with access to data remotely so they can access their personal
data from any device, whenever and wherever they want.
• Zoom. Zoom is a cloud-based software platform for video and audio conferencing that records
meetings and saves them to the cloud, enabling users to access them anywhere and at any time.
Another common communication and collaboration platform is Microsoft Teams.
Cloud computing vs. traditional web hosting
• The Position: The word “Cloud” itself is an expression of the Internet and this is the main
difference between cloud computing and traditional computing. Traditional computing is done on
physical hard drive and website servers. Cloud Computing runs on third-party servers which are
hosted by third-party hosting companies. Hence, these servers can be accessed online.
• Software: Cloud software is a service which is provided on demand. There is no need to order and
purchase a drive to use such an application rather companies need to connect to the desired
service during use. This makes software flexible & it saves a lot of time and effort. Since this
service is not written to disk therefore it can be easily modified which can meet the needs of both
large and small businesses. The services can be expanded or reduced depending on whether the
activity is showing an upward trend or downward. Various kinds of clouds are available in
experts’ software and it is useful in many different areas.
• Cost-Effective: Cloud computing is less expensive as compared to traditional computing. And
what makes it so cost-effective? As the maintenance and operation of the server is distributed
among several different parties. The investment cost incurred by companies will be reduced as
they can eliminate buying expensive equipment.
• User-friendly: To maximize the platform, there must be a stable, reliable and fast internet
connection while using cloud computing because it takes place on the internet. It is user-friendly
as data can be accessed from anywhere by using the link.
• Security: Businesses always face the fear of data breaches. It is quite difficult to manage the data
which is stored on servers as businesses are not aware of their server’s exact location or server
scripts. However, the third party is specialized in guarding the data and since its primary
responsibility is securing the data therefore it will place more emphasis on it.

3) Edge Computing
• Edge computing is an emerging computing paradigm which refers to a range of networks and
devices at or near the user. Edge is about processing data closer to where it’s being generated,
enabling processing at greater speeds and volumes, leading to greater action-led results in real-
time.
• In simplest terms, edge computing moves some portion of the storage and compute resources out
of the central data centre and closer to the source of the data itself.
• Estimate shows that by 2025, 75% of data will be processed outside the traditional data centre or
cloud.

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4) Virtual Reality
• Virtual reality is a simulated 3D environment that enables users to explore and interact with a
virtual surrounding in a way that approximates reality, as it is perceived through the users'
senses.
• The environment is created with computer hardware and software, although users might also
need to wear devices such as helmets or goggles to interact with the environment.
• The more deeply users can immerse themselves in a VR environment -- and block out their
physical surroundings -- the more they are able to suspend their belief and accept it as real, even
if it is fantastical in nature.
Types of virtual reality
VR systems can vary significantly from one to the next, depending on their purpose and the technology
used, although they generally fall into one of the following three categories:
• Non-immersive VR:
o typically refers to a 3D simulated environment that's accessed through a computer
screen.
o The user has some control over the virtual environment using a keyboard, mouse or other
devices, but the environment does not directly interact with the user.
o A video game is a good example of non-immersive VR, as is a website that enables a user
to design a room's decor.
• Semi-immersive VR:
o offers a partial virtual experience accessed through a computer screen or some type of
glasses or headset.

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o focuses primarily on the visual 3D aspect of virtual reality and does not incorporate
physical movement in the way that full immersion does.
o A common example of semi-immersive VR is the flight simulator, used by airlines and
militaries to train their pilots.
• Fully immersive VR:
o delivers the greatest level of virtual reality, completely immersing the user in the
simulated 3D world.
o It incorporates sight, sound and, in some cases, touch.
o The environment might also incorporate such equipment as treadmills or stationary
bicycles to provide users with the experience of moving through the 3D space.
o is a field still in its infancy, but it has made important inroads into the gaming industry
and to some extent the healthcare industry, and it's generating a great deal of interest in
others.
Applications of VR
• Training: VR makes it possible to train personnel safely, efficiently and cost-effectively. It can be
especially beneficial to those in high-risk or highly specialized positions, such as firefighters,
EMTs, police officers, soldiers, surgeons or other medical personnel.
• Education: VR offers educational institutions new methods for teaching and learning. It can
provide students with intimate insights into environments that are typically inaccessible while
keeping them engaged in the learning process. For example, a history teacher might use VR to
show students firsthand what life was like in Inddus valley civilization or ancient Egypt.
• Healthcare: VR has the potential to benefit individuals across the healthcare industry, including
patients, practitioners and researchers. For example, VR shows promise in treating disorders such
as anorexia, anxiety or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). On the other hand, doctors might
be able to use VR when working with patients to explain diagnoses or treatment options. VR could
also benefit individuals who are physically limited in some way.
• Retail: VR has already made some inroads into retail, but the industry has only scratched the
surface. With the right apps, customers will be able to try on clothes, decorate their homes,
experiment with hairstyles, test eyeglasses and in general, make more informed decisions about
products and services.
• Real estate: VR can benefit real estate in several ways. For example, architects can show detailed
plans in 3D; home buyers can tour homes virtually; building engineers can tour HVAC systems;
and homeowners can see what their remodels would look like.
• Entertainment: VR has already had an impact on gaming, but it also promises to transform the
film and television industries, providing viewers with an immersive experience that puts them
right into the scene. VR could also lead to an entire industry in virtual tourism, making it possible
for people to experience places that they might never be able to see in person.

5) Augmented Reality
• Augmented reality (AR) is the integration of digital information with the user's environment in
real-time. Unlike virtual reality (VR), which creates a totally artificial environment, AR users
experience a real-world environment with generated perceptual information overlaid on top of it.
• Augmented reality is used to either visually change natural environments in some way or to
provide additional information to users.
• The primary benefit of AR is that it manages to blend digital and three-dimensional (3D)
components with an individual's perception of the real world.
• AR delivers visual elements, sound and other sensory information to the user through a device
like a smartphone or glasses.

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Uses of AR
• Retail. Consumers can use a store's online app to see how products, such as furniture, will look in
their own homes before buying.
• Entertainment and gaming. AR can be used to overlay a virtual game in the real world or enable
users to animate their faces in different and creative ways on social media.
• Navigation. AR can be used to overlay a route to the user's destination over a live view of a road.
AR used for navigation can also display information about local businesses in the user's
immediate surroundings.
• Tools and measurement. Mobile devices can use AR to measure different 3D points in the user's
environment.
• Architecture. AR can help architects visualize a building project.
• Military. Data can be displayed on a vehicle's windshield that indicates destination directions,
distances, weather and road conditions.
• Archaeology. AR has aided archaeological research by helping archaeologists reconstruct sites.
3D models help museum visitors and future archaeologists experience an excavation site as if they
were there.
Examples of AR
• Apple Measure app. The Measure app on Apple iOS acts like a tape measure by enabling users to
select two or more points in their environment and measure the distance between them.
• Snapchat. Snapchat filters use AR to overlay a filter or mask over the user's Snap or picture.
• Pokemon Go. Pokemon Go is a popular mobile AR game that uses the player's GPS to detect
where Pokemon creatures appear in the user's surrounding environment for them to catch.
• Google Glass. Google Glass is Google's first commercial attempt at a glasses-based AR system.
This small wearable computer enables users to work hands-free.

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6) Metaverse
• A metaverse is a shared, online 3D space where users can interact with each other and with
computer-generated objects and avatars.
• It is a virtual world that uses the Internet as its underlying network.
• Metaverses are used for various purposes, including social networking, online gaming, education,
and training.
• They can be used to create virtual worlds that mirror the real world, or they can be used to create
entirely new and imaginary worlds.
• It may also incorporate elements of virtual and augmented reality.
• Examples:
o Meta Horizon
o The sandbox
o Decentraland
o Secondlife
Augmented reality Vs Virtual reality Vs Mixed reality

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain briefly the impact of the Computer on Industry, Education and Public Services in India. (1979)
2. Comment on the state of computer technology in India today. In this context, point out the possible
uses to which super-computers could be put. (1987)
3. What is a supercomputer? Give an account of super- computer development in India. (1993)
4. Describe the development of Super-computer in India. (1998)

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Health and Medicine

1) Stem cell technology
Stem cell
• Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that can turn into specific cells, as the body needs them.
• Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types. This can
range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.
• Stem cells provide new cells for the body as it grows, and replace specialised cells that are
damaged or lost. They have two unique properties that enable them to do this:
o They can divide over and over again to produce new cells.
o As they divide, they can change into the other types of cells that make up the body.

Types of stem cells

• According to the sources from the cell originate, there are three main types of stem cells:
o embryonic stem cells
o adult stem cells
o induced pluripotent stem cells
• According to their potential to differentiate into other types of cells:
o Totipotent: These stem cells can differentiate into all possible cell types. The first few
cells that appear as the zygote starts to divide are totipotent.
o Pluripotent: These cells can turn into almost any cell. Cells from the early embryo are
pluripotent.
o Multipotent: These cells can differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Adult
hematopoietic stem cells, for example, can become red and white blood cells or platelets.
o Oligopotent: These can differentiate into a few different cell types. Adult lymphoid or
myeloid stem cells can do this.
o Unipotent: These can only produce cells of one kind, which is their own type. However,
they are still stem cells because they can renew themselves. Examples include adult
muscle stem cells.

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Embryonic stem cells

• Embryonic stem cells supply new cells for an embryo as it grows and develops into a baby.
• These stem cells are said to be pluripotent, which means they can change into any cell in the
body.
• Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they cannot
become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.
Adult stem cells
• Adult stem cells supply new cells as an organism grows and replace cells that get damaged.
• Adult stem cells are said to be multipotent, which means they can only change into some cells in
the body, not any cell, for example:
o Blood (or ‘haematopoietic’) stem cells can only replace the various types of cells in the
blood.
o Skin (or ‘epithelial’) stem cells provide the different types of cells that make up our skin
and hair.
o The brain, skeletal muscles, Bone marrow and liver.
• Adult stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely. This means they can generate various cell
types from the originating organ or even regenerate the original organ, entirely.
Induced pluripotent stem cells
• Induced pluripotent stem cells, or ‘iPS cells’, are stem cells that scientists make in the laboratory.
• ‘Induced’ means that they are made in the lab by taking normal adult cells, like skin or blood cells,
and reprogramming them to become stem cells.
• They are pluripotent so they can develop into any cell type.
• Stem cells dividing and reproducing in a controlled culture are called a stem-cell line.
Uses of stem cell technology
• Research
o to help us understand the basic biology of how living things work and what happens in
different types of cells during disease.
o To understand stem cell development
o We can grow tissue and organ structures from stem cells, which can then be studied to
find out how they function and how they are affected by different drugs.
• Therapy
o to replace lost or damaged cells that our bodies can’t replace naturally
o Tissue regeneration: to cope with the shortage of donor organs. For example, doctors
have already used stem cells just beneath the skin’s surface to make new skin tissue. They
can then repair a severe burn or another injury by grafting this tissue onto the damaged
skin, and new skin will grow.
o Cardiovascular disease treatment: help to treat people with cardiovascular and
vascular diseases by creating blood vessels using stem cells.
o Brain disease treatment: may one day be able to use replacement cells and tissues to
treat brain diseases, such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
o Cell deficiency therapy: Generate healthy cells to replace cells affected by the disease
(regenerative medicine). For example, pancreatic transplant, heart transplant etc.
o Blood disease treatments: Hematopoietic stem cells occur in blood and bone marrow
and can produce all blood cell types, including red blood cells that carry oxygen and white
blood cells that fight disease. Hematopoietic stem cells treat diseases, such as leukaemia,
sickle cell anaemia, and other immunodeficiency problems.
Challenges in stem cell technology
• Stem cells need much more study before their use can be expanded.
• The embryonic stem cells available today are likely to be rejected by the body.

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• Adult pluripotent stem cells are hard to grow in a lab. These cells are also found in small amounts
in the body. There is a greater chance that they could contain DNA problems.
Controversy regarding stem cells
• Use of embryos for stem cells
o The argument against using embryonic stem cells is that it destroys a human blastocyst,
and the fertilized egg cannot develop into a person.
o Nowadays, researchers are looking for ways to create or use stem cells that do not involve
embryos.
• Mixing humans and animals
o Stem cell research often involves inserting human cells into animals, such as mice or rats.
Some people argue that this could create an organism that is part human.
• Some people are already offering “stem-cell therapies” for a range of purposes, such as anti-ageing
treatments. Some of them may be illegal, and some can be dangerous.

2) Antibiotics
• Antibiotics is a antimicrobial substance that fight infections caused by bacteria in humans and
animals by either killing the bacteria or making it difficult for the bacteria to grow and multiply.
• Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928.
• Antibiotics ONLY treat certain infections caused by bacteria, such as Strep throat, Whooping
cough, and Urinary tract infection (UTI).
• Antibiotics are also needed to treat life-threatening conditions caused by bacteria, such as sepsis,
which is the body’s extreme response to infection.
• Side effects can include diarrhoea, an upset stomach, and nausea.

3) Antimicrobial resistance
• According to WHO, Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi and
parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicines making infections harder to
treat and increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness and death.
• As a result of drug resistance, antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines become ineffective
and infections become increasingly difficult or impossible to treat.
• Antimicrobials – including antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals and antiparasitics – are medicines
used to prevent and treat infections in humans, animals and plants.
• Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health and development threat. It requires urgent
multisectoral action in order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
• WHO has declared that AMR is one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity.
• Misuse and overuse of antimicrobials are the main drivers in the development of drug-resistant
pathogens.
• Lack of clean water and sanitation and inadequate infection prevention and control promotes the
spread of microbes, some of which can be resistant to antimicrobial treatment.
• The cost of AMR to the economy is significant. In addition to death and disability, prolonged
illness results in longer hospital stay, the need for more expensive medicines and financial
challenges for those impacted.
• Without effective antimicrobials, the success of modern medicine in treating infections, including
during major surgery and cancer chemotherapy, would be at increased risk.

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AMR - a global concern

• Antimicrobial resistance is an urgent global public health threat, killing at least 1.27 million
people worldwide and associated with nearly 5 million deaths in 2019.
• threaten our ability to treat common infections: Especially alarming is the rapid global spread
of multi- and pan-resistant bacteria (also known as “superbugs”) that cause infections that are not
treatable with existing antimicrobial medicines such as antibiotics.
• The clinical pipeline of new antimicrobials is dry. In 2019 WHO identified 32 antibiotics in
clinical development that address the WHO list of priority pathogens, of which only six were
classified as innovative.
• lack of access to quality antimicrobials remains a major issue. Antibiotic shortages are
affecting countries of all levels of development and especially in health- care systems.
• Urgent need for new antibacterials.
• The cost of AMR to national economies and their health systems is significant as it affects the
productivity of patients or their caretakers through prolonged hospital stays and the need for
more expensive and intensive care.
AMR in India
• In the fifth edition of its annual report on antimicrobial resistance (AMR), the Indian Council of
Medical Research warned that urgent action is needed to prevent a major health crisis caused by
the rampant misuse of antibiotics.
• The resistance level is increasing to 5% to 10% every year for broad-spectrum antimicrobials
which are highly misused - ICMR Report.
• The report, published this week, warned that only 43 per cent of pneumonia infections in India
could be treated with first line antibiotics in 2021 – down from 65 per cent in 2016.
• India does not have standardized national data on resistance rates.
• The use of antibiotics is increasing nationwide. Between 2005 and 2009, 40% more units of
antibiotics were sold.
• Powerful drugs like newer generation cephalosporins are sold far more frequently for no
apparent reason—between 2005 and 2009, sales of cephalosporins increased by 60%.
• Antibiotics are used in animals to treat infections, for growth promotion using sub-therapeutic
levels, and for prophylactic purposes to prevent disease.
Measures are taken to rising AMR:
• National programme on AMR containment
o launched during the 12th FYP in 2012-17.
o Under this programme, AMR Surveillance Network has been strengthened by establishing
labs in State Medical College.
o 30 sites in 24 states have been included in this network till 30th March 2021.
• National Action Plan for microbial resistance (NAP-AMR):
o focusing on the One Health approach was launched on 19th April 2017 with the aim of
involving various stakeholder ministries/departments.
o Delhi Declaration on AMR– an inter-ministerial consensus was signed by the ministers
of the concerned ministries pledging their support in AMR containment.
o In the line with NAP-AMR three states have launched their state action plan
▪ Kerala has launched KARSAP
▪ Madhya Pradesh has launched MP-SAPCAR
▪ Delhi has launched SAPCARD
• AMR Surveillance Network:
o ICMR has established AMR surveillance and research network (AMRSN) in 2013
o to generate evidence and capture trends and patterns of drug-resistant infections in the
country.

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o This network comprises 30 tertiary care hospitals, both private and government.
• AMR Research & International Collaboration:
o ICMR has taken initiatives to develop new drugs /medicines through international
collaborations in order to strengthen medical research in AMR.
• Initiatives to control overuse or misuse of antibiotics:
o ICMR has initiated an antibiotic stewardship program (AMSP) on a pilot project basis in
20 tertiary care hospitals across India to control misuse and overuse of antibiotics in
hospital wards and ICUs.
o On the recommendations of ICMR, DCGI has banned 40 fixed-dose combinations (FDCs)
which were found inappropriate.
o ICMR worked in collaboration with the Indian Council of Agriculture Research, the
Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairy and Fisheries and the DCGI to ban the use of
Colistin as a growth promoter in animal feed in poultry.
• National Guidelines for Infection Prevention and Control in Healthcare Facilities were
released by MoHFW in Jan 2020.
• ICMR has also issued the Treatment Guidelines for Antimicrobial Use in Common Syndromes in
2019.
Causes for the emergence and spread of AMR
• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• The misuse and overuse of antimicrobials
• Lack of access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals
• Poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms
• Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines and diagnostics
• Lack of awareness and knowledge
• Lack of enforcement of legislation.
• Access to antibiotics is too easy in many countries (“over the counter” without a medical
prescription).
• Antibiotics may be taken by patients as self-medication.
• Antibiotics are still mistakenly used to treat viral infections, for which they have no effect.
• Insufficient diagnostic tools for the rapid and reliable detection of resistance.
• Lack of vaccines for some important infections.
• Lack of a comprehensive, uniform and coordinated response among all countries.
Consequences of AMR
• Treatment failure leading to chronic problems
• Increased morbidity (disability, poor outcomes) and mortality
• Adverse effects of alternative treatments (potentially less effective, possibly more toxic)
• Relapse of the infection after treatment
• Increased spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their associated community- and
healthcare-acquired infections
• Increased use of antibiotics
• Lack of availability of clinically effective antibiotics
• Longer and more complicated stays in hospital
• Excess healthcare costs
• Decreased societal productivity
Ways to prevent AMR
• Infection prevention: and control practices (such as hand-washing and hand hygiene to avoid
the spread of infections in healthcare settings)
• Awareness about the issue, among the general public, prescribers, politicians and the media.

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• Diagnostic tools for rapid and reliable detection and resistance.

• Vaccines for some important infections
• New antibiotics to treat infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.
• Antibiotic resistance surveillance programs to track the number and type of antibiotic-resistant
infections in a given area, city, country or global region.
• Waste management and water sanitation
• Comprehensive, uniform and coordinated response among all countries.
Superbugs
• Superbugs are strains of bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi that are resistant to most of the
antibiotics and other medications commonly used to treat the infections they cause.
• A few examples of superbugs include resistant bacteria that can cause pneumonia, urinary tract
infections and skin infections.
• Drug resistance (antimicrobial resistance) is a naturally occurring phenomenon that can be
slowed, but not stopped.
• Over time, germs such as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi adapt to the drugs that are
designed to kill them and change to ensure their survival.
• This makes previously standard treatments for some infections less effective, and sometimes
ineffective.

4) Vaccines
Definitions
• Immunity:
o Immunity can be defined as all of the physiological mechanisms that enable an
individual’s body to recognise materials as foreign and to neutralize, eliminate, or
metabolize them without injury to its own tissue.
o Protection from an infectious disease. You can be exposed to a disease without becoming
infected if you are immune to it.
o Immunology is the branch of biomedical science that deals with the response of an
organism to antigenic challenges and its recognition of what is self and what is not. It deals
with the defence mechanisms including all physical, chemical and biological properties
of the organism that help it to combat its susceptibility to foreign organisms.
o Types of Immunity
▪ Innate or static immunity
▪ Adaptive immunity
o Innate immunity: forms the first line of defence. It is non-specific and the resistance is
static. This includes physical defences such as skin and epithelial surfaces, cilia, acidic
gastric content, fever etc. Others are biochemical defences such as acute phase reactants
and complement, interferon. Cellular components include natural killer cells and RES
phagocytes.
o Adaptive immunity: the second line of defence and is activated once the innate system
has been overwhelmed. It is specific to the infective agent and can store the information
about the invader as a memory to show an enhanced response to subsequent challenges.
The adaptive immune system is further divided into
▪ Humoral Immunity: also called Antibody-mediated immunity. It involves the
production of antibodies and simultaneously occurring events like the activation
of helper T-cells and the production of cytokines.

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▪ Cell-Mediated Immune Systems: the method of the body to fight against

pathogens like bacteria and viruses. It is also responsible for the killing of
cancerous cells and in the graft-rejection process.
Adaptive immunity can be naturally or artificially acquired:
▪ Naturally acquired immunity results when the body fights the pathogen and
recovers or when preformed antibodies are provided via the placenta and
mother’s milk.
▪ Artificially acquired immunity results when a killed/attenuated pathogen or
toxoid is injected into the body. This process is called Vaccination.
• Autoimmunity
o An autoimmune disease occurs when the body attacks its own self-cells tissues and other
body constituents. There are several reasons for the development of autoimmunity.
▪ Molecular mimicry- the pathogen’s antigens closely resemble a molecule in the
host. Thus, immune response might be mounted on self-cells in such cases.
▪ Dysregulation of cytokines.
▪ Damage in feedback mechanism mediated by B-cell receptor.
▪ The secretion of antibodies by plasma cells requires the activation of Bcells by T-
cells. But this need for T-cells can be neglected in certain cases, for example;
super-antigens.
▪ An imbalance between B and T cell functioning.
• Vaccine:
o A preparation that is used to stimulate the body’s adaptive immune response against
diseases.
o Vaccines contain a microorganism or virus in a weakened, live or killed state, or proteins
or toxins from the organism.
o Vaccines can be:
• Injected (most common)—a needle is inserted into a muscle or just under the skin
• Oral—taken by mouth
• Intranasal—inhaled through the nose
There are several ways an antigen can be used:
• Attenuated live viruses—Weakened forms of a live virus. They do not cause illness but
will create an immune response. Examples include the MMR (measles, mumps, rubella)
and chickenpox vaccines.
• Inactivated viruses—A version of the virus that has been killed. Although the virus is
dead, antibodies will still be produced. Examples include the polio vaccine.
• Recombinant—Viruses are made in a lab through genetic engineering. This way, a
specific gene can be reproduced. The human papillomavirus (HPV) has several strains.
The HPV vaccine can be tailored to protect against strains that cause cervical cancer.
• Conjugate—Bacteria and virus antigens may have a polysaccharide coating, a sugar-like
substance to protect them. Conjugate vaccines work around the disguise to recognise the
bacteria. The Hib vaccine is an example of a conjugate.
• Subunit—Uses only the antigens that stimulate an immune response. The flu shot is a
subunit vaccine.
• Toxoid—Inactivated versions of bacterial toxins are used to make immunity. Examples
include tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.

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Fig: Different types of Vaccine

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• Vaccination: Introducing a vaccine into the body to produce protection from a specific disease.
• Immunization: A process by which a person becomes protected against a disease through
vaccination. This term is often used interchangeably with vaccination or inoculation.

Fig: The generation of an immune response to a vaccine

• Herd Immunity
o Herd immunity, also known as 'population immunity', is the indirect protection from an
infectious disease that happens when a population is immune either through vaccination
or immunity developed through previous infection.
o Herd immunity is a form of immunity that occurs when the vaccination of a significant
portion of a population (or herd) provides a measure of protection for individuals who
have not developed immunity.
o It arises when a high percentage of the population is protected through vaccination
against a virus or bacteria, making it difficult for a disease to spread because there are so
few susceptible people left to infect.
o This can effectively stop the spread of disease in the community. It is particularly crucial
for protecting people who cannot be vaccinated. These include children who are too
young to be vaccinated, people with immune system problems, and those who are too ill
to receive vaccines (such as some cancer patients).
o Recently this plays a greater role during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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5) Transfat
• According to WHO, Trans fat, or trans-fatty acids, are unsaturated fatty acids that come from
either natural or industrial sources. Naturally-occurring trans fat, also called as ruminant trans
fat, come from ruminants (cows and sheep). Industrially-produced trans fat are formed in an
industrial process that adds hydrogen to vegetable oil converting the liquid into a solid, resulting
in “partially hydrogenated” oil (PHO).
• They are the worst type of fats as they raise the bad cholesterol [Very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-c)] and lowers the good cholesterol [high
density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c)] in our body.
• Trans fats have been linked to heart diseases, overweight/obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes
and some types of cancers.
Types of Transfat
• Natural trans fats
o are also called ruminant trans fats, as they are present in small quantities in meat and
dairy products obtained form ruminant animals such as cows, sheep and cattle.
o Natural/ruminant trans fat are not generally considered harmful.
• Artificial trans fat
o are also called industrial trans fat as they are manufactured industrially by a chemical
process of partial hydrogenation or thermal treatments of edible oils containing
unsaturated fatty acids.
o For example: refining of vegetable oils and during the process of frying.
o They are generally considered harmful.
o Artificial/industrial trans fat are present in large quantities in partially hydrogenated
vegetable fats (vanaspati, margarine and bakery shortenings).
Transfat in Indian foods
• In prepared foods, trans fats are found in:
o Bakery products: Biscuit, fan, puff,pasteries, cookies, rusk, cake etc.
o Fried foods: Bhatura, poori, pakora, bhujiya,jalebis, Gulab jamun, fried savoury mixtures
(namkeens) etc
o Re-heated oils: Small amounts of trans fats are also formed when the same cooking oil is
used for repeated frying; not only at commercial outlets but even at household levels.
• Fats And Oils: Vanaspati, Bakery Shortenings and Margarine.
• Processed And Packaged Foods: Meat Pies and Sausage Rolls.
Impacts of Transfat
• Artificial trans fat is a toxic ingredient that increases the risk of heart attack and was estimated to
cause 540,000 deaths globally each year.
Ways to reduce Trans fats
• Use vegetable oils (rich in poly and monounsaturated fats) for cooking: canola, safflower,
sunflower, soybean or olive oil. These are heart-friendly oils.
• Limit the use of processed and packaged foods: packaged foods may contain trans fats, as partially
hydrogenated oils are used while baking or frying them to increase the shelf life of foods. Do not
be dependent on these foods and prepare snacks at home.
• Opt for healthy snacks that are naturally free of trans fats: Mixed Nuts, Sprouts, Salads, Fruits, and
Yogurt.
• Do not repeatedly reheat oil or reuse the same oil for frying.
• Avoid using ‘vanaspati’ for cooking/frying.

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• Eat healthy balanced meals with whole grains, pulses, fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy products,
poultry, fish and nuts. Limit red meat, sugary foods and beverages.
Initiatives for Transfat
• FSSAI intends to eliminate trans fat from the diet in a phased manner by 2022.
• FSSAI has employed two-pronged strategies to achieve its goal of “Freedom from Trans Fat @75.”
• FSSAI has launched a mass media campaign “Heart Attack Rewind”- a 30-second Public Service
Announcement (PSA) with the aim to create awareness about the harmful effects of trans fat by,
o Reducing the acceptability of industrially produced (IP) trans fat in foods
o Building public support for government action to eliminate IP trans fat and
o Leading consumers to the FSSAI website to seek more information about trans fat.

6) Bioremediation
• Bioremediation is a branch of biotechnology that employs the use of living organisms like
microbes and bacteria to decontaminate affected areas.
• Bioremediation is a process of detoxifying or degrading contaminants present in the soil,
wastewater, or industrial sludge by biological means.
• Bioremediation is a reliable and eco-friendly approach which utilizes the natural ability of
microbes for the removal of pollutants.
• Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.) can take part in this process, although plant-assisted
bioremediation is often termed phytoremediation
• microorganisms in the rhizospheric niches when taking part in the remediation of the pollutants
specifically present in their niche are called rhizoremediation
• This biotechnological method is currently the cheapest and has greater efficiency in the removal
of contaminants than conventional physicochemical methods
• It is currently used for the treatment of various wastes and the remediation of contaminated soil
or groundwater
• Bioremediation may be done "in situ"–at the site of the contamination–or "ex-situ"–away from the
site.
• Bioremediation can either be done "in situ", which is at the site of the contamination itself, or "ex-
situ," which is a location away from the site. Ex situ bioremediation may be necessary if the
climate is too cold to sustain microbe activity, or if the soil is too dense for nutrients to distribute
evenly. Ex situ bioremediation may require excavating and cleaning the soil above ground, which
may add significant costs to the process.
• Bioremediation relies on stimulating the growth of certain microbes that utilize contaminants like
oil, solvents, and pesticides for sources of food and energy. These microbes convert contaminants
into small amounts of water, as well as harmless gases like carbon dioxide.
Advantages of Bioremediation
• By relying solely on natural processes, it minimizes damage to ecosystems. Bioremediation often
takes place underground, where amendments and microbes can be pumped in order to clean up
contaminants in groundwater and soil. Consequently, bioremediation does not disrupt nearby
communities as much as other cleanup methodologies.
• bioremediation is cheaper than most cleanup methods because it does not require substantial
equipment or labour.
• The bioremediation process creates relatively few harmful byproducts (mainly due to the fact that
contaminants and pollutants are converted into water and harmless gases like carbon dioxide).

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Types
• Biostimulation - Microbes are stimulated to begin the remediation process via chemicals or
nutrients that activate them.
• Bioaugmentation - Used mainly in cleaning up soil contamination, this process adds bacteria to
the surface of the affected area, where they are then allowed to grow.
• Intrinsic Bioremediation - Converts toxic materials into inert ones using the native microbiome
of the affected area.
• Composting can be seen as a form of bioremediation known as biodegradation that converts
food waste into potable soil. This reduces the burden on landfills.
• Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation that relies on fungi rather than bacteria or other
microbes to decontaminate affected areas.

• Biopile-mediated bioremediation involves above-ground piling of excavated polluted soil,

followed by nutrient amendment, and sometimes aeration to enhance bioremediation by basically
increasing microbial activities. The components of this technique are aeration, irrigation, nutrient
and leachate collection systems, and a treatment bed.
• windrows rely on the periodic turning of piled polluted soil to enhance bioremediation by
increasing degradation activities of indigenous and/or transient hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria
present in polluted soil. The periodic turning of polluted soil, together with the addition of water
brings about an increase in aeration, uniform distribution of pollutants, nutrients and microbial
degradative activities, thus speeding up the rate of bioremediation, which can be accomplished
through assimilation, biotransformation and mineralization

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7) Phyto remediation
• The use of plant interactions (physical, biochemical, biological, chemical and microbiological) in
polluted sites to mitigate the toxic effects of pollutants.
• Depending on pollutant type (elemental or organic), there are several mechanisms (accumulation
or extraction, degradation, filtration, stabilization and volatilization) involved in
phytoremediation.
o Elemental pollutants (toxic heavy metals and radionuclides) are mostly removed by
extraction, transformation and sequestration.
o organic pollutants (hydrocarbons and chlorinated compounds) are predominantly
removed by degradation, rhizoremediation, stabilization and volatilization, with
mineralization being possible when some plants such as willow and alfalfa are used
• One of the major advantages of using plants to remediate polluted site is that some precious
metals can bioaccumulate in some plants and recovered after remediation, a process known as
phytomining.
• Other advantages of phytoremediation include low cost, environmentally friendly, large-scale
operation, low installation and maintenance cost, conservation of soil structure, and prevention of
erosion and leaching of metal.
• There might be improved soil fertility due to the input of organic matter.

QUESTIONS:
1. Why has there been a recrudescence of Malaria in India. What steps should be taken to prevent its
spread and to eradicate it eventually? (1980)
2. What are antibiotics? Name two antibiotics which are commonly used. (1980)
3. Protein deficiency is a major nutritional problem among the Indian masses. What are the serious
consequences of protein deficiency? Evaluate the limitations and advantages of the use of
soyabeans as a source of protein diet. (1984)
4. What is bioremediation? (1995)
5. What is phytoremediation? Discuss its applications. (2010)
6. Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions
including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what
stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (2017)

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Space Technology
1) Orbits of Earth
• An orbit is a regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around another one. An object in
an orbit is called a satellite.
• A satellite can be natural, like Earth or the moon. Many planets have moons that orbit them. A satellite
can also be man-made, like the International Space Station.
• Planets, comets, asteroids and other objects in the solar system orbit the sun. Most of the objects
orbiting the sun move along or close to an imaginary flat surface. This imaginary surface is called the
ecliptic plane.

• Satellites that orbit Earth, including the moon, do not always stay the same distance from Earth.
Sometimes they are closer, and at other times they are farther away.
o The closest point a satellite comes to Earth is called its perigee. The farthest point is the
apogee.
o For planets, the point in their orbit closest to the sun is perihelion. The farthest point is called
aphelion.
o Earth reaches its aphelion during summer in the Northern Hemisphere. The time it takes a
satellite to make one full orbit is called its period.
o For example, Earth has an orbital period of one year. The inclination is the angle the orbital
plane makes when compared with Earth's equator.
• Inclination is the angle of the orbit in relation to Earth’s equator. A satellite that orbits directly
above the equator has zero inclination. If a satellite orbits from the north pole (geographic, not
magnetic) to the south pole, its inclination is 90 degrees.
• Orbital inclination is the angle between the plane of an orbit and the equator. An orbital
inclination of 0° is directly above the equator, 90° crosses right above the pole, and 180° orbits
above the equator in the opposite direction of Earth’s spin.

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Types of orbits
• There are essentially three types of Earth orbits: high Earth orbit, medium Earth orbit, and low
Earth orbit.
o Many weathers and communications satellites tend to have a high Earth orbit, farthest
away from the surface.
o Satellites that orbit in a medium (mid) Earth orbit include navigation and speciality
satellites, designed to monitor a particular region.
o Most scientific satellites, including NASA’s Earth Observing System fleet, have a low Earth
orbit.
• The height of the orbit, or distance between the satellite and the Earth’s surface, determines how
quickly the satellite moves around the Earth. An Earth-orbiting satellite’s motion is mainly
controlled by Earth’s gravity. As satellites get closer to Earth, the pull of gravity gets more robust,
and the satellite moves more quickly.

• The International Space Station is in low Earth orbit, or LEO. LEO is the first 100 to 200 miles (161
to 322 km) of space. LEO is the most accessible orbit to get to and stay in. One complete orbit in
LEO takes about 90 minutes.
• Satellites that stay above a location on Earth are in geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO. These
satellites orbit about 23,000 miles (37,015 km) above the equator and complete one revolution

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around Earth precisely every 24 hours. Satellites headed for GEO first go to an elliptical orbit with
an apogee of about 37,015 km. Firing the rocket engines at apogee then makes the orbit round.
Geosynchronous orbits are also called geostationary.
High Earth Orbit
• When a satellite reaches exactly 42,164 kilometres from the center of the Earth (about 36,000
kilometers from Earth’s surface), it enters a sort of “sweet spot” in which its orbit matches Earth’s
rotation.
• Because the satellite orbits at the same speed that the Earth is turning, the satellite seems to stay
in place over a single longitude, though it may drift north to south. This special, high Earth orbit is
called geosynchronous.
• A satellite in a circular geosynchronous orbit directly over the equator (eccentricity and
inclination at zero) will have a geostationary orbit that does not move at all relative to the ground.
It is always directly over the same place on the Earth’s surface.
• A geostationary orbit is extremely valuable for weather monitoring because satellites in this orbit
provide a constant view of the same surface area.
• Because geostationary satellites are always over a single location, they can also be useful for
communication (phones, television, radio).
• many high Earth-orbiting satellites monitor solar activity.
Medium Earth orbit
• Closer to the Earth, satellites in a medium Earth orbit move more quickly. Two medium Earth
orbits are notable:
o the semi-synchronous orbit
o the Molniya orbit.
• The semi-synchronous orbit is a near-circular orbit (low eccentricity) 26,560 kilometres from the
centre of the Earth (about 20,200 kilometres above the surface). A satellite at this height takes 12
hours to complete an orbit. As the satellite moves, the Earth rotates underneath it. In 24 hours,
the satellite crosses over the same two spots on the equator every day. This orbit is consistent and
highly predictable. It is the orbit used by the Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites.
Low Earth orbit
• Most scientific satellites and many weather satellites are in a nearly circular, low Earth orbit. The
satellite’s inclination depends on what the satellite was launched to monitor. The Tropical Rainfall
Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite was launched to monitor rainfall in the tropics. Therefore, it
has a relatively low inclination (35 degrees), staying near the equator.
• Many of the satellites in NASA’s Earth Observing System have a nearly polar orbit. In this highly
inclined orbit, the satellite moves around the Earth from pole to pole, taking about 99 minutes to
complete an orbit. During one-half of the orbit, the satellite views the daytime side of the Earth. At
the pole, the satellite crosses over to the nighttime side of Earth.
• As the satellite orbit, the Earth turns underneath. By the time the satellite crosses back into
daylight, it is over the region adjacent to the area seen in its last orbit. In a 24-hour period, polar-
orbiting satellites will view most of the Earth twice: once in daylight and once in darkness.
Sun-synchronous orbit
• Just as the geosynchronous satellites have a sweet spot over the equator that lets them stay over
one spot on Earth, the polar-orbiting satellites have a sweet spot that allows them to stay in one
time. This orbit is a Sun-synchronous orbit, which means that whenever and wherever the
satellite crosses the equator, the local solar time on the ground is always the same.
• The Sun-synchronous orbit is necessary for science because it keeps the angle of sunlight on the
surface of the Earth as consistent as possible, though the angle will change from season to
season. Without a Sun-synchronous orbit, it would be very difficult to track change over time. It
would be impossible to collect the kind of consistent information required to study climate
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• The path that a satellite has to travel to stay in a Sun-synchronous orbit is very narrow. If a
satellite is at a height of 100 kilometres, it must have an orbital inclination of 96 degrees to
maintain a Sun-synchronous orbit. Any deviation in height or inclination will take the satellite out
of a Sun-synchronous orbit. Since the drag of the atmosphere and the tug of gravity from the Sun
and Moon alter a satellite’s orbit, it takes regular adjustments to maintain a satellite in a Sun-
synchronous orbit.
Lagrange points
• Other orbital “sweet spots,” just beyond high Earth orbit, are the Lagrange points.
• At the Lagrange points, the pull of gravity from the Earth cancels out the pull of gravity from the
Sun.
• Anything placed at these points will feel equally pulled toward the Earth and the Sun and will
revolve with the Earth around the Sun.
• The first Lagrange point(L1) is located between the Earth and the Sun, giving satellites at this
point a constant view of the Sun.
• The second Lagrange point (L2) is about the same distance from the Earth but is located behind
the Earth. Earth is always between the second Lagrange point and the Sun. Since the Sun and
Earth are in a single line, satellites at this location only need one heat shield to block heat and light
from the Sun and Earth. It is a good location for space telescopes, including the future James Webb
Space Telescope (Hubble’s successor, scheduled to launch in 2014)

2) Indian Space research Organisation (ISRO)

• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the space agency of India. The organisation is
involved in science, engineering and technology to harvest the benefits of outer space for India
and mankind.
• ISRO is a major constituent of the Department of Space (DOS), Government of India. The
department executes the Indian Space Programme primarily through various Centres or units
within ISRO.
• ISRO was previously the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), set up
by the Government of India in 1962, as envisioned by Dr VikramA Sarabhai. ISRO was formed
on August 15, 1969, and superseded INCOSPAR with an expanded role to harness space
technology. DOS was set up and ISRO was brought under DOS in 1972.
• The prime objective of ISRO/DOS is the development and application of space technology for
various national needs. To fulfil this objective, ISRO has established major space systems for
communication, television broadcasting and meteorological services; resources monitoring and
management; space-based navigation services.
• ISRO has developed satellite launch vehicles, PSLV and GSLV, to place the satellites in the
required orbits.
• Alongside its technological advancement, ISRO contributes to science and science education in the
country. Various dedicated research centres and autonomous institutions for remote sensing,
astronomy and astrophysics, atmospheric sciences and space sciences in general function under
the aegis of the Department of Space.

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• ISRO's own Lunar and interplanetary missions along with other scientific projects encourage and
promote science education, apart from providing valuable data to the scientific community which
in turn enriches science.
• ISRO has its headquarters in Bengaluru.
• Its activities are spread across various centres and units.
o Launch Vehicles are built at Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC)
Thiruvananthapuram;
o Satellites are designed and developed at U R Rao Satellite Centre (URSC), Bengaluru;
o Integration and launching of satellites and launch vehicles are carried out from Satish
Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota;
o Development of liquid stages including cryogenic stage is carried out at Liquid
Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Valiamala& Bengaluru;
o Sensors for Communication and Remote Sensing satellites and application aspects of the
space technology are taken up at Space Applications Centre (SAC),
o Ahmedabad and Remote Sensing satellite data reception processing and dissemination is
entrusted to National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
• The activities of ISRO are guided by its Chairman, who would also be the secretary of DOS and
Chairman of the Space commission – the apex body that formulates the policies and oversees
the implementation of the Indian Space Programme.
Launching Vehicles
• Launchers or Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space. India has three active
operational launch vehicles: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite
Launch Vehicle (GSLV), and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk-III (LVM3).

• Launchers under usage:

o Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)
o Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
o Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (LVM3)
o Sounding Rockets
• Launchers under development:
o Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV)
o Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
o Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
o Scramjet Engine – TD
• Launchers, Retired:
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o SLV-3
o ASLV

Fig: 1. PSLV 2. GSLV 3. GSLV MK-III 4. HLVM-3 (Gaganyan) 5. RLV- TD

Polar Satellite Launch vehicle (PSLV)

• PSLV is the third generation launch vehicle of India.
• It is the first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
• After its first successful launch in October 1994, PSLV emerged as a reliable and versatile
workhorse launch vehicle of India.
• the vehicle successfully launched two spacecraft "Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter
Spacecraft(MOM) in 2013" which later travelled to Moon and Mars respectively.
• The launch of PSLV-C48 marks the 50th Launch of PSLV.
• PSLV earned its title 'the workhorse of ISRO' through consistently delivering various satellites
into low earth orbits, particularly the IRS Series of satellites. It can take up to 1,750 kg of payload
to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits at 600 km altitude.
• Due to its unmatched reliability, PSLV has also been used to launch various satellites into
Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS Constellation. It can take
up to 1425 kg into sub-GTO.
• The PSLV is capable of placing multiple payloads into orbit, thus multi-payload adaptors are used
in the payload fairing.
• Technical Specification
o Number of Stages: 4
o Lift-Off Mass: 320 tonnes (XL)

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o Variants: 4 (PSLV, CA, DL, QL, XL)

o First Flight: September 20, 1993.
o The PS4 is the uppermost stage of PSLV, comprising two Earth-storable liquid engines
o The third stage of PSLV is a solid rocket motor that provides the upper stage high thrust
after the atmospheric phase of the launch.
o PSLV uses an Earth-storable liquid rocket engine for its second stage, known as the Vikas
engine, developed by Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre.
o PSLV uses the S139 solid rocket motor that is augmented by 6 solid strap-on boosters.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark II (GSLV Mk II) is the launch vehicle developed by
India, to launch communication satellites in geo transfer orbit using the cryogenic third stage.
• Initially Russian GK-supplied cryogenic stages were used. The later cryogenic stage was
indigenously developed and inducted in Jan 2014 from GSLV D5 onwards.
• The flight-proven indigenously developed Cryogenic Upper Stage (CUS), forms the third stage of
GSLV Mk II. From January 2014, the vehicle has achieved six consecutive successes
• Specifications:
o Number of Stages :3
o Lift Off Mass: 420 tonnes
o First Flight: April 18, 2001.
o First Flight (With Indigenous Cryo Stage): January 5, 2014.
• Payload to GTO: 2,250 kg
o GSLV's primary payloads are INSAT class of communication satellites that operate from
Geostationary orbits and hence are placed in Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits by GSLV.
• Payload to LEO (Low Earth Orbit): 6,000 kg
o Further, GSLV's capability of placing up to 6 tonnes in Low Earth Orbits broadens the
scope of payloads from heavy satellites to multiple smaller satellites.
• Third Stage: CUS
o Developed under the Cryogenic Upper Stage Project (CUSP), the CE-7.5 is India's first
cryogenic engine, developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre. CE-7.5 has a staged
combustion operating cycle.
• Second Stage: GS2
o One Vikas engine is used in the second stage of GSLV. The stage was derived from the PS2
of PSLV where the Vikas engine has proved its reliability
• First Stage: GS1
o The first stage of GSLV was also derived from the PSLV's PS1. The 138-tonne solid rocket
motor is augmented by 4 liquid strap-ons.
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle MK III (GSLV MK-III)
• GSLV Mk-III (LVM3) is the new heavy-lift launch vehicle of ISRO for achieving a 4000 kg
spacecraft launching capability to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit) in a cost-effective
manner.
• GSLV MkIII is configured as a three-stage vehicle with two solid strap-on motors (S200), one
liquid core stage (L110) and a high-thrust cryogenic upper stage (C25).
• Specification:
o Number of Stages :3
o Lift-Off Mass : 640 tonnes
o Payload to GTO: 4,000 kg: GSLV Mk III will be capable of placing the 4 tonne class
satellites of the GSAT series into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits.
o Payload to LEO (Low Earth Orbit) : 8,000 kg: The powerful cryogenic stage of GSLV Mk III
enables it to place heavy payloads into Low Earth Orbits of 600 km altitude.

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• The S200 solid motor is among the largest solid boosters in the world with 204 tonnes of solid
propellant.
• GSLV Mk-III (LVM3) is the new heavy lift launch vehicle of ISRO for achieving a 4000 kg spacecraft
launching capability to GTO (Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit) in a cost effective manner.
Human Rated Launch Vehicle (HRLV) - Gaganyaan
• Gaganyaan project envisages demonstration of human spaceflight capability by launching crew
of 3 members to an orbit of 400 km for a 3 days mission and bring them back safely to earth, by
landing in Indian sea waters.
• The primary mandate of HSFC is to spearhead ISRO’s Gaganyaan programme through co-
ordinated efforts and focus all the activities that are carried out in other ISRO centres, research
labs in India, Indian academia and Industries towards accomplishing the mission.
• Various precursor missions are planned for demonstrating the Technology Preparedness Levels
before carrying out the actual Human Space Flight mission.
• These demonstrator missions include
o Integrated Air Drop Test (IADT),
o Pad Abort Test (PAT) and
o Test Vehicle (TV) flights.
• Safety and reliability of all systems will be proven in unmanned missions preceding manned
mission.
• These areas would constitute important components for future sustained human space flight
activities like rendezvous and docking, space station building and interplanetary collaborative
manned missions to Moon/Mars and near-earth asteroids.
• LVM3 rocket - The well proven and reliable heavy lift launcher of ISRO, is identified as the
launch vehicle for Gaganyaan mission.
• It consists of solid stage, liquid stage and cryogenic stage.
• All systems in LVM3 launch vehicle are re-configured to meet human rating requirements and
christened Human Rated LVM3.
• HLVM3 will be capable of launching the Orbital Module to an intended Low Earth Orbit of 400
km.
• HLVM3 consists of Crew Escape System (CES) powered by a set of quick acting, high burn rate
solid motors which ensures that Crew Module along with crew is taken to a safe distance in case
of any emergency either at launch pad or during ascent phase.
• Milestones achieved so far
o Test vehicle for characterisation of Crew Escape System ready at SDSC
• Major milestones planned
o Integrated Air Drop tests (IADT)
o Test vehicle Mission (TVM)
o Pad Abort Tests (PAT)
o Unmanned flights
o Manned flight
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)
• Vehicle Configuration
o Lift off mass : ~120T
o Three Solid propulsion stages
o Liquid module as terminal stage
• Payload Capability
o Single/Multi Satellites - Nano, Micro and Mini satellites
o Single Satellite up to 500kg in 500km planar orbit
o Three Multiple satellites ranging from 10kg to 300kg into 500km Planar Orbit

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• Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a 3 stage Launch Vehicle configured with three Solid
Propulsion Stages and liquid propulsion based Velocity Trimming Module (VTM) as a terminal
stage.
• The key features of SSLV:
o Low cost,
o low turn-around time,
o flexibility in accommodating multiple satellites,
o Launch on demand feasibility,
o minimal launch infrastructure requirements, etc.
ISRO Missions
• Department of Space (DOS) is the Government of India department mandated with the
execution of the Indian Space Programme. The Department of Space has evolved the following
programmes with the objective of promoting & developing the application of space science and
space technology:
o Launch Vehicle programme having an indigenous capability for launching satellites.
o INSAT Programme for telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, development of
education etc.
o Remote Sensing Programme for application of satellite imagery for various
developmental purposes.
o Research and Development in Space Sciences and Technology for serving the end of
applying them for national development.
• The Department of Space, through its agency ISRO, accomplishes space missions to fulfill its
vision, mission and objectives. Here are the missions, in numbers.
o Spacecraft Missions: 123
o Launch Missions: 88
o Student satellites: 13
o Re-entry Missions: 2
o Foreign satellites: 386
Astronomy Missions
• ISRO has successfully demonstrated its capability to build state-of-the-art remote sensing and
communication satellites as well as launch vehicles. This opened up possibilities for modest
space-borne astronomical experiments.
• Starting from sounding rockets, balloons and several rocket-borne experiments to study hard X-
ray emission from discrete X-ray sources, an X-ray payload was flown onboard Aryabhata, the
first Indian satellite, in 1975.
• The Indian Cosmic Ray Experiment, Anuradha was launched onboard Space Shuttle Spacelab-3
during 1985. It was designed to measure the ionization states of low energy cosmic rays in near-
earth space.
• The first significant Indian space astronomy instrument was a Gamma Ray Burst (GRB)
detector developed for the SROSS series of satellites. Onboard the SROSS- C2 satellite launched in
1994, the experiment (often referred as payload in satellites) detected around sixty GRB events in
the 20 keV to 3000 keV range and studied their temporal and spectral properties in the gamma
ray band.
• Indian X-ray Astronomy Experiment (IXAE) payload on IRS-P3 satellite launched in 1996.
o IXAE is an X-ray astronomy experiment jointly developed by Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research, Mumbai and U R Rao Satellite center (URSC, formerly called ISRO
Satellite Center), Bangalore
o To study spectral and temporal characteristics of cosmic X-ray sources.

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o The experiment carried three identical gas filled X-ray proportional counters and one all
sky monitor. The experiment was launched onboard IRS P3 on March 21, 1996.
o Observational studies of many bright X-ray binary star systems including X-ray pulsars
and stellar mass black hole candidates have been carried out. Studies of mass accretion
around neutron stars and black hole binaries were some of the major outcomes from IXAE
experiment.
o The experiment was highly successful and produced little more than 30 publications and
four PhD theses.

Chandrayaan-1
• Chandrayaan-1, India's first mission to the Moon, was launched successfully on October 22,
2008 from SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota.
• The spacecraft orbited around the Moon at a height of 100 km from the lunar surface and
provided chemical, mineralogical and photo-geologic mapping of the Moon.
• The spacecraft carried a total of 11 scientific instruments developed in India and other countries.
• After completion of the major mission objectives, the orbit was raised to 200 km in May 2009. The
satellite made more than 3400 orbits around the moon in its lifetime. The mission was concluded
after communication with the spacecraft was lost on August 29, 2009.
• The payloads onboard Chandrayaan-1 are,
o Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC)
o HyperSpectral Imager (HySI)
o Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI)
o High Energy X - ray Spectrometer (HEX)
o Moon Impact Probe(MIP)
o Chandrayaan-1 X-ray Spectrometer (C1XS)
o Near Infrared Spectrometer (SIR – 2)
o Sub keV Atom Reflecting Analyzer (SARA)
o Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini SAR)
o Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3)
o Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM)
• Salient science results from Chandrayaan-1
o Discovered the presence of Hydroxyl & water molecules on the lunar surface (M3), lunar
exosphere (ChACE on MIP) and subsurface water-ice deposits in the base of the craters of
permanent sun shadow region (Mini-SAR)
o Direct evidence for water (H2O) in the sunlit ambience from CHACE on MIP of
Chandrayaan-I.
o Reflection of solar wind protons as neutral hydrogen from lunar surface (SARA)
o Three dimensional conceptualization of many craters of interest and detailed maps of
lunar surface features (TMC and LLRI).
o Detection of potential site (buried lava tube) for future human habitability on the Moon
(TMC and HySI). This may provide a safe environment from hazardous radiations,
micrometeorite impacts, extreme temperatures and dust storms.
o Detection of potential site (buried lava tube) for future human habitability on the Moon
(TMC and HySI). This may provide a safe environment from hazardous radiations,
micrometeorite impacts, extreme temperatures and dust storms.
o Evidence of volcanic vent, lava pond and lava channels as recent as 100 million years old
inside the Tycho crater central peak (TMC and NASA’s LRO data).
o Enhanced signatures of OH/ Water in Compton Belkovich Volcanic Complex, which
indicates the endogenic water inherited during the formation of the Moon, now coming
out with Volcanism (M3 spectra).

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Mars Orbiter Mission

• Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), India's first interplanetary mission to planet Mars was launched
onboard PSLV-C25 on November 05, 2013.
• ISRO has become the fourth space agency to successfully send a spacecraft to Mars [Link]
the designed mission life is 6 months, MOM completed 7 years in its orbit on Sept 24, 2021.
• Mission Objectives
o The objectives of this mission are primarily technological and include design, realization
and launch of a Mars Orbiter spacecraft capable of operating with sufficient autonomy
during the journey phase; Mars orbit insertion / capture and in-orbit phase around Mars.
o MOM carries five scientific payloads to study the Martian surface features, morphology,
mineralogy and Martian atmosphere.
• Scientific payloads
o Mars Color Camera (MCC)
o Thermal Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (TIS)
o Methane Sensor for Mars (MSM)
o Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser (MENCA)
o Lyman Alpha Photometer (LAP)
• Uniqueness
o Highly elliptical orbit geometry of MOM enables its Camera (MCC) to take snapshots of
Full disc of Mars at its farthest point and finer details from closest point.
o First time observation of the far side of Deimos, one of the moons of Mars.
• Achievements
o The Mars Colour Camera, one of the scientific payloads onboard MOM, has produced
1100+ images so far and published a Mars Atlas.
o Published more than 35 research papers in peer-reviewed journals.
o India’s ability to successfully realize the complex mission to Mars in its first attempt, in a
cost-effective (Rupees 450 Cr) has captured the world's attention and has propelled
India’s image as a credible space faring nation to greater heights. This capability could
pave the way for greater opportunities for Space Commerce including launch services and
marketing of Satellite Imageries.
o Mars Orbiter Mission is a mission of national pride which has attracted the attention of
students, general public, media and international science/ technical community.
Importantly, Mars Orbiter Mission has created enthusiasm among the younger generation
in the country, provoked their curiosity to understand and discuss space related
techniques and is maintaining the tempo throughout the mission.
• Major science results
o The solar coronal dynamics during the post-maxima phase of the solar cycle 24 using S -
band radio signals from the MOM (MNRAS, 2022)
o Enhanced escape of Martian atmosphere during global dust storm (JGR-Planets, 2020)
o MENCA detected 'hot' (suprathermal – more energetic compared to thermal) Argon in the
exosphere of Mars (GRL, 2017). Mars was at perihelion during this observation.
o Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser(MENCA) observations have shown for the
first time that the abundance of Oxygen exceeds that of Carbon-Dioxide at an altitude of
~270 ±10 km, during the perihelion evening hours (GRL, 2016).
o Atmospheric optical depth (AOD) was estimated through Mars Colour Camera (MCC)
observations and the studies reported the presence of lee-wave clouds above the southern
wall of Valles Marineris (Icarus, 2015)
• Scientific analysis of the data being received from the Mars Orbiter spacecraft is in progress.
Scientific Data archived at ISSDC is made available to user communities.

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Astrosat
• AstroSat is India’s first dedicated Space Astronomy Observatory launched into a 650-km, 6°
inclination orbit on September 28, 2015, with a lift-off mass of 1515 kg, by PSLV-C30 (XL) rocket
from Satish Dhawan Space Centre Sriharikota.
• AstroSat carries a total of five scientific payloads enabling imaging, studying temporal and
spectral properties of galactic and extra- galactic cosmic sources in a wide range of wavelengths
on a common platform.
• The unique feature of this observatory is its capability for carrying out broad band simultaneous
multiwavelength observation going from far ultraviolet to gamma rays. UVIT has the highest
angular resolution of 1.5 arcsec which is 3 times better than the next best UV telescope (GALEX-
Galaxy evolution explorer) operational today. LAXPC has the highest collecting area in
comparison to any other X-ray detector till today. CZTI possesses a unique capability of measuring
X-ray polarization and also acts as an open detector beyond 100 keV.
• Major Scientific results from ASTROSAT
o “India’s ASTROSAT makes rare discovery”, from PTI PUNE, on August 25, 2020. This is the
first detection of a FUV photon from Lyman Alpha emitting galaxy AUDFs01 at a distance
of 9.3 billion light years.
o Deep survey of M31 galaxy, popularly known as Andromeda galaxy with UVIT led to the
first detection of young main-sequence stars in the bulge of M31 outside the nucleus.
o For the first time, CZTI discovered X-ray polarization from the off-pulse region of Crab
pulsar.
o AstroSat detection and characterisation of star formation in and around Jellyfish galaxies
Chandrayaan-2
• The Chandrayaan-2 mission was successfully launched on 22nd July 2019 at 14:43 hrs by GSLV
MkIII-M1 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota.
• After a series of Earthbound maneuvers, the spacecraft entered into Lunar Transfer Trajectory
(LTT) on August 14th. Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) maneuver was performed on August 20th,
thereby Chandrayaan-2 was successfully inserted into the elliptical orbit around the Moon.
• This was followed by a series of Lunar bound orbit maneuvers for reducing the orbit to circular
polar orbit around the Moon.
• Chandrayaan-2 carried eight experiment payloads on board for studying surface geology,
composition and exospheric measurements of the Moon. These measurements will continue to
enhance upon the understanding built from previous lunar missions.
• The orbiter spacecraft carried eight scientific orbiter payloads hosted by ISRO including
Chandrayaan-2 Large Area Soft X-ray Spectrometer (CLASS), Solar X-ray Monitor (XSM),
CHandra's Atmospheric Compositional Explorer 2 (CHACE 2), Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture
Radar (DFSAR), Imaging Infra-Red Spectrometer (IIRS), Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC 2),
Orbiter High Resolution Camera (OHRC), and Dual Frequency Radio Science (DFRS) experiment.
• Major results from Chandrayaan-2
o According to ISRO, a variability of the Argon-40 at the middle and higher latitudes of the
Moon was identified and observed bythe mass spectrometer CHACE-2 which also depicted
the radiogenic activities in the mid and higher latitudes of the Lunar interior.
o The discovery of Chromium and Manganese on the lunar surface, which are available in
trace quantities, by the CLASS payload was announced.
o The observations of microflares of the Sun, during the quiet-Sun period, which provide
important clues on the coronal heating problem of the Sun, were made by the XSM
payload.

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o The first-ever unambiguous detection of the hydration features of the Moon was achieved
by Chandrayaan-2 with its infra-red spectrometer payload IIRS, which captured clear
signatures of Hydroxyl and water-ice on the lunar surface.
o The DFSAR instrument could study the subsurface features of the Moon, detected
signatures of the sub-surface water-ice, and achieved high resolution mapping of the lunar
morphological features in the polar regions.
Chandrayaan-3
• Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 to demonstrate end-to-end capability in
safe landing and roving on the lunar surface.
• It consists of Lander and Rover configuration. It will be launched by LVM3 from SDSC SHAR,
Sriharikota.
• The propulsion module will carry the lander and rover configuration till 100 km lunar orbit.
• The propulsion module has Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) payload to
study the spectral and Polari metric measurements of Earth from the lunar orbit.
• The mission objectives of Chandrayaan-3 are:
o To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on Lunar Surface
o To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and
o To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.
• Chandrayaan-3 consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and a
Rover with an objective of developing and demonstrating new technologies required for
Interplanetary missions.
• The Lander will have the capability to soft land at a specified lunar site and deploy the Rover
which will carry out in-situ chemical analysis of the lunar surface during the course of its mobility.
Main task of India’s third moon mission
• Soft landing on south pole: Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 to
demonstrate end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving near the south pole of the lunar
surface, a task Chandrayaan-2’s Vikram lander could not complete
• The mission objectives of Chandrayaan-3 are:
o To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on Lunar Surface
o To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and
o To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.
• Chandrayaan-3 consists of an indigenous Lander module (LM), Propulsion module (PM) and a
Rover with an objective of developing and demonstrating new technologies required for
Interplanetary missions.
Countries that have achieved this task
• As of now, three powerful nations have made their mark. The United States (Apollo-11) led the
way, followed by Russia (Luna-2), with China (Chang’e-3) becoming the third nation to achieve
this feat in 2019. The successful landing of the spacecraft will make India the first country in the
world to soft-land near the lunar south pole and the fourth country to have landed on the
moon’s surface.
Subsystems in Chandrayaan-3
• The spacecraft comprises a lander and rover configuration, which will be carried by a
propulsion module until a 100 km lunar orbit.
• Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mk III will place the integrated module in an Elliptic
Parking Orbit (EPO).

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• Vikram Lander: Vikram lander consists of a number of sensors that ensures soft landing at a
specified lunar site and deploy the Rover. The Vikram lander will carry many instruments that
have a specific purpose
o Chandra’s Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE) to measure surface thermal
properties,
o The Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA) to measure seismicity around the
landing site,
o The Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere
(RAMBHA) to study the gas and plasma environment, and
o A passive laser retroreflector array provided by NASA for lunar ranging studies.
• Pragyan Rover: Rover will carry out in-situ chemical analysis of the lunar surface during the
course of its mobility. The Pragyan rover will carry two instruments to study the local surface
elemental composition,
o An Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS) and
o Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS).
• Propulsion module: The Propulsion Module / Orbiter will carry one experiment called the
Spectropolarimetry of HAbitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) to study spectral and Polari metric
measurements of Earth from lunar orbit.
Why did Chandrayaan 3 choose to land on the Lunar south pole?
• Lunar south pole as a landing site is mainly driven by the fact that the region hosts water in the
form of ice.
• Water on the moon is of pure scientific value. It can be used as a record of geological activity
on the moon, such as lunar volcanoes, and even act as an asteroid strike tracker.
• While water has been detected across the surface of the moon, the majority of water ice signals
come from the poles.
Why is the lunar south pole important?
• At the moon’s south pole, sunlight strikes at a different angle, casting long shadows over the
lunar craters. Some of these craters are permanently shadowed, with sunlight never reaching
the bottom, and could therefore have ancient pockets of ice hidden for billions of years.
• Previously, lunar orbiters — including India’s previous two Moon orbiters (Chandrayaan-1 and
Chandrayaan-2) — have detected hydroxyl (OH) and water traces on the Moon.
• Water in long-term space exploration is a critical resource, synonymous to striking gold in space.
This makes the south pole a strategic spot, as lunar water could provide fuel, oxygen and
drinking water, making it a potential site for lunar mining and even future human settlements.
Role of the Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre
• The VSSC is ISRO’s lead unit for launch vehicles, and is responsible for the design and
development of the LVM3 (formerly GSLV Mk-III) launch vehicle.
• The virtual launch control center (VLCC) at the VSSC will have an important role to play in safely
seeing off the powerful LVM3 launch vehicle carrying the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft.
• The facility allows the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to remotely carry out system
checkouts on the launch vehicle prior to a mission.

Aditya- L1
• Aditya L1 shall be the first space based Indian mission to study the Sun.
• The spacecraft shall be placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrange point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth
system, which is about 1.5 million km from the Earth.

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• A satellite placed in the halo orbit around the L1 point has the major advantage of continuously
viewing the Sun without any occultation/eclipses.
• This will provide a greater advantage of observing the solar activities and its effect on space
weather in real time.
• The spacecraft carries seven payloads to observe the photosphere, chromosphere and the
outermost layers of the Sun (the corona) using electromagnetic and particle and magnetic field
detectors.
• The major science objectives of Aditya-L1 mission are:
o Study of Solar upper atmospheric (chromosphere and corona) dynamics.
o Study of chromospheric and coronal heating, physics of the partially ionized plasma,
initiation of the coronal mass ejections, and flares
o Observe the in-situ particle and plasma environment providing data for the study of
particle dynamics from the Sun.
o Physics of solar corona and its heating mechanism.
o Diagnostics of the coronal and coronal loops plasma: Temperature, velocity and density.
o Development, dynamics and origin of CMEs.
o Identify the sequence of processes that occur at multiple layers (chromosphere, base and
extended corona) which eventually leads to solar eruptive events.
o Magnetic field topology and magnetic field measurements in the solar corona .
o Drivers for space weather (origin, composition and dynamics of solar wind
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS): NavIC
• IRNSS is an independent regional navigation satellite system being developed by India.
• It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India and the region
extending up to 1500 km from its boundary, which is its primary service area.
• An Extended Service Area lies between the primary service area and the area enclosed by the
rectangle from Latitude 30 deg South to 50 deg North, Longitude 30 deg East to 130 deg East.
• IRNSS will provide two types of services:
o Standard Positioning Service (SPS): provided to all users,
o Restricted Service (RS): an encrypted service provided only to the authorised users.
• The IRNSS System is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 m in the primary
service area.
• Applications of IRNSS are:
o Terrestrial, Aerial and Marine Navigation
o Disaster Management
o Vehicle tracking and fleet management
o Integration with mobile phones
o Precise Timing
o Mapping and Geodetic data capture
o Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers
o Visual and voice navigation for drivers

3) Hubble Space Telescope

• Hubble Space Telescope is a large, space-based observatory, which has revolutionized
astronomy since its launch and deployment by the space shuttle Discovery in 1990.
• Far above rain clouds, light pollution, and atmospheric distortions, Hubble has a crystal-clear
view of the universe.
• Scientists have used Hubble to observe some of the most distant stars and galaxies that are yet
seen, as well as the planets in our solar system.

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• Hubble's current suite of instruments includes the Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3), Cosmic Origins
Spectrograph (COS), Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph
(STIS) and Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS).
• Telescopes have a particular range of light that they can detect. Hubble’s domain extends from the
ultraviolet through the visible (which our eyes see) and into the near infrared. This range has
allowed Hubble to deliver stunning images of stars, galaxies, and other astronomical objects that
have inspired people around the world and changed our understanding of the universe.
• Hubble has made more than 1.5 million observations over the course of its lifetime.
• The telescope has tracked interstellar objects as they soared through our solar system, watched
a comet collide with Jupiter, and discovered moons around Pluto.
• It has found dusty disks and stellar nurseries throughout the Milky Way that may one day
become fully-fledged planetary systems and studied the atmospheres of planets that orbit other
stars.
• Hubble has peered back into our universe’s distant past, to locations more than 13.4 billion light-
years from Earth, capturing galaxies merging, probing the supermassive black holes that lurk in
their depths and helping us better understand the history of the expanding universe.

4) Space Applications
Satellite Communication Applications
• A fleet of commercial communication satellites, are operating over India with communication
transponders in C-band, Extended C-band, Ku-band and S-band.
• These transponders support the services like television, telecommunication, radio networking,
strategic communication and societal applications.
• The prominent users of the transponders are BSNL, Doordarshan, All India Radio, strategic govt.
users, public sector units, private VSAT operators, DTH and TV operators, banking and financial
institutions, etc.
• Under societal applications, ISRO/DOS has supported programmes like Telemedicine, Tele-
education and Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programmes which are solely national
development-oriented with an aim to address specific requirements at different strata of the
society.
• Television
o INSAT has been a major catalyst for the expansion of television coverage in India.
o DOS has made available the required transponders through INSAT/GSAT satellites and
through a leased capacity to cater to the needs of television service.
• Radio Networking
o Radio Networking (RN) through INSAT provides reliable high-fidelity programme
channels for National as well as Regional Networking.
o AIR is utilising one C-band transponder of INSAT-3C for uplinking RN carriers across the
country.
• Telecommunications
o INSAT satellites have been traditionally supporting telecommunication applications for
providing voice and data communications.
o Satellite links are the primary means of connectivity to remote and far-flung regions of the
country and they are the backup links for a large number of terrestrial connectivity in the
mainland.
• Telemedicine
o ISRO Telemedicine pilot project was started in the year 2001 as part of a proof-of-concept
demonstration programme, linking Apollo Hospital at Chennai with the Apollo Rural
Hospital at Aragonda village in the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.

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o The Telemedicine technology involves the ICT-based system consisting of customised

medical software integrated with the computer hardware along with medical diagnostic
instruments connected to the commercial VSAT at each location.
o The Telemedicine software consisted essentially of store-and-forward modules for Tele-
radiology, Tele-cardiology and Tele-pathology purposes along with the video-
conferencing facility.
• Tele-education
o ‘EDUSAT’, India’s first thematic satellite dedicated exclusively to educational services, was
used extensively to cater to a wide range of interactive educational delivery modes like a
one-way TV broadcast, video conferencing, computer conferencing, web-based
instructions, etc.
o EDUSAT had manifold objectives -
▪ to supplement the curriculum-based teaching,
▪ imparting effective teacher training,
▪ providing access to quality resource persons and new technologies,
▪ thus finally resulting in taking education to every nook and corner of India.
o EDUSAT provided connectivity to schools, colleges and higher levels of education and also
supported non-formal education including development communication.
o The networks implemented under the EDUSAT programme comprise two types of
terminals, namely, Satellite Interactive Terminals (SITs) and Receive Only Terminals
(ROTs).
o Many states have expressed their keen interest to upgrade their networks and DOS is
extending necessary technical assistance towards upgradation and expansion.
Satellite Meteorology
• The meteorological satellite data of INSAT is processed and disseminated by the INSAT
Meteorological Data Processing System (IMDPS) of the India Meteorological Department (IMD)
• At present, INSAT/GSAT satellites carrying meteorological payloads are supporting weather
forecasting services.
• IMDPS can receive and process the data of all three existing geostationary meteorological
satellites.
• The performance of the system has been maintained at the level of 98% operation efficiency.
• The output generated by the system is used for efficient and successful forecasting the major
weather events, particularly major cyclones in the past.
GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN)
• GAGAN signal is available for both civil Aviation and Non-Aviation users. GAGAN Payloads are
operational through GSAT-8, GSAT-10 and GSAT-15 satellites.
• The implementation of GAGAN has numerous benefits to the aviation sector in terms of fuel
saving, saving in equipment cost, flight safety, increased air space capacity, efficiency,
enhancement of reliability, reduction in workload for operators, coverage of the oceanic area for
air traffic control, high position accuracy, etc.
• Some of the benefits GAGAN is expected to bring to Civil Aviation sector are:
o Safety benefits – Vertical guidance improves safety, especially in adverse weather
conditions
o Reduction of circling approaches
o Environmental benefits–Approach with Vertical Guidance procedures will help facilitate
better energy and descent profile management during the final approach
o Global seamless navigation for all phases of flight including arrival, departure, oceanic and
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o Allow direct routings, multiple approaches resulting in considerable fuel savings to

airlines and provide for capacity enhancement of airports and airspace
• In addition to aviation sector, GAGAN is expected to bring benefits to other sectors like:
o Navigation and Safety Enhancement in Railways, Roadways, Ships, Spacecraft
o Geographic Data Collection
o Scientific Research for Atmospheric Studies
o Geodynamics
o Natural Resource and Land Management
o Location based services, Mobile, Tourism, etc.
Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programme
• The Disaster Management Support - Decision Support Centre (DMS-DSC) established at
National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) is actively engaged in monitoring natural disasters such
as floods, cyclones, landslides, earthquakes and forest fires. The major activities during the year
were monitoring all the flood events, supporting disaster management during the Nepal
Earthquake and monitoring the landslide dammed Phutkal river in Jammu & Kashmir.
• Floods: Floods are mapped and monitored in all major states and flood inundation maps were
provided in near real-time to the concerned State Relief Commissioners, Ministry of Home Affairs,
National Disaster Management Authority, National Disaster Response Force, Central Water
Commission and India Meteorological Department. Value-added food products were populated on
the Bhuvan and NDEM web portals. National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad is a
member of the committee on scientific assessment of flood-prone areas, and provides inputs on
flood-prone areas based on DEM, water level and historic satellite data as input..
• Cyclones: All the depressions and cyclones originated in the Indian Ocean region were monitored
and the track, intensity and landfall were predicted. All the information was regularly updated on
the MOSDAC website ([Link] as part of information dissemination.
• Forest Fire: The Indian Forest Fire Response and Assessment System (INFFRAS) provides
observations of active forest fires from TERRA and AQUA MODIS data on a near real-time basis.
Active forest information is available to users within 30 minutes of acquisition on Bhuvan as well
as through the Forest Survey of India.
• Landslides: Landslide is monitored using CARTOSAT data and regular updates on impoundment
area, the volume of water and possible scenario due to breach is provided to NDMA. The inputs
are used by NDMA to assess the threat and clear the blockade. Monitoring of the status of Lhonak
Lake in Sikkim and Pareechu Lake in Tibet was carried out using CARTOSAT data and information
was furnished to CWC.
• Earthquake: Pre- and post-disaster high-resolution satellite images (Cartosat-1/2, Resourcesat
LISS IV) and 10 m DEM is used to map co-seismic landslides triggered during the earthquake.
Many landslide-dammed lakes have also been mapped.
• The processed data and information were sent to the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), in
addition to uploading to the Bhuvan and NDEM web portals of ISRO. The information derived
from satellite data is shared among various international agencies for unifying the efforts and
coordinating rescue operations.
• Early Warning Systems Development: Medium-range flood forecast models were developed for
the many river basins and operationally used in real-time in collaboration with Central Water
Commission. Web-enabled spatial flood early warning system has been developed and
implemented in real-time during the monsoon periods.
Remote Sensing Applications

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• Remote sensing application projects at National, State and Local levels are being carried out
through the well-established multi-pronged implementation architecture of the National Natural
Resources Management System (NNRMS) in the country.
• User Ministries of State and Central Government departments and other institutions play a major
role in utilising remote sensing technology in their own departments. In addition, the private
sector, Non-Governmental Organisations and academia also utilise this technology in different
developmental sectors of the country.
• Various applications of remote sensing satellites are
o National Land Use/Land Cover (LU/LC) mapping
o Crop Acreage and Production Estimation
o Coordinated programme on Horticulture Assessment and Management using
Geoinformatics (CHAMAN)
o Cotton crop area mapping
o Indian Forest Cover Change Alert System (InFCCAS)
o Study on Sundarban mangrove system
o Inventory and Monitoring of Glacial Lakes/Water Bodies
o Assessment of Irrigation Potential Utilisation (I.P.U) using geospatial data
o Re-assessment of basin-scale water resources using Space inputs
o Monitoring of Gas Pipelines of Gas Authority of India Ltd (GAIL)
o Island Information System (IIS)
o Monitoring of Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) watersheds using
geospatial technologies
▪ Bhuvan – SRISHTI, a Web-based GIS application (Geoportal), has been developed
to enable monitoring and evaluation of IWMP watersheds, using satellite remote
sensing and sample field data (collected using a mobile application).
o Groundwater storage assessment coupling hydro morphology with lithology
Earth Observation Application Sciences
• Geosciences
o Space Applications Centre of ISRO is involved in applications of remote sensing and GIS
technology in geosciences and executes several projects for societal benefits.
o Some of the major thrust research areas are related to coastal and marine geosciences,
geodynamics, geo-hazards, mineral, hydrocarbon and geo-archaeological exploration.
• Agriculture
o Production forecasting of important agricultural crops using satellite remote sensing data
initiated under the project “Crop Acreage and Production Estimation” by Space
Applications Centre and carried out over a period of two decades at the behest of the
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India (MOA).
o Subsequently a more inclusive model FASAL (Forecasting agricultural output using Space,
Agro-meteorology and Land based observations) was initiated in 2007-08.
• Environment and climate change
o Human activities contribute to climate change by causing changes in Earth’s atmosphere
in the amounts of greenhouse gases, aerosols (small particles), and cloudiness.
o Climate change forms one of the most important global environmental challenges, with
implications for food production, water supply, health, energy, etc. It is essential to study
the impacts of climate change and thereby suggest mitigation measures.
o The goal of space-based global change observation, together with other observations and
studies, is to provide a sound scientific basis for developing national and international
policy relating to natural and human-induced changes in the Earth System.
• Physical oceanography

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o Oceans occupy almost 3/4th of the surface of our planet. They have a profound impact on
climate and weather.
o The current research includes Advanced Ocean State Forecast (AOSF) using numerical
models and space-borne observations, Ocean Process Studies, and the development of
Data Assimilation (DA) techniques.
• Biological oceanography
o The Ocean contains thousands of microscopic, free-floating, single-celled plants called
“phytoplankton” capable of making their own food by harvesting the energy from sunlight,
carbon dioxide and nutrients present in the upper well-lit layers of the ocean. This process
known as photosynthesis also liberates oxygen and makes possible all animal life in the
ocean.
o Phytoplankton are the oceanic equivalents of land plants and forms the basis of the
marine food chain. In addition, they play an important role in pulling carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere by exporting the dead cells to the ocean interior and bottom sediments.
• Atmosphere
o The study of Atmospheric Sciences is a major programme. ISRO centre develops state of
art techniques for the analysis and forecasting of the weather and climate from regional to
global scales using various satellite data. The space-based inputs are used by IMD and
other agencies for their forecasts.
• Cryosphere
o Cryospheric studies on the earth's surface include inventory, dynamics, changes, and
interaction with the hydrosphere, atmosphere etc. of snow, ice cover on land, sea ice and
permafrost. For the last more than two and half decades, ISRO has been contributing to
the development of methods/techniques for the extraction and dissemination of reliable
and quick information pertaining to the polar and Himalayan cryosphere using data from
Indian Remote Sensing Satellites.
• Hydrosphere
o ISRO carries out studies related to land hydrological modelling and applications. It
involves retrieval of hydro-meteorological parameters from satellite and modelling of
Hydrological Processes from field to National scale. Timely and reliable assessment of
available water resources through satellites and models provide important input to devise
strategies and water management in the country.

Asteroids

• Asteroids are rocky celestial bodies that orbit the Sun, mostly found in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter.
• While most remain distant, Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) have orbits that bring them close to
Earth, posing potential threats.
• Large asteroid impacts, though rare, have caused mass extinctions in the past, raising concerns
about planetary defence strategies.

The Threat of Asteroid Impacts

Historical Context & Probability
• Past Extinction Events: The Chicxulub asteroid impact (~66 million years ago) led to the mass
extinction of dinosaurs.
• Likelihood of Impact:
o Large asteroids (1 km+) impact Earth approximately once every 500,000 years.

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o Smaller but hazardous asteroids (140+ meters) impact every 10,000 years.
• Potential Consequences:
o Global cooling due to dust blocking sunlight.
o Tsunamis, earthquakes, and wildfires from impact force.
o Mass extinctions if a large asteroid strikes a densely populated or ecologically vital area.

Strategies for Asteroid Impact Prevention

1. Early Detection & Monitoring
• NASA & ESA Programs: Missions like the NEO Surveyor Mission and Planetary Defense
Coordination Office track potential threats.
• Indian Initiative: ISRO’s NEO Monitoring Program
o ISRO is developing an Indian NEO detection system using telescopes such as the
Asteroid Detection Research Program (ADR) at IIA (Indian Institute of
Astrophysics).
o The upcoming Netra Project aims to enhance India's space surveillance, including
asteroid tracking.
2. Deflection Technologies
• Kinetic Impact Method: The DART (Double Asteroid Redirection Test) mission (2022)
successfully changed an asteroid’s orbit by direct impact.
• Nuclear Deflection: A nuclear explosion near an asteroid could alter its trajectory.
• Indian Perspective:
o ISRO has proposed collaborating with global agencies on planetary defence missions.
o Future projects may involve asteroid impact modelling and intercept missions similar
to DART.
3. Impact Mitigation & Preparedness
• Governments and space agencies develop disaster preparedness plans for potential impacts.
• India’s Role:
o The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has discussed space-related
threats, including asteroid impact preparedness.
o The Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) is working on simulation models for
planetary defense strategies.

QUESTIONS:
1. Give a brief review of India's accomplishments in the field of space science and technology. (1979)
2. What will be your weight when orbiting in a space satellite? (1980)
3. What the significant achievements of Indian scientists in the context of Space Research? How will
space technology be useful for weather prediction, telecommunications and identification of
natural resources? (1981)
4. What is a spacecraft? Name the Indian who undertook spaceflight (1984)
5. Trace the progress of India's Space Research Programmes? What are its significant achievements?
(1991)
6. What is the advantage of putting a satellite in the geosynchronous orbit? (1992)
7. What is remote sensing? Describe the status of remote sensing in India.(1993)

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8. What is PSLV? Describe its significance for India's space programme (1995)
9. What are VSATs? What are they used for? (1995)
10. Describe how India's space programme has helped in its socio-economic development. (1996)
11. What is the difference between a comet and a meteor? (1997)
12. What is remote sensing? What are its uses especially in the Indian content. (1998)
13. What new type of satellite is proposed to be inducted for bolstering surveillance on India's
border? How does this type of satellite compare with existing IRS satellites? (1999)
14. Where s Vikram Sarabhal Space Centre located? (1999)
15. What is the significance of the geostationary orbit? What would happen if it becomes too
crowded? (2000)
16. Discuss the significance of GSLV in space research. (2001)
17. What does the solar system consist of? Discuss the motion of the entire solar system as a whole
and also the motion of most of the bodies forming the solar system. (2003)
18. What is the "Hubble Space Telescope? How many Servicing Missions (SMs) have been conducted
for it? (2009)
19. Write about GAGAN Project. (2009)
20. Write brief note on Chandrayaan-II. (2010)
21. What is the main task of India’s third mood mission which could not be achieved in its earlier
mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the
spacecraft launched and explain the role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ at the Vikram
Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch from Sriharikota. (2023)
22. What are asteroids? How real is the threat of them causing extinction of life? What strategies have
been developed to prevent such a catastrophe? (2024)

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Defence Technology
1) Missile Technology
Missile system
• A missile is an intelligent unmanned rocket designed to carry the payload to a designated point
with an aim of destroying the object/target. The missile is designed keeping in mind its target,
trajectory, warhead, range, velocity and launch platform.
• The major technologies/mechanisms used in missiles are
o Propulsion system: to achieve terminal conditions like range, speed and warhead
carrying capability. The missile is propelled either by rockets or jet engines using solid or
liquid fuel. Some missiles use hybrid technology for propelling it to its intended point.
o Guidance system: to maintain the missile in its designated flight path by using altitude
control mechanism. It operates as an auto-pilot, damping out fluctuations that tend to
deflect the missile from its intended flight path. In some missiles, they are generated
internally by the missile’s computer. In others, the commands are transmitted to the
weapon by some external source.
o Aerodynamics features including airframe, wings and fins: also called controlling
surfaces, are used to control a missile’s flight. The fins, wings and tail are the three major
aerodynamic control surfaces used to steer the missile. The missile’s course can be altered
by moving these controlling surfaces.
o Terminal guidance in case of precision-guided weapons: to detect the target and to
determine the time of activating the warhead.
o Warhead: it inflicts damage on the target and hence determines the missile’s lethality.
Classification of Missile system
• Missiles are generally classified on the basis of their Type, Launch Mode, Range, Propulsion,
Warhead and Guidance systems.
• Type:
o Cruise Missile
o Ballistic Missile
• Launch Mode:
o Surface-to-Surface Missile
o Surface-to-Air Missile
o Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
o Air-to-Air Missile
o Air-to-Surface Missile
o Sea-to-Sea Missile
o Sea-to-surface (Coast) Missile
o Anti-tank Missile
• Range
o Short Range Missile
o Medium Range Missile
o Intermediate-Range Missile
o Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
• Propulsion
o Solid propulsion
o Liquid propulsion
o Hybrid propulsion
o Ramjet

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o Scramjet
o Cryogenic
• Warhead
o Conventional
o Strategic
• Guidance system
o Wire guidance
o Command guidance
o Terrain comparison guidance
o Terrestrial guidance
o Inertial guidance
o Beam rider guidance
o Laser Guidance
o RF and GPS Reference
Cruise Missile
• A cruise missile is an unmanned self-propelled (till the time of impact) guided vehicle that
sustains flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to
place an ordnance or special payload on a target.
• They fly within the earth’s atmosphere and use jet engine technology.
• These vehicles vary greatly in their speed and ability to penetrate defenses.
• Cruise missiles can be categorized by size, speed (subsonic or supersonic) range and whether
launched from land, air surface ship or submarine.
• Depending upon the speed such missiles are classified as
o Subsonic cruise missile
o Supersonic cruise missile
o Hypersonic cruise missile
• Subsonic cruise missile: flies at a speed lesser than that of the sound. It travels at a speed of
around 0.8 Mach. The well-known subsonic missile is the American Tomahawk cruise missile.
• Supersonic cruise Missile: travels at a speed of around 2-3 Mach i.e. it travels a kilometer
approximately in a second. The modular design of the missile and its capacity of being launched at
different orientations enable it to be integrated with wide launchers and silos. The combination of
supersonic speed and warhead mass provides high kinetic energy ensuring a tremendous lethal
effect. BRAHMOS is the only known versatile supersonic cruise missile system which is in service.
• Hypersonic cruise missile: travels at a speed of more than 5 Mach. Many countries are working
to develop hypersonic cruise missiles. BrahMos Aerospace is also in the process of developing a
hypersonic cruise missile, BRAHMOS-II, which would fly at a speed greater than 5Mach.
Ballistic Missiles
• A ballistic missile is a missile that has a ballistic trajectory over most of its flight path, regardless
of whether or not it is a weapon-delivery vehicle.
• Ballistic missiles are categorized according to their range, the maximum distance measured along
the surface of the earth’s ellipsoid from a point of launch to the point of impact of the last element
of their payload.
• The missile carries a huge payload. The carriage of a deadly warhead is justified by the distance
the missile travels. Ballistic missiles can be launched from ships and land-based facilities.
• For example, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, Agni I, Agni II and Dhanush ballistic missiles are currently
operational in the Indian defense forces.

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Surface-to-Surface Missile
• Surface-to-surface missile is a guided projectile launched from a hand-held, vehicle-mounted,
trailer mounted or fixed installation.
• It is often powered by a rocket motor or sometimes fired by an explosive charge since the launch
platform is stationary.
Surface-to-Air Missile
• A surface-to-Air missile is designed for launch from the ground to destroy aerial targets like
aircraft, helicopters and even ballistic missiles.
• These missiles are generally called air defense systems as they defend against any aerial attacks
by the enemy.
Surface (Coast)-to-Sea Missile
• A surface (Coast)-to-Sea missile is designated to be launched from land to ship in the sea as
targets.
Air-to-Air Missiles
• An air-to-air missile is launched from an aircraft to destroy the enemy aircraft. The missile flies at
a speed of 4 Mach.
Air-to-Surface Missiles
• An air-to-surface missile is designated for launch from military aircraft and strikes ground targets
on land, at sea or both.
• The missiles are basically guided via laser guidance, infrared guidance and optical guidance or via
GPS signals.
• The type of guidance depends on the type of target.
Anti-Tank Missile
• An anti-tank missile is a guided missile primarily designated to hit and destroy heavily-armored
tanks and other armored fighting vehicles. Anti-tank missiles could be launched from aircraft,
helicopters, tanks and also from shoulder-mounted launchers.
Conventional warhead Missiles
• A conventional warhead contains highly energy explosive. It is filled with chemical explosives and
relies on the detonation of the explosive and the resulting metal casing fragmentation as kill
mechanisms.
Strategic Warhead Missiles
• In a strategic warhead, radioactive materials are present and when triggered they exhibit huge
radioactivity that can wipe out even cities. They are generally designed for mass annihilation.
Missiles in India
Varunastra
• It has been built by the Naval Science and Technology, Visakhapatnam and Bharat Dynamics
Limited.
• It is basically a ship-launched, electrically propelled underwater weapon having advanced
technologies.
• This weapon uses its own intelligence in tracking the target.
• It is the world’s only known torpedo to have a GPS -based locating aid.
• The range is 40km and it can carry 250kg of weight. It travels at a speed of 74km/hr.

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Cruise Missile
• Brahmos – Its range is 290 km. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world. It has been
manufactured by Brahmos Aerospace Ltd. The place of origin is – Russia and India. The launch
platform is – ship, submarine, aircraft (under testing), and land-based mobile launchers. The
recent testing of the missile has strengthened the tactical cruise missile triad to be used on land,
air, and water.
• Nirbhay – Its range is 1000-1500 km. It is manufactured by DRDO. The place of origin is India.
The launch platform is the Vertical Launch System.
• Brahmos II – It was also designed in India. However, it is a hypersonic cruise missile, which
means the access places are ships, submarines, land, and aircraft. The range is 300km and the
speed is Mach 7.
• Exocet – It was developed in France. It is an anti-ship cruise missile. The range is 40-180km.
Surface to Surface Missiles
• Prahaar – Its range is 150 km. It has been manufactured by DRDO (Defence Research and
Development Organization). The place of origin is India. The launch platform is Transporter
Erector Launcher.
• Prithvi was India’s first indigenously developed ballistic missile produced by the Integrated
Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP) – It is India’s only deployed nuclear-capable
missile.
• Prithvi I – Its range is 150 km. It is manufactured by DRDO and BDL (Bharat Dynamics Ltd.). The
place of origin is India. The launch platform is Transporter Erector Launcher. However, it is not in
service.
• Prithvi II – Its range is 250-350 km. It is also manufactured by DRDO and BDL (Bharat Dynamics
Ltd.). The place of origin is India. The launch platform is Transporter Erector Launcher.
• Prithvi III – Its range is 350 – 600 km. It is manufactured by DRDO and BDL (Bharat Dynamics
Ltd.). The place of origin is India. The launch platform is Transporter Erector Launcher.
• Shaurya – Its range is 700-1900 km. It is manufactured by DRDO. The place of origin is India. The
launch platform is Transporter Erector Launcher or Underground Silo.
• Agni Series – It consists of Agni I, Agni II, Agni III, Agni IV, and Agni V. It is manufactured by
DRDO and BDL (Bharat Dynamics Ltd.). The place of origin is India. The launch platform is
Transporter Erector Launcher.
• Dhanush – It is the naval variant of Prithvi – called Dhanush. They all carry Nuclear Warheads. It
was inducted into the Indian Army in 1994.
Surface to Air Missile
• Akash – This is a multi-target missile, whose primary objective is to destroy flying targets in the
air like fighter planes. It is manufactured by the Ordnance factory (after being first designed by
the DRDO) in collaboration with Bharat Dynamics and Bharat Electronics. It has an inbuilt radar
system that neutralizes missile heads.
• Akash Mk1S can neutralize aerial targets. It is an upgrade of the Akash missile with an
indigenous seeker. This missile uses high-energy solid propellant for the booster. It has a range of
25 km and an altitude of 18,000m.
• Trishul – It is designed primarily to defend naval ships against any missile attack. However, it
was removed from service in 2008.
• Barack Series – It consists of Barack 1 and Barack 8. It is a ship defence missile that is used
against aircraft, and anti-ship missiles. The Barack series is a collaboration with DRDO, India, and
Israel. The Barack missiles are fitted in the aircraft carriers of INS Vikrant and INS Vikramaditya.
They are also fitted in the Shivalik class frigates.
Air to Air Missile
• Astra – The warhead of this missile is 15 kg. It is still useful as a defense weapon.
• K-100 – This was developed in Russia and India. It is a medium-range air-to-air missile. The range
is 300-400 km. The speed is Mach 3.3
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• MICA has been developed by IAF (Indian Air Force). It is an air-to-air-missile.

Anti-Tank Missile
• Nag – This is a guided, anti-tank, fire, and forget type of missile. This missile is low-weighted as its
body is made of fiber. The most striking feature is that its smoke is invisible – hence it can not be
understood from where the missile is coming or targetted.
• HELINA (HELIcopter launched NAg) originated in India. It is an anti-tank-guided missile. It has a
range of 7-8 km.
• Amogha 1 is also an anti-tank guided missile with a range of 2.8km. It has also originated in India.
Submarine-launched Ballistic Missile (SSBN)
• K series – It consists of K4 and Sagarika (K15). K4 is still being developed. It is named to honor Dr
A.P.J Abdul Kalam. It is a nuclear missile. K4 is a nuclear-capable intermediate-range ballistic
missile that was developed and tested by DRDO in January 2020.
• Once inducted, these missiles will be included in INS Arihant which belongs to the class of
indigenous ballistic missile nuclear submarines. INS Arihant is the only operational SSBN armed
with K-15 (Sagarika). It depends on India’s “No-First-Use”.
• Hence it waits around for the second strike. Since they are powered by nuclear reactors, these
submarines can stay underwater for a longer duration.
• K5 has a range of 6000 km. Ashwin has a range of 150-200 km. They both originated in India.
Ashwin has a speed of Mach 4.5.
Defense Missiles
• Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) – Developed by India, it is an exo-atmospheric anti-ballistic missile.
The speed is about Mach 5 and above. Its height is about 80km.
• Prithvi Defence Vehicle (PDV) – Developed by India, it is an exo-atmospheric anti-ballistic
missile. Its altitude is about 120km.
• Advanced Air Defence (AAD) – Developed by India, it is an endo-atmospheric anti-ballistic
missile. The height of the missile is 30km and its speed is about Mach 4.5.

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Missile technology control regime

• Established in April 1987 by G-7 countries - USA, UK, France, Germany, Canada, Italy and Japan.
• Informal and voluntary partnership
• Members: 35 Countries
• The voluntary Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) aims to limit the spread of ballistic
missiles and other unmanned delivery systems that could be used for chemical, biological, and
nuclear attacks.
• The regime urges its 35 members, which include most of the world's key missile manufacturers,
to restrict their exports of missiles and related technologies capable of carrying a 500-kilogram
payload at least 300 kilometers or delivering any type of weapon of mass destruction.
• Each MTCR member is supposed to establish national export control policies for ballistic missiles,
cruise missiles, unmanned aerial vehicles, space launch vehicles, drones, remotely piloted
vehicles, sounding rockets, and underlying components and technologies that appear on the
regime's Material and Technology Annex.
• Members can add items to or subtract them from the annexe through consensus decisions.
• The annexe is divided into two separate groupings of items, Category I and Category II.
o Category I includes complete missiles, rockets, and unmanned air vehicle systems; major
subsystems; and production facilities.
o Specialized materials, technologies, propellants, and sub-components for missiles and
rockets comprise Category II.
• Because the regime is voluntary and the decision to export is the sole responsibility of each
member, the MTCR has no penalties for transfers of controlled items.
• India was inducted into the Missile Technology Control Regime in 2016 as the 35th member.
• Several countries have pledged to abide by the MTCR without joining it. Israel, Romania, and the
Slovak Republic have all committed to maintaining export controls consistent with the regime.
• Hague Code of Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation
o MTCR members spearheaded a voluntary November 2002 initiative, the Hague Code of
Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation (formerly known as the International Code
of Conduct Against Ballistic Missile Proliferation), calling on all countries to show greater
restraint in their own development of ballistic missiles capable of delivering weapons of
mass destruction and to reduce their existing missile arsenals if possible.
o The initiative aims to establish a norm against missiles that could be armed with chemical,
biological, or nuclear warheads.
o As part of the initiative, participating countries are to annually exchange information on
their ballistic missile and space launch vehicle programs, as well as provide advance
notice of any launches of ballistic missiles or space launch vehicles.
o The Hague Code of Conduct has 143 member states, including all MTCR members except
Brazil.
o Brazil has expressed concerns about how the initiative might affect its space program.

2) Agni - V
• The Agni-V is an Indian intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of over 5,000 km.
• Agni missile development began in early 1980 under the Integrated Guided Missile Development
Program (IGMDP), which was led by Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the 11th President of India and a key
role in India's missile and space programmes.
• It is an evolution of the Agni-III IRBM, featuring similar first- and second-stage motors with an
added third stage.
• India first tested the solid-fueled missile in 2012, conducting subsequent tests in 2013, 2015,
2016, and 2018.

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• Unlike earlier missiles, the Agni-V launches from a sealed canister on a road-mobile launcher,
compressing the time needed to prepare for launch.
Agni-V at a Glance
• ORIGINATED FROM: India
• CLASS: Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
• POSSESSED BY: India
• BASING: Road-mobile
• LENGTH: 17.5 m
• DIAMETER: 2 m
• LAUNCH WEIGHT: 50,000 kg
• PAYLOAD: 1,650 kg
• PROPULSION: Three-stage, solid propellant
• RANGE: 5,000 – 8,000 km
• STATUS: In development
Agni-V Development
• India’s Defense Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) began developing the Agni-V in
2008.
• India's first flight tested the Agni-V on April 19, 2012, successfully launching the missile from its
Integrated Test Range in Odisha to a designated point in the Indian Ocean.
• The missile traveled over 5,000 km, reaching a maximum altitude of 600 km. DRDO officials stated
that the missile’s dummy warhead landed “with an accuracy of a few meters” near the target.
• By April 2012, the DRDO had constructed a ground test facility for the Agni-V’s canister-ejection
system and transferred a road-mobile launcher's production to industry.
• On September 15, 2013, India test-launched the missile a second time, successfully flying 5,000
km from Odisha to a target in the Indian Ocean.
• In mid-2014, the DRDO conducted a final ground test of the Agni-V’s canister ejection system, and
on January 31, 2015, conducted its first flight test of a canister-launched, road-mobile Agni-V. This
production-ready version of the Agni-V underwent another successful flight test on December 26,
2016.
• In 2018, India’s DRDO and Strategic Forces Command (SFC) conducted joint user trials of the
canister-launched Agni-V, successfully launching the missile on January 18, June 3, and December
10.
• India’s armed forces began inducting an initial batch of Agni-V missiles in 2019.
Agni-V Design
• The Agni-V is 17.5 m long, 2 m in diameter, and has a launch mass of 50,000 kg. With its 1,100 kg
nuclear payload, the missile is capable of traveling over 5,000 km.
Agni-5 capabilities
• As a nuclear-capable ballistic missile, Agni-5 is capable of carrying, deploying, and detonating a
nuclear warhead.
• The missile's range is approximately 5,000 kilometers.
• According to the Defence Ministry, the missile has a three-stage solid-fuel engine and can strike
targets with a high degree of precision at distances up to 5,000 kilometers.
• As per several reports, Agni-5 can cover a range of even 8000 km. The missile reportedly weighs
roughly 1500 kg in the payload.
• The missile weighs around 50,000 kg.
• The missile can reach an exceptional Mach 24 speed which is 29,401 km/h. Agni 5 is a road
mobile and can be transported by a truck and launched via a canister.
• The missile can be equipped with the MIRV capable of carrying multiple warheads.

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No First Use
• The successful test of Agni-5, according to the Indian Defense Ministry, is in accordance with
India's policy of having a "credible minimum deterrence," which supports the commitment to "No
First Use."
• This comes days after Indian and Chinese troops clashed in the Tawang district of Arunachal
Pradesh, an incident which became the topic of a heated debate in the Indian Parliament.
India's Agni 5 vs. China's Dongfeng-26
• India's missile Agni 5 is now being compared with China's Dongfeng-26 (DF-26) which has an
estimated range of over 5000 km.
• DF-26, which is nicknamed as Guam Killer, is also a nuclear-capable missile.
• The missile is named as it has the potential to reach the US base in Guam in Western Pacific.

3) India's missile development programme

• The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by renowned
scientist DR A P J AbdKalam to enable India to attain self-sufficiency in the field of missile
technology.
• Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was started in 1983 and completed
in March 2012. IGMDP was sanctioned to develop Prithvi, Trishul, Akash, Nag and a Technology
Demonstrator Agni Missile.
• Achieved targets are:-
o Short-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile - Prithvi series of missiles has been
inducted.
o Medium-range surface-to-Air ballistic missile Akash missile is under production and
induction.
o Third-generation anti-tank missile: Nag with re-configured Nag Missile Carrier (NAMICA)
cross-country trial has been undertaken.
o Short-range low-level surface-to-air missile: Trishul missile system has been completed
as a "Technology Demonstrator" due to a delay in the development of state-of-the-art
technology and a change in the requirement of the Armed Forces.
o Intermediate-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile: Agni re-entry "Technology
Demonstrator" project has been completed successfully and technology is used for the
Agni series of missiles.
• The Agni, which was initially conceived as a technology demonstrator project in the form of a re-
entry vehicle, was later upgraded to a ballistic missile with different ranges.
• After achieving the goal of making India self-reliant in missile technology, DRDO on January 8,
2008, formally announced the successful completion of IGMDP.

4) Stealth technology
• Stealth technology, also termed Low observable technology (LO technology), is a sub-discipline of
military tactics and passive and active electronics countermeasures, which covers a range of
methods used to make personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, missiles, satellites, and ground
vehicles less visible (ideally invisible) to radar, infrared, sonar and other detection methods.
• It corresponds to military camouflage for these parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• In many military applications stealth technology is crucial for the survival of the system, where
stealth endeavors to make the system less detectable by radar.
• The goal of stealth technology is to make an aeroplane invisible to radar. There are two different
ways to create invisibility:
o The airplane can be shaped so that any radar signals it reflects are reflected away from the
radar equipment.
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o The airplane can be covered in materials that absorb radar signals.

• Working of stealth technology
o Most conventional aircraft have a rounded shape. This shape makes them aerodynamic,
but it also creates a very efficient radar reflector. The round shape means that no matter
where the radar signal hits the plane, some of the signals gets reflected:

o A stealth aircraft, on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and very sharp
edges. When a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an angle, like
this:

o In addition, surfaces on a stealth aircraft can be treated so they absorb radar energy as
well. The overall result is that a stealth aircraft like an F-117A can have the radar
signature of a small bird rather than an airplane. The only exception is when the plane
banks -- there will often be a moment when one of the panels of the plane will perfectly
reflect a burst of radar energy back to the antenna.

5) Predator drones
• Military commanders use tactics and strategy in combat to inflict as much damage on the enemy
while trying to risk as few personnel and resources as possible. This principle was at the heart of
the development of the RQ-1 and MQ-1 Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle.
• These high-tech aircraft, controlled by a crew miles away from the dangers of combat, are capable
of reconnaissance, combat and support roles in the hairiest of battles.
• In a worst-case scenario, if a Predator is lost in battle, military personnel can simply "crack
another one out of the box" and have it up in the air shortly -- and that's without the trauma of
casualties or prisoners normally associated with an aircraft going down.
• India was planning to acquire 30 American Predator high-altitude long-endurance drones
equipped with strike capability, including missiles, which were to be equally distributed among
the three services.

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• India is currently operating two predator drones which were hired on lease from an American
firm and they have been helping the Navy to keep track of activities in the Indian Ocean region.

6) India’s L.C.A(Tejas)
• LCA Tejas is a 4.5 generation, all-weather and multi-role fighter aircraft. The aircraft is designed
to be a multi-role aircraft capable of taking up offensive air support, close combat and ground
attack roles at ease. It is also designed to undertake Ground Maritime Operations.
• The different variants of aircraft under production and development are:
o Single seater fighter for Air Force
o Single seater fighter for Navy
o Twin Seater trainer aircraft for Air Force
o Twin Seater trainer version for Navy
• The key characteristics of LCA are:
o Smallest & lightest aircraft in its class Dimensionally smallest which is coupled with
Extensive use of composite structure to make the aircraft lighter.
o Excellent flight safety record Remarkable achievement of accident-free flying.
o Compound Tailless Delta Increases the capacity to carry a wider range of weapons like
Bombs, Missiles etc.
o In-Flight Refueling (IFR) Probe Enhances range during the mission undertaken. IFR
capability has been proven for day and night operations.
o Open Architecture-based Mission Computer Indigenously designed which provides
interoperability, scalability and portability.
o Quadruplex-Redundant Fly-By-Wire Fully redundant quadruplex digital fly-by-wire flight
control system to ease handling by the pilot.
o AESA RADAR Electronically Scanned Array RADAR with a low probability of interception.
o Variety of Weapons LCA-Tejas has 9 hardpoints and is capable to fire a variety of weapons
like Long Range BVR & WVR missiles, Bombs etc. with the required precision and
accuracy.

QUESTIONS:
1) Give the names of three miles developed by India under the Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme Briefly mention their capabilities. (1989)
2) What is meant by a "stealth aircraft"? Mention two stealth technological techniques used in such
an aircraft. (1989)
3) What is VIKAS engine? What is it being used for? (1993)
4) Why is Agni Project important for India? (1997)
5) What is a cryogenic engine? Discuss its significance in India's space programme. (2001)
6) What is Stealth Technology? (2007)
7) Write about India's LCA (Tejas). (2008)
8) Write brief note on Agni-V. (2010)

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Nuclear Technology
1) India’s nuclear power plants
• Nuclear energy is an important component of the country’s energy mix and is being pursued along
with other sources of energy optimally.
• India has a largely indigenous nuclear power programme.
• The Indian government is committed to growing its nuclear power capacity as part of its massive
infrastructure development programme.
• It is a clean, environment-friendly base load source of power available 24X7.
• It also has huge potential which can ensure the long-term energy security of the country
sustainably.
• The government has set ambitious targets to grow nuclear capacity.
• Because India is outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty due to its weapons programme, it
was for 34 years largely excluded from trade in nuclear plants and materials, which hampered its
development of civil nuclear energy until 2009.
• Due to earlier trade bans and a lack of indigenous uranium, India has uniquely been developing
a nuclear fuel cycle to exploit its reserves of thorium.
• There are presently 22 reactors with a total capacity of 6780 MW in operation and one reactor,
KAPP-3 (700 MW) has been connected to the grid on January 10, 2021.
• In addition, there are 8 reactors (including 500 MW PFBR being implemented by BHAVINI)
totalling 6000 MW under construction at various stages.
• The Government has accorded administrative approval and financial sanction for the construction
of 12 nuclear power reactors - 10 indigenous 700 MW Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors
(PHWRs) to be set up in fleet mode & 2 units of Light Water Reactors (LWRs) to be set up in
cooperation with Russian Federation.
• On progressive completion of the projects under construction and accorded sanction, the nuclear
capacity is expected to reach 22480 MW by 2031.
• The Government has also accorded ‘In-Principle’ approval for five new sites for locating nuclear
power plants in future.
• The Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) are fuelled by Natural Uranium while Light
Water Reactors (LWRs) are fuelled by Low Enriched Uranium.
• The annual requirement of fuel (UO2) of a 700 MW PHWR (at 85% Capacity Factor) is about 125
tons and that of a 1000 MW LWR (at a capacity factor of 90%), is about 25 tons.
• Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) being implemented by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam
Limited (BHAVINI) is fuelled by Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel.
• Nuclear power plants under operation
o Tarapur Atomic Power Plant
▪ Date of commercial operation: Oct-1969
▪ Location: BOISAR, MAHARASHTRA
▪ Type: BWR (Boiling water reactor)
o Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant
▪ Date of commercial operation: Dec-1973
▪ Location: KOTA, RAJASTHAN
▪ Type: PHWR (Pressurised heavy-water reactor)
o Madras Atomic Power Plant
▪ Date of commercial operation: Jan-1984
▪ Location: KALPAKKAM, TAMIL NADU
▪ Type: PHWR (Pressurised heavy-water reactor)
o Narora Atomic Power Plant
▪ Date of commercial operation: Jan-1991
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▪ Location: NARORA, UTTAR PRADESH

▪ Type: PHWR
o Kakrapar Atomic Power Plant
▪ Date of commercial operation: May-1993
▪ Location: TAPI, GUJARAT
▪ Type: PHWR
o Kaiga Generating Station
▪ Date of commercial operation: Nov-2000
▪ Location: KAIGA, KARNATAKA
▪ Type: PHWR
o Kudankulam Nuclear Power Station
▪ Date of commercial operation: Dec-2014
▪ Location: KUDANKULAM, TAMIL NADU
▪ Type: PWR (Pressurised water reactor)
• The Indian Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) is the main policy body.
• The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd (NPCIL) is responsible for the design, construction,
commissioning and operation of thermal nuclear power plants.

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2) India Nuclear energy programme

• India's three-stage nuclear power programme was formulated by Homi Bhabha, the well-known
physicist, in the 1950s to secure the country's long-term energy independence, through the use of
uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions of South India.
• The ultimate focus of the programme is on enabling the thorium reserves of India to be utilized in
meeting the country's energy requirements.
• Homi Bhabha conceived of the three-stage nuclear programme as a way to develop nuclear
energy by working around India's limited uranium resources.
• Thorium is particularly attractive for India, as India has only around 1–2% of the global uranium
reserves, but one of the largest shares of global thorium reserves at about 25% of the world's
known thorium reserves.
• Thorium itself is not a fissile material, and thus cannot undergo fission to produce energy. Instead,
it must be transmuted to uranium-233 in a reactor fueled by other fissile materials. The first two
stages, natural uranium-fueled heavy water reactors and plutonium-fueled fast breeder reactors,
are intended to generate sufficient fissile material from India's limited uranium resources so that
all its vast thorium reserves can be fully utilized in the third stage of thermal breeder reactors.
• The total reserves of thorium in India amount to over 500,000 tons in the readily extractable
form, while the known reserves of uranium are less than a tenth of this. The aim of a long-range
atomic power programme in India must therefore be to base the nuclear power generation as
soon as possible on thorium rather than uranium.
• The first generation of atomic power stations based on natural uranium can only be used to start
off an atomic power programme.
• The plutonium produced by the first generation power stations can be used in a second
generation of power stations designed to produce electric power and convert thorium into U-233,
or depleted uranium into more plutonium with breeding gain.
• The second generation of power stations may be regarded as an intermediate step for the breeder
power stations of the third generation all of which would produce more U-233 than they burn in
the course of producing power.
• In November 1954, Bhabha presented the three-stage plan for national development, at the
conference on "Development of Atomic Energy for Peaceful Purposes" which was also attended by
India's first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Four years later in 1958, the Indian government formally adopted the three-stage plan.
• Stage I – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor
o In the first stage of the programme, natural uranium-fueled pressurized heavy water
reactors (PHWR) produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as a by-product.
o PHWRs were a natural choice for implementing the first stage because they had the most
efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilization, and the existing Indian
infrastructure in the 1960s allowed for quick adoption of the PHWR technology.
o Indian uranium reserves are capable of generating a total power capacity of 420 GWe-
years, but the Indian government limited the number of PHWRs fueled exclusively by
indigenous uranium reserves, in an attempt to ensure that existing plants get a lifetime
supply of uranium.
o US analysts calculate this limit as being slightly over 13 GW in capacity. Several other
sources estimate that the known reserves of natural uranium in the country permit only
about 10 GW of capacity to be built through indigenously fueled PHWRs. The three-stage
programme explicitly incorporates this limit as the upper cut-off of the first stage, beyond
which PHWRs are not planned to be built.
o India is also working on the design of reactors based on the more efficient Pressurized
Water Reactor technology derived from the work on the Arihant-class submarine program

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to develop a 900 MWe IPWR-900 reactor platform to supplement the currently deployed
PHWRs of the IPHWR series.
• Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor
o In the second stage, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) would use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel
made from plutonium-239, recovered by reprocessing spent fuel from the first stage, and
natural uranium.
o In FBRs, plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy, while the uranium-238
present in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239.
o Thus, the Stage II FBRs are designed to "breed" more fuel than they consume. Once the
inventory of plutonium-239 is built up thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in
the reactor and transmuted to uranium-233 for use in the third stage.
o The design of the country's first fast breeder, called the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor
(PFBR), was done by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR). Bharatiya
Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (Bhavini), a public sector company under the Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE), has been given the responsibility to build fast breeder reactors in
India.
• Stage III – Thorium-Based Reactors
o A Stage III reactor or an Advanced nuclear power system involves a self-sustaining series
of thorium-232–uranium-233 fuelled reactors. This would be a thermal breeder reactor,
which in principle can be refuelled – after its initial fuel charge – using only naturally
occurring thorium. According to the three-stage programme, Indian nuclear energy could
grow to about 10 GW through PHWRs fueled by domestic uranium, and the growth above
that would have to come from FBRs till about 50GW. The third stage is to be deployed only
after this capacity has been achieved.

3) Fission and fusion reaction

Nuclear Fission Reaction
• When unstable heavy nuclei are bombarded with high-energy neutrons, it splits into several
smaller fragments. These fragments, or fission products, are about equal to half the original mass.
This process is called Nuclear Fission. Two or three neutrons are also emitted.
• The sum of the masses of these fragments is less than the original mass. This “missing‟ mass
(about 0.1% of the original mass) has been converted into energy. Fission can occur when a
nucleus of a heavy atom captures a neutron, or it can happen spontaneously.

Fig: Nuclear Fission

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• Controlled Nuclear Fission

o To maintain a sustained controlled nuclear reaction, for every 2 or 3 neutrons released,
only one must be allowed to strike another (uranium) nucleus. If this ratio is less than one
then the reaction will die out; if it is greater than one it will grow uncontrolled (an atomic
explosion). A neutron-absorbing element must be present to control the number of free
neutrons in the reaction space. Most reactors are controlled by means of control rods that
are made of a strongly neutron-absorbent material such as boron or cadmium.

Fig: Controlled Nuclear Fission

o In addition to the need to capture neutrons, the neutrons often have too much kinetic
energy. These fast neutrons are slowed through the use of a moderator such as heavy
water and ordinary water. Some reactors use graphite as a moderator, but this design has
several problems. Once the fast neutrons have been slowed, they are more likely to
produce further nuclear fissions or be absorbed by the control rod.
• Spontaneous Nuclear Fission
o The spontaneous nuclear fission rate is the probability per second that a given atom will
fission spontaneously – that is, without any external intervention. If spontaneous fission
occurs before the bomb is fully ready, it could fizzle. Plutonium 239 has a very high
spontaneous fission rate compared to the spontaneous fission rate of uranium 235.
Consideration of the spontaneous fission rate of each material is required when designing
nuclear weapons.

Fig: Spontaneous Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fusion Reaction

• In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-
charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or
absorption of energy, which allows matter to enter a plasma state.

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Fig: Nuclear Fusion

• The fusion of two nuclei with lower mass than iron (which, along with nickel, has the largest
binding energy per nucleon) generally releases energy while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron
absorbs energy; vice-versa for the reverse process, nuclear fission.
• Nuclear energy can also be released by the fusion of two light elements (elements with low atomic
numbers). The power that fuels the sun and the stars is nuclear fusion. In a hydrogen bomb, two
isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium are fused to form a nucleus of helium and a neutron.
This fusion releases 17.6 MeV of energy. Unlike nuclear fission, there is no limit on the amount of
fusion that can occur.
Comparison between Fission and Fusion Reaction

[Link] Fusion Fission

1 Light element fuse together with the Energy is released by the bombardment of heavy
release of energy nucleus with neutrons. The nucleus splits into
fragments of equal mass

2 Heavy mass will be converted into Light mass will be converted into energy
energy

3 Amount of radioactive material In the fission process it is very high

consumed in a fusion process is very
low

4 Health hazard is very less Health hazard is high due to higher radioactive
materials

5 Construction of controlled fusion It is possible to construct self-sustained fission reactors

reactors is very difficult and have positive energy release

6 Very very high temperature are Manageable temperatures are obtained

required for fusion process (≥ 30
million degrees)

4) Artificial sun
• The nuclear fusion process that is occurring inside the core of the sun constitutes its energy in
both heat and light. Fusion energy is considered to be an ideal "ultimate energy" for mankind due
to its abundant resources and inherent safety.

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• Scientists around the world have been working to achieve controlled nuclear fusion reactions for
decades, and the fusion experimental device is known as the "artificial sun."
• The experimental advanced superconducting tokamak (EAST), or the Chinese "artificial sun,"
started operation in Hefei City, east China's Anhui Province in 2016. It achieved a continuous
high-temperature plasma operation for 1,056 seconds in December 2021, the longest duration of
its kind in the world at that time, according to a report by Xinhua News Agency.
• The ultimate goal of EAST is to create nuclear fusion, using deuterium abound in the sea to
provide a steady stream of clean energy, according to the Institute of Plasma Physics of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences.
• China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST), which mimics the energy
generation process of the sun, set a new record after it ran at 216 million degrees Fahrenheit (120
million degrees Celsius) for 101 seconds, according to state media. For another 20 seconds, the
“artificial sun” also achieved a peak temperature of 288 million degrees Fahrenheit (160 million
degrees Celsius), over ten times hotter than the sun.
• India's progress
o Since building its first tokamak 'Aditya' in the 1980s, India has made remarkable progress
in fusion research and operates an advanced Steady State Superconducting Tokamak
(SST) which overcomes the ‘on-off’ nature of conventional tokamaks in heating plasma.
Only a few countries have developed these next-generation SSTs.
o The EAST, for instance, is a tokamak designed for steady-state operation and the Chinese
engineers who built it were all nurtured by the ITER programme.
o India should perhaps take a leaf out of China’s notebook and use its participation in the
ITER to get a leg-up on building an indigenous fusion reactor on Indian soil in the next few
decades.

5) Nuclear winter
• Nuclear winter is the term for a theory describing the climatic effects of nuclear war.
• Smoke from the fires started by nuclear weapons, especially the black, sooty smoke from cities
and industrial facilities, would be heated by the Sun, lofted into the upper stratosphere, and
spread globally, lasting for years.
• The resulting cool, dark, dry conditions at Earth’s surface would prevent crop growth for at least
one growing season, resulting in mass starvation over most of the world.
• In addition, there would be massive ozone depletion, allowing enhanced ultraviolet radiation.
• More people could die in noncombatant countries than in those where the bombs were dropped,
because of these indirect effects.
• Nuclear proliferation is now expanding the threat.
• A nuclear war between India and Pakistan could produce so much smoke that it would produce
global environmental change unprecedented in recorded human history.
• Although the number of nuclear weapons in the world has fallen from 70,000 at its peak in the
1980s to less than 10,000 currently deployed, a nuclear war between the United States and Russia
could still produce nuclear winter.
• This theory cannot be tested in the real world. However, analogues can inform us about parts of
the theory, and there are many that give support to the theory.
• They include the seasonal cycle, the diurnal cycle, forest, fires, volcanic eruptions, and dust storms
on Mars.
• The only way to be sure to prevent the climatic effects of nuclear war is to rid the world of nuclear
weapons.

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6) Nuclear fallout
• Detonating nuclear weapons above ground sends radioactive materials as high as 50 miles into
the atmosphere. Large particles fall to the ground near the explosion site, but lighter particles and
gasses travel into the upper atmosphere. The particles that are swept up into the atmosphere and
fall back down to Earth are called fallout.
• Fallout can circulate around the world for years until it gradually falls down to Earth or is brought
back to the surface by precipitation.
• The path of the fallout depends on wind and weather patterns.
• Fallout typically contains hundreds of different radionuclides. Some stay in the environment for a
long time because they have long half-lives, like cesium-137, which has a half-life of 30.17 years.
Some have very short half-lives and decay away in a few minutes or a few days, like iodine-131,
which has a half-life of 8 days. Very little radioactivity from weapons testing in the 1950s and
1960s can still be detected in the environment now.
• Even though there is very little fallout that still exists in the environment, it is important to
remember that fallout can be very dangerous.
• When a nuclear detonation occurs, people, plants, and animals can be exposed to the fallout in
several ways.
o Livestock may eat contaminated plants or drink contaminated water.
o People who then eat this livestock will then still experience internal contamination, in
which radioactive material ends up inside of our bodies, despite not consuming
contaminated plants or water directly.
• Radionuclides that are inhaled or ingested are not blocked by an external shield. These
radionuclides interact with internal cells and tissues, which increases the risk of harmful health
effects. When radionuclides are ingested, they can change the structure of cells, which is one of
the ways people can develop cancer. The health risks from fallout have been described in many
studies.
• The radioactive dust that settles on the environment around us is an example of potential external
exposure.
• Radionuclides that emit alpha and beta particles would pose a lower external exposure threat
because they do not travel very far in the atmosphere and are not as penetrating as more
energetic radiation.
• Shielding, one of the three principles of radiation protection, prevents some external exposure
because alpha particles are blocked by the dead skin cells that sit on the surface of our bodies.
• Gamma rays, however, travel much farther in the atmosphere and are higher energy rays that can
only be blocked by heavy shieldings, like a concrete wall or a lead apron. These rays pose a higher
external exposure risk.

7) Nuclear medicine
• Nuclear medicine uses radioactive material inside the body to see how organs or tissue are
functioning (for diagnosis) or to target and destroy damaged or diseased organs or tissue (for
treatment).
• Nuclear medicine is a medical speciality that uses radioactive tracers (radiopharmaceuticals) to
assess bodily functions and to diagnose and treat disease.
• Specially designed cameras allow doctors to track the path of these radioactive tracers.
• Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography or SPECT and Positron Emission Tomography or
PET scans are the two most common imaging modalities in nuclear medicine.
• SPECT scans are primarily used to diagnose and track the progression of heart disease, such as
blocked coronary arteries. There are also radiotracers to detect disorders in bone, gallbladder
disease and intestinal bleeding. SPECT agents have recently become available for aiding in the

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diagnosis of Parkinson's disease in the brain and distinguishing this malady from other
anatomically-related movement disorders and dementias.
• The major purpose of PET scans is to detect cancer and monitor its progression, and response to
treatment, and to detect metastases. Glucose utilization depends on the intensity of cellular and
tissue activity so it is greatly increased in rapidly dividing cancer cells.
Nuclear Medicine X-rays

Radioactive material (tracer) is injected, ingested, or Beams of radiation pass through the
inhaled body

Images of the body show where and how the tracer is Images of the structure in the body are
absorbed. produced

Shows function Shows structure

Used in diagnosis or treatment Used in diagnosis

QUESTIONS:

1. Briefly review India's Energy resources. In the context of the world shortage of petroleum, how
would you plan for meeting our rural energy needs? Discuss the relative merits of centralised
generation, supply and distribution of energy vis-a-vis generation of energy at consumer ports or
centres. (1979)
2. What is the global energy crisis and what is its impact on India? Having regard to our situation,
environment, resources and problems, what would be the profile of an appropriate energy policy
for India? Examine critically the available alternative options. (1980)
3. What is heavy water and name one location where it is produced? (1982)
4. The current technology of nuclear power generation is based upon the fission process. What are
the alternate methods possible for the generation of nuclear power with reference to the Indian
conditions? (1985)
5. What is "Nuclear Winter”? What could be its consequences? (1985)
6. What is frequency modulation? (1990)
7. What do you understand by nuclear fall out? What are its harmful effects? (1990)
8. What is a fast breeder reactor? Discuss briefly its role in India's nuclear energy programme.
(1992)
9. What is heavy water? What is it used for? (1992)
10. What is nuclear medicine? Describe briefly its different uses.(1996)
11. Write brief note in about 30 words: Artificial Sun. (2009)
12. Discuss in detail "Alternative Energy Sources". (2004)
13. Concentrated solar energy and photovoltaic solar energy. Comment (2011)

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Energy
1) Renewable energy sources in India
• India ranks 3rd in renewable energy country attractive index in 2021 and 3rd largest
energy-consuming country in the world.
• India stands 4th globally in Renewable Energy Installed Capacity (including Large Hydro), 4th
in Wind Power capacity & 4th in Solar Power capacity (as per REN21 Renewables 2022 Global
Status Report).
• The country has set an enhanced target at the COP26 of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel-based
energy by 2030. This has been a key pledge under the Panchamrit. This is the world's largest
expansion plan in renewable energy.
• India was the second-largest market in Asia for new solar PV capacity and third globally (13 GW
of additions in 2021). It ranked fourth for total installations (60.4 GW), overtaking Germany (59.2
GW) for the first time.
• India’s installed renewable energy capacity has increased 396% in the last 8.5 years.
• The installed solar energy capacity has increased by 24.4 times in the last 9 years and stands at
63.3 GW as of Feb 2023. The installed Renewable energy capacity (including large hydro) has
seen an increase of around 128 % since 2014.
• FDI of up to 100% is allowed in the renewable energy industry under the automatic route,
with no prior government approval needed.
• Up to 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route for renewable energy generation and
distribution projects subject to provisions of The Electricity Act, 2003.
• Renewable energy sources have a combined installed capacity of 150+ GW.
• As of Feb 2023, Renewable energy sources, including large hydropower, have a combined
installed capacity of 174.53 GW which is about 42.5% of the country’s total capacity (as of
February 2023). India saw the highest year-on-year growth in renewable energy additions of
9.83% in 2022.
• The following is the installed capacity for Renewables:
o Wind power: 41.9 GW
o Solar Power: 63.3 GW
o Biomass/Cogeneration: 10.2 GW
o Small Hydro Power: 4.93 GW
o Waste To Energy: 0.52 GW
o Large Hydro: 46.85 GW
• India has set a target to reduce the carbon intensity of the nation’s economy by less than 45% by
the end of the decade, achieve 50% cumulative electric power installed by 2030 from renewables,
and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. Low-carbon technologies could create a market
worth up to $80 billion in India by 2030.
• India‘s target is to produce five million Tonnes of green hydrogen by 2030. The Green Hydrogen
target is set at India’s electrolyzer manufacturing capacity is projected to reach 8 GW per year by
2025. The cumulative value of the green hydrogen market in India could reach $8 Bn by 2030 and
India will require at least 50 gigawatts (GW) of electrolyzers or more to ramp up hydrogen
production.
• Union Budget 2023 Highlights
o Green Growth identified as one of the nodes in the SAPTARISHI (7 priorities).
o $2.4 Bn National Hydrogen Mission for production of 5 MMT by 2030. $36 Mn additional
in Budget
o 4 GWh Battery Energy Storage Systems supported through Viability Gap Funding

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o Pumped Storage Projects have received a push with a detailed framework to be

formulated.
o $1.02/2.5 Bn Central Sector Support for ISTS infrastructure for 13 GW Renewable Energy
from Ladakh
GROWTH DRIVERS
• Government commitments
o Reduce India’s total projected carbon emission by 1 Bn Tonnes by 2030, reduce the
carbon intensity of the nation’s economy by less than 45% by the end of the decade, and
achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
• Proposed solar cities and parks
o Solar city per state-approved and approved setting up 59 solar parks of 40 GW across the
nation. The government is also giving a push to Floating PV Projects.
• National Green Hydrogen Mission
o The Union Cabinet approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission with the intended
objectives of Making India a leading producer and supplier of Green Hydrogen in the
world and Creation of export opportunities for Green Hydrogen and its derivatives.
• Atmanirbhar Bharat
o PLI scheme in Solar PV manufacturing introduced under Atma Nirbhar Bharat. Imposition
of Basic Customs Duty of 25% on Solar Cell & 40% on Solar PV Modules
• Off-shore Wind Energy
o The medium and long-term targets for off-shore wind power capacity additions are 5 GW
by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030.
• Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy
o In 2018, a national policy was announced to promote a large grid-connected wind-solar
PV hybrid system for efficient utilization of transmission infrastructure and land. A way to
address the intermittency challenge of one source of renewable power is to combine solar
and wind, achieving better grid stability. It provides flexibility in the share of wind and
solar components in hybrid projects, however, the capacity of one resource must be at
least 25% of the rated power capacity of other resources.

2) Solar energy
• Solar energy is radiation from the Sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions,
or generating electricity. The total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly more than
the world’s current and anticipated energy requirements. If suitably harnessed, this highly
diffused source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs. In the 21st century, solar
energy is expected to become increasingly attractive as a renewable energy source because of its
inexhaustible supply and its nonpolluting character, in stark contrast to the finite fossil fuels coal,
petroleum, and natural gas.
• The Sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of
energy received by Earth, but its intensity at Earth’s surface is quite low. This is essential because
of the enormous radial spreading of radiation from the distant Sun. A relatively minor additional
loss is due to Earth’s atmosphere and clouds, which absorb or scatter as much as 54% of the
incoming sunlight. The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of nearly 50% visible light, 45%
infrared radiation, and smaller amounts of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic
radiation.
• The potential for solar energy is enormous since about 200,000 times the world’s total daily
electric-generating capacity is received by Earth every day in the form of solar energy.
Unfortunately, though solar energy itself is free, the high cost of its collection, conversion, and
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storage still limits its exploitation in many places. Solar radiation can be converted either into
thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish.
Types of Solar Energy generation
Photovoltaic solar power plant
• Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic cells). In
such cells, a small electric voltage is generated when light strikes the junction between a metal
and a semiconductor (such as silicon) or the junction between two different semiconductors. The
power generated by a single photovoltaic cell is typically only about two watts. By connecting
large numbers of individual cells together, however, as in solar-panel arrays, hundreds or even
thousands of kilowatts of electric power can be generated in a solar electric plant or a large
household array. The energy efficiency of most present-day photovoltaic cells is only about 15 to
20%, and, since the intensity of solar radiation is low, to begin with, large and costly assemblies of
such cells are required to produce even moderate amounts of power.
• Small photovoltaic cells that operate on sunlight or artificial light have found major use in low-
power applications—as power sources for calculators and watches, for example. Larger units
have been used to provide power for water pumps and communications systems in remote areas
and for weather and communications satellites. Classic crystalline silicon panels and emerging
technologies using thin-film solar cells, including building-integrated photovoltaics, can be
installed by homeowners and businesses on their rooftops to replace or augment the
conventional electric supply.
Concentrated solar power plants
• Concentrated solar power plants employ concentrating, or focusing, collectors to concentrate
sunlight received from a wide area onto a small blackened receiver, thereby considerably
increasing the light’s intensity to produce high temperatures. The arrays of carefully aligned
mirrors or lenses can focus enough sunlight to heat a target to temperatures of 2,000 °C (3,600 °F)
or more. This heat can then be used to operate a boiler, which in turn generates steam for a steam
turbine electric generator power plant. For producing steam directly, the movable mirrors can be
arranged to concentrate large amounts of solar radiation upon blackened pipes through which
water is circulated and thereby heated.
Other Applications
• Solar energy is also used on a small scale for purposes other than those described above. In some
countries, for instance, solar energy is used to produce salt from seawater by evaporation.
Similarly, solar-powered desalination units transform salt water into drinking water by
converting the Sun’s energy to heat, directly or indirectly, to drive the desalination process.
• Solar technology has also emerged for the clean and renewable production of hydrogen as an
alternative energy source. Mimicking the process of photosynthesis, artificial leaves are silicon-
based devices that use solar energy to split water into hydrogen and oxygen, leaving virtually no
pollutants. Further work is needed to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of these
devices for industrial use.
Solar energy in India
• India is the third most attractive renewable energy market in the world and has a huge solar
energy development potential.
• Currently, India produces less than 10% of the energy it could potentially generate using wind or
solar resources, but the country aims to generate 75% of its electricity from renewable energy
sources by 2050.
• Grid-connected
o Development of Solar Parks and Ultra Mega Solar power projects

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▪ The scheme for “Development of Solar Parks and Ultra-Mega Solar Power Projects”
was rolled out in December, 2014 with an objective to facilitate the solar project
developers to set up projects expeditiously.
▪ Period: Up to 2023-24
▪ The scheme was rolled out by the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy on 12-
12-2014. Under the scheme, it was proposed to set up at least 25 Solar Parks and
Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects targeting 20,000 MW of solar power installed
capacity within 5 years starting from 2014-15.
▪ The scheme envisages supporting the States/UTs in setting up solar parks at
various locations in the country with a view to creating the required infrastructure
for setting up solar power projects. The solar parks provide suitable developed
land with all clearances, transmission systems, water access, road connectivity,
communication network, etc. The scheme facilitates and speeds up the installation
of grid-connected solar power projects for electricity generation on a large scale.
▪ All the States and Union Territories are eligible for getting benefits under the
scheme.
o Grid-connected Solar Rooftop programme
▪ To achieve a cumulative installed capacity of 40,000 MW from Grid Connected
Rooftop Solar (RTS) projects by the year 2022.
▪ In a grid-connected rooftop or small solar photovoltaic (SPV) system, the DC
power generated from the solar panel is converted to AC power using a power
conditioning unit/Inverter and is fed to the grid.
▪ On a clear sunny day, a 1 kWp solar power plant can generate 4 to 5.5 units in a
day.
• Solar off-grid
o Pradhan Mantri Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyaan (PM KUSUM)
▪ The scheme aims to add solar and other renewable capacities of 30,800 MW by
2022 with a total central financial support of Rs. 34,422 Crore including service
charges to the implementing agencies.
▪ The Scheme consists of three components:
▪ Component A: 10,000 MW of solar capacity through the installation of small Solar
Power Plants of individual plants of capacity up to 2 MW.
▪ Component B: Installation of 20 lakhs standalone Solar Powered Agriculture
Pumps.
▪ Component C: Solarisation of 15 Lakh Grid-connected Agriculture Pumps.
▪ Till 31.12.2026
Barriers to large-scale solar development in India
Four broad barriers to solar development in India have been identified:
• A general lack of R&D and modern manufacturing facilities for setting up a large-scale solar
power plant has been identified. India has tried, over the last few years to overcome these
bottlenecks but other problems such as lack of local awareness and familiarity among financiers
(which can hinder financial support), a lack of long-term policy clarity and poor product quality
have been identified as potential undermining the effort. Facilities in India have not reached the
production capacity of other states such as Germany or China. Hence, India depends on foreign
suppliers and foreign solar markets to meet the solar PV requirements.
• Solar projects require a high investment at the beginning and have longer payback periods,
largely due to the high cost of debt identified in India for such projects. This issue raises the cost
of renewable energy in India by more than 25% compared to similar projects financed in Europe
or the USA.

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• Transparency and accountability are also barriers to overcome. In 2018, India was ranked 78th
in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index. As stated in an article from
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, about 28% of developers said that they were forced
directly or indirectly to pay bribes during the process. The article also states that 70% of the solar
power developers think that it's difficult to do business in India as compared to many other
countries and they will give less priority to investment in India. 60% of the total duration of the
solar project is used in taking approvals, grants, inspection, and land acquisition. As reported by
the World Bank, India ranked 130th in the ease of doing business index among 185 countries.
Thus, there is a very big scope for improvement to provide a conducive environment for large-
scale solar power developers.
• Various infrastructure-related issues can arise in the Indian context. The land acquisition
process in India is very complex and therefore it can take considerable time to acquire the land
needed for a project. In many cases, the allotted land might not be very well connected with roads
or railways and therefore transportation of solar PV panels is very difficult. Panels have
reportedly been broken in transportation or suffered delays and damage from exposure to the
natural elements.
• Transmission and distribution losses are another major infrastructural barrier for a
centralized large-scale solar utility sector. However, such limitations also apply to large-scale
centralized generation from traditional sources. This “barrier” might serve as an incentive for
small-scale solar proliferation.

3) Hydroelectricity
• Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of renewable
energy, which uses the natural flow of moving water to generate electricity. Hydropower, or
hydroelectric power generates power by using a dam or diversion structure to alter the natural
flow of a river or other body of water.
• Hydropower relies on the endless, constantly recharging system of the water cycle to produce
electricity, using a fuel water—that is not reduced or eliminated in the process.
• There are many types of hydropower facilities, though they are all powered by the kinetic energy
of flowing water as it moves downstream.
• Hydropower utilizes turbines and generators to convert that kinetic energy into electricity, which
is then fed into the electrical grid to power homes, businesses, and industries.
• Because hydropower uses water to generate electricity, plants are usually located on or near a
water source. The energy available from the moving water depends on both the volume of the
water flow and the change in elevation—also known as the head—from one point to another. The
greater the flow and the higher the head, the more electricity can be generated.
• At the plant level, water flows through a pipe—also known as a penstock—and then spins the
blades in a turbine, which, in turn, spins a generator that ultimately produces electricity. Most
conventional hydroelectric facilities operate this way, including run-of-the-river systems and
pumped storage systems.
• Benefits
o The benefits of hydropower have been recognized and harnessed for thousands of years.
o In addition to being a clean and cost-effective form of energy, hydropower plants can
provide power to the grid immediately, serving as a flexible and reliable form of backup
power during major electricity outages or disruptions.
o Hydropower also produces several benefits outside of electricity generation, such as flood
control, irrigation support, and water supply.
o In 2020, hydropower contributed to 4,370 Terawatt-hours (TWh) of global electricity
generation, the highest contribution by a renewable and low-carbon energy resource.

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o Hydropower makes the largest low-carbon energy contribution to the global primary
energy basket, which is 55% higher than that of nuclear power and larger than all other
renewable energy (RE) combined.
o By the end of 2020, there were 160 GW (gigawatts) of pumped storage hydropower
installed globally, comprising 95% of all total installed energy storage.
o Hydropower plants can also be stopped and restarted relatively smoothly. This high
degree of flexibility enables them to adjust quickly to shifts in demand and to compensate
for fluctuations in supply from resources.
o Today, hydropower plants account for almost 30% of the world’s capacity for flexible
electricity supply.
Hydropower projects
• India is 5th globally for installed hydroelectric power capacity. As of 31 March 2020, India's
installed utility-scale hydroelectric capacity was 46,000 MW or 12.3% of its total utility power
generation capacity. Additional smaller hydroelectric power units with a total capacity of 4,683
MW (1.3% of its total utility power generation capacity) have been installed.
• In 1947, hydropower capacity in India was about 37% of the total power generating capacity and
over 53% of power generation. In the late 1960s, growth in coal-based power generation initiated
the decline in hydropower’s share in both capacity and generation. In 2022, the hydropower
capacity of 46,512 MW (megawatts) accounted for roughly 11.7% of the total capacity. Roughly
12% of power generation in 2020-21 was from hydropower.
• Hydropower projects are classified as large and small hydro projects based on their sizes.
Different countries have different size criteria to classify small hydropower projects.
• In India, hydropower plants with a capacity of 25 MW or below are classified as small hydro.
Hydro Power was looked after by the Ministry of Power before 1989.
• In 1989, plant capacity up to 3MW and below was transferred to the Ministry of New and
Renewable Energy (MNRE).
• The hydroelectric power plants at Darjeeling and Shivanasamudra were established in 1898 and
1902, respectively. They were among the first in Asia and India has been a dominant player in
global hydroelectric power development. India also imports surplus hydroelectric power from
Bhutan.
• Koyna Hydroelectric Project is the largest completed hydroelectric power plant in India, with a
power capacity of 1960 MW.
Challenges
• Twelve projects with a total capacity of over 3,500 MW have either been terminated or held up
due to local environmental concerns.
• Forty projects of capacity 13633 MW have either been abandoned or delayed due to local
opposition to the projects rooted in local environmental concerns.
• In the last few years, many of India’s newer hydro-power projects on the Himalayan rivers
(commissioned or under construction) have been damaged by floods and landslides.
• Power purchase agreement
o With the present power scenario and major policy initiatives to increase renewable
capacity (mainly solar and wind), it is becoming difficult to sell hydropower. There is a
reluctance on the part of distribution utilities to enter into long-term Power Purchase
Agreements (PPAs)
• Tariff
o Tariffs from hydropower projects in the initial years as compared to other sources due to
a lack of incentives like tax concessions, financing cost and construction of projects in
remote areas with adequate infrastructure.

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4) Integrated energy policy

• At the direction of the Prime Minister and Deputy Chair of the Planning Commission, an expert
committee was established to develop a comprehensive energy policy in 2004.
• The Integrated Energy Policy, released in August 2006, addresses all aspects of energy, including
energy security, access and availability, affordability and pricing, efficiency and the environment.
• The Policy aims to meet energy demand at the least cost in a technically efficient, economically
viable and environmentally sustainable manner. It contains several policies that contribute to
avoiding GHG emissions. It received Cabinet approval in 2008.
• Concerning renewable energy, the policy proposed:
o The phase-out of capital subsidies by the end of the 10th Plan linked to the creation of
renewable grid power capacity
o Requiring power regulators to seek alternative incentive structures that encourage
utilities to integrate the wind, small hydro, cogeneration and so on into their systems, and
the linking of all such incentives to energy generated as opposed to capacity created
o Requiring power regulators to mandate feed-in laws for renewable energy, where
appropriate, as provided under the Electricity Act 2003. The policy also made a range of
more specific recommendations in relation to particular renewable energy sources,
including mini-hydro, wind and wood gasification power
o The Energy Coordination Committee (under the chairmanship of the prime minister)
oversees the implementation of the policy.

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Alternative fuels - Alternative energy source

1) Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is a biofuel produced from various feedstocks including vegetable oils (such as oilseed,
rapeseed and soya bean), animal fats or algae. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel for use in
diesel engine vehicles.
• Biofuel – The term biofuel applies to any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel produced from organic
(once-living) matter. The word biofuel covers a wide range of products, some of which are
commercially available today, and some of which are still in research and development. Biodiesel
is a fuel made from plant oils that can be used in a conventional diesel engine.
• Biodiesel is an environmentally safe, low-polluting fuel for most diesel internal combustion and
turbine engines. Can be mixed with petroleum diesel fuel and stored anywhere petroleum is. It is
made from fresh or waste vegetable oils (triglycerides) that are a renewable energy source.
• Bio-diesel is an eco-friendly, alternative diesel fuel prepared from domestic renewable resources
that as vegetable oils (edible & non-edible oil) and animal fats. These natural oils & fats are made
up mainly of triglycerides. These triglycerides when reacted chemically with lower alcohols in
presence of catalysts result in fatty acid esters. These esters show a striking similarity to
petroleum-derived diesel and are called “Bio-diesel”.
• BioDiesel is environmentally friendly and ideal for heavily polluted cities. Bio Diesel is as
biodegradable as salt BioDiesel produces 80% less carbon dioxide and 100% less sulfur dioxide
emissions. It provides a 90% reduction in cancer risks. Biodiesel can be used alone or mixed in
any ratio with mineral oil diesel fuel. The preferred ratio of the mixture ranges between 5 and
20% (B5 - B20).Bio Diesel extends the life of diesel engines. Bio Diesel is cheaper than mineral oil
diesel. Bio Diesel is conserving natural resources.
Features of Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is a clean burning fuel
• Biodiesel does not have any toxic emissions like mineral diesel
• Biodiesel is made from any vegetable oil such as Soya, Rice bran, Canola, Palm, Coconut, mustard
or peanut or from any animal fat like Lard or tallow.
• Biodiesel is a complete substitute for Mineral diesel (HSD).
• Biodiesel is made through a chemical process which converts oils and fats of natural origin into
fatty acid methyl esters (FAME).
• Biodiesel IS NOT vegetable oil.
• Biodiesel is intended to be used as a replacement for petroleum diesel fuel or can be blended with
petroleum diesel fuel in any proportion.
• Biodiesel does not require modifications to a diesel engine to be used.
• Biodiesel has reduced exhaust emissions compared to petroleum diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel has lower toxicity compared to petroleum diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel is safer to handle compared to petroleum diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel quality is governed by ASTM D 6751 quality parameters.
• Biodiesel is biodegradable
Importance of Biodiesel
• Energy Independence: Considering that oil priced at $ 60 per barrel has had a disproportionate
impact on the poorest countries, 38 of which are net importers and 25 of Which import all of their
oil; the question of trying to achieve greater energy independence one day through the
development of bio-fuels has become one of ‘when’ rather than ‘if,’ and, now on a near daily basis,
a bio-fuels programme is being launched somewhere in the developing world.

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• Smaller Trade Deficit: Rather than importing other countries’ ancient natural resources, we
could be using our living resources to power our development and enhance our economies.
Instead of looking to the Mid-east for oil, the world could look to the tropics for biofuels.
producing more biofuels will save foreign exchange and reduce energy expenditures and allow
developing countries to put more of their resources into health, education and other services for
their neediest citizens.
• Economic Growth: Bio-fuels create new markets for agricultural products and stimulate rural
development because biofuels are generated from crops; they hold enormous potential for
farmers. In the near future—especially for the two-thirds of the people in the developing world
who derive their incomes from [Link], many of these farmers are too small to compete
in the global market, especially with the playing field tilted against them through trade-distorting
agricultural subsidies. They are mostly subsistence farmers who, in a good year, produce enough
to feed their families, and in a bad year, grow even poorer or starve. But biofuels have enormous
potential to change this situation for the [Link] the community level, farmers that produce
dedicated energy crops can grow their incomes and grow their supply of affordable and reliable
[Link] the national level, producing more biofuels will generate new industries, new
technologies, new jobs and new markets.
• Cleaner Air: Bio-fuels burn more cleanly than gasoline and diesel. Using biofuels means
producing fewer emissions of carbon monoxide, particulates, and toxic chemicals that cause smog,
aggravate respiratory and heart disease, and contribute to thousands of premature deaths each
year.
• Less Global Warming: Bio-fuels contain carbon that was taken out of the atmosphere by plants
and trees as they grew. Fossil fuels are adding huge amounts of stored carbon dioxide (CO2) to
the atmosphere, where it traps the Earth's heat like a heavy blanket and causes the world to
warm. Studies show that bio-diesel reduces CO2 emissions to a considerable extent and in some
cases almost nearly zero.
Benefits of biodiesel
Biodiesel can be considered a new technology, taking into account all the years consumers have had to
settle for traditional diesel.
• Biodiesel is not harmful to the environment. A vehicle tends to pollute the environment and emits
harmful gasses if injected with HSD whereas if the engine is using biodiesel it emits no harmful
gasses rather than keeps the environment pollution free.
• Biodiesel may not require an engine modification. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel to improve
the efficiency of the engine without any hassles.
• Biodiesel is cheap. You can even make biodiesel in your backyard. If your engine can work with
biodiesel fuel alone, then you need not go to the gas station to buy fuel. You can just manufacture
some for your personal use.
• Any Vehicle using Biodiesel has very low idle stating noise. It is noted that biodiesel has a Cetane
number of over 100. The cetane number is used to measure the quality of the fuel’s ignition. If
your fuel has a high Cetane number, you can be sure that what you get is a very easy cold starting
coupled with low idle noise.
• Biodiesel is cost-effective because it is produced locally.
Biodiesel as a fuel not only helps reduce pollution, reduces health hazards and gives our society A
CLEANER AND GREENER TOMORROW.

2) Hydrogen fuel
• Hydrogen is a clean fuel that, when consumed in a fuel cell, produces only water. Hydrogen can
be produced from a variety of domestic resources, such as natural gas, nuclear power, biomass,

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and renewable power like solar and wind. These qualities make it an attractive fuel option for
transportation and electricity generation applications. It can be used in cars, in houses, for
portable power, and in many more applications.
• Derived from the most abundant element in the universe, hydrogen fuel is clean, flexible, and
energy-efficient. Current projections indicate that by 2030 the hydrogen economy could be worth
$500bn.
• Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced
from other sources.
• Today, hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods. The most common methods
today are natural gas reforming (a thermal process), and electrolysis. Other methods include
solar-driven and biological processes.
• THERMAL PROCESSES
o Thermal processes for hydrogen production typically involve steam reforming, a high-
temperature process in which steam reacts with a hydrocarbon fuel to produce hydrogen.
Many hydrocarbon fuels can be reformed to produce hydrogen, including natural gas,
diesel, renewable liquid fuels, gasified coal, or gasified biomass. Today, about 95% of all
hydrogen is produced from steam reforming of natural gas.
• ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
o Water can be separated into oxygen and hydrogen through a process called electrolysis.
Electrolytic processes take place in an electrolyzer, which functions much like a fuel cell in
reverse—instead of using the energy of a hydrogen molecule, as a fuel cell does, an
electrolyzer creates hydrogen from water molecules.
• SOLAR-DRIVEN PROCESSES
o Solar-driven processes use light as the agent for hydrogen production. There are a few
solar-driven processes, including photobiological, photoelectrochemical, and solar
thermochemical. Photobiological processes use the natural photosynthetic activity of
bacteria and green algae to produce hydrogen. Photoelectrochemical processes use
specialized semiconductors to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Solar
thermochemical hydrogen production uses concentrated solar power to drive water-
splitting reactions often along with other species such as metal oxides.
• BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
o Biological processes use microbes such as bacteria and microalgae and can produce
hydrogen through biological reactions. In microbial biomass conversion, the microbes
break down organic matter like biomass or wastewater to produce hydrogen, while in
photobiological processes the microbes use sunlight as the energy source.
TYPES OF HYDROGEN BASED ON EXTRACTION METHODS
Depending on the nature of the method of its extraction, hydrogen is categorised into three categories,
namely, Grey, Blue and Green.
• Grey Hydrogen: It is produced via coal or lignite gasification (black or brown), or via a process
called steam methane reformation (SMR) of natural gas or methane (grey). These tend to be
mostly carbon-intensive processes.
• Blue Hydrogen: It is produced via natural gas or coal gasification combined with carbon capture
storage (CCS) or carbon capture use (CCU) technologies to reduce carbon emissions.
• Green Hydrogen: It is produced using the electrolysis of water with electricity generated by
renewable energy. The carbon intensity ultimately depends on the carbon neutrality of the source
of electricity (i.e., the more renewable energy there is in the electricity fuel mix, the "greener" the
hydrogen produced).

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Initiatives in India
• National Green Hydrogen Mission: India has set its sight on becoming energy independent by
2047 and achieving Net Zero by 2070. To achieve this target, increasing renewable energy use
across all economic spheres is central to India's Energy Transition. Green Hydrogen is considered
a promising alternative for enabling this transition. Hydrogen can be utilized for long-duration
storage of renewable energy, replacement of fossil fuels in industry, clean transportation, and
potentially also for decentralized power generation, aviation, and marine transport. The National
Green Hydrogen Mission was approved by the Union Cabinet on 4 January 2022, with the
intended objectives of:
o Making India a leading producer and supplier of Green Hydrogen in the world
o Creation of export opportunities for Green Hydrogen and its derivatives
o Reduction in dependence on imported fossil fuels and feedstock
o Development of indigenous manufacturing capabilities
o Attracting investment and business opportunities for the industry
o Creating opportunities for employment and economic development
o Supporting R&D projects
• The National Hydrogen Mission was launched on August 15, 2021, to cut down carbon
emissions and increase the use of renewable sources of energy. The mission seeks to promote the
development of a green hydrogen production capacity of at least 5 MMT (Million Metric Tonnes)
per annum with an associated renewable energy capacity addition of about 125 GW in the country
by 2030.

Technologies
Technology for Electronic Toll Collection
• Electronic Toll Collection (ETC) is a system that enables automatic toll payment without
stopping vehicles, improving efficiency and reducing congestion on highways.
• Various technologies like RFID, GPS-based tolling, and ANPR (Automatic Number Plate
Recognition) are used for seamless toll collection.
• India primarily employs FASTag, an RFID-based toll system, but newer technologies are being
explored for improved efficiency.

Technology Employed for Electronic Toll Collection

1. RFID-Based Toll Collection (FASTag in India)
• Uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags installed on vehicles.
• The tag is linked to a prepaid account and deducts the toll automatically when passing through
the toll plaza.
• Implemented under the National Electronic Toll Collection (NETC) program by NPCI.
2. GPS-Based Toll Collection (Under Trial in India)
• Uses Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to track vehicle movement and charge tolls
based on distance traveled.
• Proposed to eliminate physical toll booths and ensure dynamic pricing based on road usage.
3. ANPR (Automatic Number Plate Recognition) System

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• Uses high-speed cameras and AI algorithms to recognize vehicle number plates and charge
tolls based on registration details.
• Reduces dependency on physical tags but requires standardized license plates and accurate
image processing.
4. DSRC (Dedicated Short-Range Communication) Technology
• Used in the US and Europe, where an in-vehicle transponder communicates with roadside
sensors to automate toll payments.
• Provides high-speed, real-time toll processing but requires significant infrastructure investment.

Advantages of Electronic Toll Collection

1. Reduced Congestion & Time Efficiency
• Eliminates the need for vehicles to stop, reducing wait times and improving traffic flow.
• Helps in fuel savings by minimizing idling time.
2. Enhanced Revenue Collection & Reduced Leakage
• Minimizes human intervention, reducing the risk of toll fraud and revenue leakage.
• Ensures transparent toll collection and better financial accountability.
3. Lower Operational Costs
• Reduces dependence on manual toll operators, leading to cost savings.
• Digital transactions improve tracking and reconciliation.
4. Environmental Benefits
• Reduced idling at toll booths lowers fuel consumption and carbon emissions.
• Contributes to a greener and more sustainable transport system.
5. Better Traffic Management & Road Planning
• Data from toll collection helps authorities analyze traffic patterns and plan road infrastructure
efficiently.

Limitations of Current ETC Systems

1. Infrastructure & Connectivity Issues
• RFID-based FASTag still requires physical toll booths, leading to congestion at peak hours.
• Network failures and scanner malfunctions can delay transactions.
2. User Adoption & Compliance
• Some vehicle owners do not have FASTag or fail to maintain sufficient balance, leading to delays.
• Fraudulent practices like tampering with FASTags reduce system efficiency.
3. GPS-Based Tolling Challenges
• Accuracy issues in GPS tracking can lead to incorrect toll charges.
• Requires widespread adoption of GPS-enabled vehicles, which is not universal.

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4. High Initial Investment for New Technologies

• Transitioning to ANPR or GPS-based tolling requires significant investment in camera
infrastructure and backend processing.
5. Privacy & Data Security Concerns
• GPS-based tolling raises concerns about vehicle tracking and surveillance.
• Risk of data breaches and unauthorized access to toll transaction details.

Proposed Changes for a Seamless Toll Collection Process

1. Transition to GPS-Based Tolling
• Government plans to implement GPS-based tolling, allowing vehicles to be charged based on
actual distance traveled.
• Eliminates physical toll booths, reducing traffic congestion and travel time.
2. Implementation of ANPR Technology
• High-speed cameras installed at toll points to scan number plates and deduct toll charges.
• Reduces reliance on RFID tags and physical barriers.
3. Interoperability Between Toll Collection Systems
• Integration of different toll collection technologies (FASTag, GPS, ANPR) for smooth transactions.
• Ensures seamless toll payments across states and national highways.
4. Strengthening Data Security & Privacy Measures
• Encrypting transaction data and ensuring secure payment gateways.
• Implementing strict data protection policies to prevent misuse of vehicle movement data.
5. Wider Public Awareness & Compliance Measures
• Government initiatives to mandate FASTag adoption and improve compliance.
• Penalties for non-compliance or tampering with toll collection devices.

Potential Hazards & Challenges in Transition

1. Privacy & Surveillance Concerns
• GPS-based tolling could lead to mass surveillance of vehicle movements, raising privacy concerns.
• Risk of government or private entities tracking individuals without consent.
2. Technical Glitches & Errors
• GPS inaccuracies or network failures can result in incorrect toll charges.
• ANPR-based systems may misread damaged or non-standard number plates, leading to disputes.
3. Digital Divide & Accessibility Issues
• Rural and less tech-savvy users may struggle with digital toll payment systems.
• Lack of smartphone access or digital literacy can create barriers.

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4. Cybersecurity Threats
• Risk of hacking, data theft, or fraudulent transactions in digital tolling systems.
• Requires strong encryption and cybersecurity measures.
5. High Transition Costs & Implementation Delays
• Shifting to GPS-based tolling requires a nationwide rollout, leading to high costs and
infrastructure demands.
• Resistance from toll operators who might lose jobs or revenue sources .

Technologies to address water shortage

1. Desalination Technology

• Desalination is the process of removing salt and impurities from seawater or brackish water to
make it potable.
• Common methods include Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF).

Merits:

• Provides an abundant and reliable water source from oceans.

• Advances in membrane technology have improved energy efficiency.

• Can support water-scarce coastal regions.

Demerits:

• High energy consumption, leading to significant operational costs.

• Brine disposal can cause marine pollution and harm ecosystems.

• Infrastructure costs are expensive for large-scale deployment.

2. Atmospheric Water Generation (AWG)

• AWG extracts water from humidity in the air through condensation or desiccation-based systems.

Merits:

• Operates independently of surface water sources.

• Useful in remote or arid areas where groundwater is unavailable.

• Can be powered by renewable energy sources, reducing carbon footprint.

Demerits:

• Limited yield, highly dependent on humidity levels.

• Energy-intensive, especially in low-humidity environments.

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• High initial cost for large-scale deployment.

3. Wastewater Recycling and Reuse

• This technology treats wastewater through advanced filtration, chemical treatment, and biological
processes to make it reusable for drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes.

Merits:

• Reduces water wastage and dependency on freshwater sources.

• Highly effective in urban settings with high wastewater production.

• Energy-efficient compared to desalination.

Demerits:

• Public perception issues—many people are reluctant to drink treated wastewater.

• Initial investment in infrastructure and maintenance is costly.

• Requires strict monitoring to ensure safety and compliance.

Questions

1. The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative
technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key
merits and demerits. (2024)

2. What is the technology being employed for electronic toll collection on highways? What are its
advantages and limitations? What are the proposed changes that will make this process seamless? Would
this transition carry any potential hazards? (2024)

Miscellaneous
IPR
Present World Scenario of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) with Respect to Life
Materials & Challenges in Commercialization in India
• Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) in the field of life sciences, including biotechnology,
pharmaceuticals, and genetic resources, play a crucial role in fostering innovation and ensuring
legal protection for new discoveries.
• The global landscape of IPR concerning life materials is evolving, with increasing debates around
ethical concerns, patent eligibility, and access to healthcare.

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• India, despite being the second-largest filer of patents globally, faces a significant gap in
patent commercialization.
• While numerous patents are granted, only a small percentage are successfully converted into
marketable products.
• This low commercialization rate undermines the potential benefits of innovation.
World Scenario of IPR in Life Materials
1. Patent Regime in Life Sciences:
o Many countries, including the United States, European Union, and Japan, offer strong
patent protection for biotechnology inventions, pharmaceuticals, and genetically modified
organisms (GMOs).
o However, ethical and economic debates persist regarding patenting of life materials,
particularly in areas like gene editing (CRISPR), personalized medicine, and synthetic
biology.
2. Compulsory Licensing & Access to Medicine:
o Developing countries, including India, Brazil, and South Africa, advocate for flexible
patent laws to ensure affordable healthcare, often invoking compulsory licensing
under TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights).
o This has led to conflicts with Western pharmaceutical companies that argue for
stronger patent protection.
3. Biopiracy & Traditional Knowledge Protection:
o Countries rich in biodiversity, such as India and Indonesia, face issues of biopiracy,
where multinational corporations patent indigenous biological resources without proper
benefit-sharing.
o India has introduced the Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) to prevent
unauthorized patenting of traditional knowledge.
4. Rising Influence of China:
o China is emerging as a global leader in biotechnology patents, heavily investing in AI-
driven drug discovery and genetic research.
o It has strengthened its patent laws to align with global standards while ensuring
government control over strategic sectors.

Reasons for Low Commercialization of Patents in India

1. Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration
• Lack of coordination between research institutions and industries leads to patents that remain
unused.
• Unlike in the US and Europe, where universities actively license patents to businesses, Indian
research remains largely disconnected from industry needs.
2. Low Patent Quality & Market Relevance
• A large portion of Indian patents are theoretical innovations with limited commercial
viability.

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• Lack of industry-driven research results in patents that do not translate into products.
3. High Costs of Patent Maintenance & Commercialization
• Maintaining a patent requires annual fees and legal costs, which many startups and small firms
struggle to afford.
• The absence of financial incentives or venture capital support further hinders
commercialization.
4. Regulatory & Legal Challenges
• Complex regulatory approvals, particularly in the biotech and pharma sector, delay product
launches.
• Uncertainty in patent laws, such as the interpretation of Section 3(d) of the Indian Patent Act,
discourages foreign investment.
• Lengthy legal battles for patent enforcement make commercialization unattractive for
businesses.
5. Weak Intellectual Property Enforcement
• India's patent enforcement is weak, leading to concerns about patent infringement and
counterfeiting.
• Foreign investors hesitate to invest due to uncertainties in protecting their intellectual property.
6. Lack of Funding & Infrastructure
• Limited access to venture capital and government grants for technology transfer hinders
commercialization.
• Unlike developed nations, India lacks incubators and accelerators that facilitate patent
commercialization.
7. Public Perception & Ethical Concerns
• In sectors like genetically modified crops and gene editing, public resistance due to ethical and
environmental concerns prevents large-scale commercialization.

Strategic Responses to Improve Commercialization in India

1. Strengthening Industry-Academia Linkages
• Promote university-industry collaboration through Technology Transfer Offices (TTOs) and
joint research projects.
• Encourage private sector involvement in research funding to ensure market-driven
innovation.
2. Enhancing Patent Quality & Filing Standards
• Focus on market-driven patents rather than just increasing the number of filings.
• Provide training and incentives for researchers to develop commercially viable patents.
3. Improving Access to Funding & Infrastructure
• Establish dedicated innovation funds and provide tax incentives for startups and MSMEs
working on patent commercialization.

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• Develop incubation centers and patent commercialization hubs similar to the Silicon Valley
model.
4. Strengthening IP Enforcement & Legal Framework
• Expedite patent dispute resolution through specialized IP courts.
• Strengthen anti-counterfeiting measures to protect patented technologies.
5. Policy Reforms & Simplified Regulations
• Streamline approval processes for biotech and pharma patents to reduce commercialization
delays.
• Amend Section 3(d) of the Patent Act to provide clarity on patentability criteria.
6. Encouraging Public-Private Partnerships (PPP)
• Promote PPP models to facilitate technology transfer and commercialization.
• Encourage foreign direct investment (FDI) in research-intensive sectors.
7. Promoting International Collaborations
• Strengthen participation in global IP frameworks like WIPO (World Intellectual Property
Organization) and TRIPS Plus agreements.
• Facilitate international licensing agreements to expand the global market for Indian innovations.

Questions
1. What is the present world scenario of intellectual property rights with respect to life materials?
Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain
the reasons behind this less commercialization. (2024)

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