Chapter 42
Animal
Digestive
Systems
Dr. Randa Albdaiwi
Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
The Need to Feed
Food is taken in, taken apart, and taken up in the process of
animal nutrition
In general, animals fall into three categories:
Herbivores: eat mainly plants or algae
Carnivores: eat other animals
Omnivores: regularly consume animals as well as plants
or algae
Most animals are also opportunistic feeders
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Three categories of animal nutrition
Concept 42.1: An animal ’ s diet must supply
chemical energy, organic building blocks, and
essential nutrients
An animal’s diet must provide:
Chemical energy for cellular processes which is
converted into ATP to power cellular processes
Organic building blocks for synthesizing or building of
macromolecules such as organic carbon (C) and organic
nitrogen (N).
Essential nutrients which are required by cells and must
be obtained from dietary sources.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Essential Nutrients
Essential nutrients: required materials that an animal
cannot synthesis them from simpler organic molecules
These must be obtained from an animal’s diet
There are four classes:
1. Essential amino acids
2. Essential fatty acids
3. Vitamins
4. Minerals
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
1- Essential Amino Acids
Animals require 20 amino acids and can synthesize about
half from molecules in their diet
The remaining amino acids, the essential amino acids, must
be obtained from food in prefabricated form
• Meat, eggs, and cheese provide all the essential amino acids
and are thus “complete” proteins
• Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid composition
• Vegetarians can easily obtain all essential amino acids by
eating a varied diet of plant proteins
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2- Essential Fatty Acids
Animals can synthesize many of the fatty acids they need
The essential fatty acids must be obtained from the diet and
include certain unsaturated fatty acids (i.e., fatty acids with
one or more double bonds)
Animals typically obtain abundant amounts of essential fatty
acids in their diet
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
3- Vitamins
Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in very
small amounts
Thirteen vitamins are essential for humans
Vitamins are grouped into two categories:
Water-soluble (9 vitamins) B and C
Fat-soluble (4 vitamins) A,D,E,K
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
4- Minerals
Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small
amounts as Ca, P, S, K, Mg, Na, Cl, Fe, F and I.
Ingesting large amounts of some minerals can upset homeostatic
balance
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Dietary Deficiencies
Malnutrition is the long-term absence of one or more
essential nutrients.
Malnutrition can have negative impacts on health and survival
Deficiencies in essential nutrients can cause deformities,
disease, and death
In children, protein deficiency may arise when their diet shifts
from breast milk to foods containing very little protein
Cattle, deer, and other herbivores can prevent phosphorus
deficiency by consuming concentrated sources of salt or other
minerals
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.3
Figure 42.3 Obtaining essential nutrients from an unusual source
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Malnutrition in children
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Undernourishment
Undernourishment results when a diet does not provide
enough chemical energy.
An undernourished individual will:
Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
Break down its own proteins
Lose muscle mass
Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
Die or suffer irreversible damage
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Assessing Nutritional Needs
Many insights into human nutrition have come from
epidemiology (the study of human health and disease in
populations)
For example: Neural tube defects were found to be the result
of a deficiency in folic acid in pregnant mothers
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Concept 42.2: Food processing involves ingestion,
digestion, absorption, and elimination
1- Ingestion
Is the act of eating or feeding
Feeding mechanisms differ widely among animal species.
A. Filter feeders many aquatic animals sift small food
particles from the water.
B. Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their
food source
C. Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host
D. Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.5
Filter feeding Substrate feeding Fluid feeding
Baleen
Caterpillar Feces
Bulk feeding
Figure 42.5 Exploring four main feeding mechanisms of animals
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
2- Digestion: is the process of breaking food down into
molecules small enough to absorb
Mechanical digestion, chewing or grinding, increases the surface
area of food
Chemical digestion splits food into small molecules that can pass
through membranes; these are used to build larger molecules.
(In chemical digestion, the process of enzymatic hydrolysis
splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water
3- Absorption: is uptake of small molecules by body cells
4- Elimination: is the passage of undigested material out of the
digestive system
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Digestive Compartments
Most animals process food in specialized compartments
These compartments reduce the risk of an animal digesting
its own cells and tissues.
I. In intracellular digestion, food particles are engulfed by
phagocytosis and liquids by pinocytosis
Food vacuoles, containing food, fuse with lysosomes containing
hydrolytic enzymes
A few animals, such as sponges, digest their food entirely by
this mechanism
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
II. Extracellular digestion is the breakdown of food particles
outside of cells
It occurs in compartments that are continuous with the
outside of the animal’s body
Animals with simple body plans have a gastrovascular
cavity that functions in both digestion and distribution of
nutrients
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Intracellular digestion in hydra
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
More complex animals have a digestive tube with two
openings, a mouth and an anus
This digestive tube is called a complete digestive tract, or an
alimentary canal
It can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and
absorption in a stepwise fashion
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.7
Esophagus Crop Gizzard
Intestine
Pharynx
Anus
Mouth
(a) Earthworm
Foregut Midgut Hindgut
Rectum
Anus
Esophagus
Gastric cecae Stomach
Mouth Crop Gizzard
(b) Grasshopper Intestine
Mouth
Esophagus
Figure 42.7 Variation in alimentary canals or Crop Anus
digestive tract
(c) Bird
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Concept 42.3: Organs specialized for sequential
stages of food processing form the mammalian
digestive system
In mammals, a number of accessory glands secrete digestive
juices through ducts into the alimentary canal
Mammalian accessory glands are the salivary glands, the
pancreas, the liver, and the gallbladder
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Food processing begins in the oral cavity
Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
Saliva contains mucus, a viscous mixture of water, salts, cells,
and glycoproteins
Saliva also contains amylase, which breaks down starch
The tongue movements shape food into a bolus and help
with swallowing
The throat, or pharynx, is the junction that opens to both the
esophagus and the trachea
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.8
Tongue Oral cavity
Salivary
glands Pharynx
Esophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd. Figure 42.8 The human digestive system
The esophagus connects to the stomach
The trachea (windpipe) leads to the lungs
Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to the trachea,
and the bolus is guided by the larynx, the upper part of the
respiratory tract
Coughing occurs when the swallowing reflex fails and food or
liquids reach the windpipe
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Within the esophagus, food is pushed along from the pharynx
to the stomach by peristalsis, rhythmic contractions of
muscles in the wall of the canal
Valves called sphincters regulate the movement of material
between compartments.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Digestion in the Stomach
The stomach stores food and processes it into a liquid
suspension
The stomach secretes gastric juice
The mixture of ingested food and gastric juice is called
chyme.
Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
Gastric juice has a low pH of about 2, which kills bacteria and
denatures proteins
Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Pepsin is a protease, which breaks peptide bonds to cleave
proteins into smaller peptides
Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately
into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach
Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to
pepsin when mixed with hydrochloric acid in the stomach
Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
Cell division adds a new epithelial layer every three days
Gastric ulcers, lesions in the lining, are caused mainly by
the bacterium Helicobacter pylori
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.10 The stomach and its secretions
Sphincters
Stomach
Epithelium
Gastric pit on 3
the interior
surface of
Pepsinogen Pepsin
stomach 2 (active
Chief HCl enzyme)
Gastric gland
cell 1
H+
Mucous cell Cl–
Parietal
cell
Chief cell
Parietal cell
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.10b_3
3 Production of
gastric juice
Pepsinogen Pepsin
2 (active 1 Pepsinogen and
HCl enzyme) HCl introduced
into lumen.
Chief cell 1
+ 2 HCl converts
H
pepsinogen to
Cl–
pepsin.
Parietal
3 Pepsin activates
cell more pepsinogen,
starting a chain
reaction.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Stomach Dynamics
Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach
muscles churn the stomach’s contents
Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus
and regulate its entry into the small intestine
If the sphincter at the top of the stomach allows
movement of chyme back to the lower end of the
esophagus, the result is “heartburn”
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Digestion in the Small Intestine
The small intestine is the longest compartment of the
alimentary canal.
Most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules from food
occurs here.
The first portion of the small intestine is the duodenum,
where chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices
from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine
itself.
Pancreatic Secretions
The pancreas helps in chemical digestion by producing
Alkaline solution (bicarbonate) and some enzymes.
Bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic chyme.
Proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin are activated in the lumen of
the duodenum.
Bile Production by the Liver
In the small intestine, bile aids in digestion and absorption of
lipids.
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder.
Bile also destroys nonfunctional red blood cells.
Liver or blood disorder leads to jaundice
Secretions of the Small Intestine
Most digestion occurs in the duodenum.
The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces several
digestive enzymes.
Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis moves the
chyme and digestive juices along the small intestine.
The jejunum and ileum are major sites for absorption of
nutrients.
Figure 42.11
CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION Figure 42.11 Chemical digestion in the human
ORAL Polysaccharides Disaccharides digestive system
CAVITY, (starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose)
PHARYNX,
ESOPHAGUS Salivary amylase
Smaller Maltose
polysaccharides PROTEIN DIGESTION
STOMACH Proteins
Pepsin
Small polypeptides NUCLEIC ACID DIGESTION FAT DIGESTION
SMALL DNA, RNA Fat (triglycerides)
INTESTINE
(enzymes Pancreatic amylases Pancreatic trypsin and Pancreatic
from chymotrypsin nucleases
pancreas) Disaccharides
Nucleotides Pancreatic lipase
Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Glycerol, fatty acids,
Small peptides
monoglycerides
SMALL Nucleotidases
INTESTINE Dipeptidases, carboxy-
(enzymes peptidase, and Nucleosides
from Disaccharidases aminopeptidase
intestinal Nucleosidases
epithelium) and
phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
Monosaccharides Amino acids sugars, phosphates
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
The small intestine has a huge surface area, due to villi and
microvilli that are exposed to the intestinal lumen.
The enormous microvillar surface creates a brush border
that greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption.
Transport across the epithelial cells can be passive or
active depending on the nutrient.
For example, Amino acids, small peptides, vitamins, and
Glucose are pumped against conc. gradient into the villi.
Epithelial cells absorb fatty acids and monoglycerides and
recombine them into triglycerides
Figure 42.12 Nutrient absorption in the small intestine
Vein carrying
blood to liver Villi Nutrient absorption
Microvilli
Blood Epithelial Amino
cell
Fatty
capillaries acids acids and
and mono-
sugars glycerides
Epithelial
cells
Muscle layers Fats
Villi Large
circular
Blood
folds
Lacteal
Intestinal Lymph Lymph
wall vessel
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
These fats are coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and
proteins to form water-soluble chylomicrons
The hepatic portal vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the
capillaries of the villi to the liver, then to the heart
The liver regulates nutrient distribution, interconverts many
organic molecules, and detoxifies many organic molecules.
Chylomicrons are transported into a lacteal, a lymphatic
vessel in each villus
Lymphatic vessels deliver chylomicron-containing lymph to
large veins that return blood to the heart
Figure 42.13
Figure 42.13 Digestion and absorption of fats
FAT GLOBULE
Bile
salts Monoglycerides 3 Monoglycerides
Fatty acids
1 Bile salts break and fatty acids
up fat globules, diffuse into
LUMEN increasing epithelial cells and
OF SMALL exposure of are re-formed into
INTESTINE triglycerides to triglycerides.
hydrolysis.
Triglycerides
Phospholipids, EPITHELIAL 4 Triglycerides
FAT DROPLET cholesterol, CELL are incorporated
Lipase and proteins into water-soluble
particles called
2 The enzyme
chylomicrons.
lipase breaks
triglycerides Chylomicron
Triglycerides down to fatty
acids and 5 Chylomicrons
monoglycerides. enter lacteals and
are carried away
Fatty acids Monoglycerides by lymph.
LACTEAL
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Processing in the Large Intestine
The alimentary canal ends with the large intestine
It includes the colon, caecum, and rectum
I. The colon leads to the rectum and anus
II. The cecum aids in the fermentation of plant material and
connects where the small and large intestines meet
III. The human cecum has an extension called the appendix,
which plays a minor role in immunity
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.14
Ascending
portion
of colon
Small
intestine
Appendix
Cecum
Figure 42.14 Junction of the small and large intestines
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The colon completes the recovery of water that began in the
small intestine
Feces, the wastes of the digestive system, become more
solid as they move through the colon.
Feces are stored in the rectum until they can be eliminated
through the anus
Two sphincters between the rectum and anus control bowel
movements
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Concept 42.4: Evolutionary adaptations of
vertebrate digestive systems correlate with diet
Digestive systems of vertebrates are variations on a theme
However, there are adaptations associated with the animal’s
diet:
Dental Adaptations
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
Mutualistic Adaptations
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Dental Adaptations
Dentition, an animal’s assortment of teeth, is one example of
structural variation reflecting diet
The success of mammals is due in part to their dentition, which
is specialized for different diets
Nonmammalian vertebrates have less specialized teeth, though
exceptions exist
For example, the teeth of poisonous snakes are modified as fangs for
injecting venom
Figure 42.15
Carnivore Herbivore
Omnivore
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
Many carnivores have large, expandable stomachs
Herbivores and omnivores generally have longer alimentary
canals than carnivores, reflecting the longer time needed to
digest vegetation
Figure 42.16 The alimentary canals of a
carnivore (coyote) and herbivore (koala)
Mutualistic Adaptations
The coexistence of humans and many bacteria involves
mutualistic symbiosis
Some intestinal bacteria produce vitamins
They also regulate the development of the intestinal epithelium
and the function of the innate immune system.
The microbiome is the collection of the microorganisms living
on the body.
Scientists use a DNA sequencing approach based on the
polymerase chain reaction to study the microbiome.
There are differences in the microbiome associated with diet,
disease, and age
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
On breastmilk Healthy Healthy 65–80
years old
On formula Obese >100
On antibiotic years old
treatment
On solid food
Malnourished
Infant Toddler Adult Elderly person
Firmicutes Proteobacteria
Bacteroidetes Other bacterial
Actinobacteria phyla
Figure 42.17 Variation in human gut microbiome at different life stages
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Mutualistic Adaptations in Herbivores
Many herbivores have fermentation chambers, where
mutualistic microorganisms digest cellulose
Rabbits and rodents pass food through their alimentary canal
twice.
The most elaborate adaptations for an herbivorous diet have
evolved in the animals called ruminants
Giant tubeworms have no digestive system and instead
obtain nutrients from mutualistic bacteria within their bodies
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
[Link] cellulose
2. breaking down more fibers
3. Re-swallow food, some water is removed
[Link] by enzymes
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Concept 42.5: Feedback circuits regulate digestion,
energy storage, and appetite
The processes that enable an animal to obtain nutrients are
matched to the organism’s circumstances and need for
energy.
Regulation of Digestion
Each step in the digestive system is activated as needed
The enteric division of the nervous system helps to
regulate the digestive process
The endocrine system also regulates digestion through the
release and transport of hormones
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.20
1 Liver 2
Food
Gallbladder Bile
Stomach
Chyme
Gastric Gastrin
juices CCK
Pancreas HCO3−, enzymes
Duodenum of Secretin CCK
small intestine
Secretin
and CCK
Gastric
juices
Stimulation
Inhibition
Figure
© 2018 Pearson42.20 Hormonal control of digestion
Education Ltd.
Figure 41.19a
Hormonal control of digestion
- Food arrives,, stomach
stretches,,releases
Gastrin,,,circulates via blood
back to stomach,,,,,,Gastrin
stimulates the secretion of
gastric juices.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
- Chyme reaches
duodenum,,,,duodenum
releases Cholecytokinin
(CCK) and secretin.
CCK stimulates the
release of digestive
enzymes from pancreas
- and bile from gallbladder.
Secretin stimulates
pancreas to release
bcarbonate.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 41.19c
Fat rich chyme
High levels of CCK and
Secretin are released,,,,,
Inhibit stomach peristalsis
Inhibit secretion of gastric
juices,,,,,
This slows digestion
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Regulation of Energy Storage
The body stores energy-rich molecules that are not needed for
metabolism right away
In humans, energy is stored first in the liver and muscle cells
in the polymer glycogen
Excess energy is stored in fat in adipose cells
When fewer calories are taken in than expended, the human
body expends liver glycogen first, then muscle glycogen and
fat
Glucose Homeostasis
Synthesis and breakdown of glycogen are central to
maintaining metabolic balance
The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the breakdown
of glycogen into glucose
The liver is the site for glucose homeostasis
A carbohydrate-rich meal raises insulin levels, which
triggers the synthesis of glycogen
Low blood sugar causes glucagon to stimulate the
breakdown of glycogen and release glucose
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Diabetes Mellitus
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.21
Secretion Transport of
of insulin Insulin glucose into
by beta body cells
cells of the and storage
pancreas of glucose
as glycogen
Blood glucose Blood glucose
level rises level falls.
(such as after eating).
NORMAL BLOOD
GLUCOSE
(70–110 mg glucose/
100 mL)
Blood glucose Blood glucose
level rises. level falls
(such as after fasting).
Secretion of
Breakdown of
glucagon by
glycogen and
alpha cells
release of
of the
glucose into blood Glucagon pancreas
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 42.21 Homeostatic regulation of cellular fuel
Insulin acts on nearly all body cells to stimulate glucose
uptake from blood
Brain cells are an exception; they can take up glucose
whether or not insulin is present
Glucagon and insulin are both produced in the islets of the
pancreas
Alpha cells make glucagon, and beta cells make insulin
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Diabetes Mellitus
The disease diabetes mellitus is caused by a deficiency of
insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues
If cells are unable to take up enough glucose to meet
metabolic needs, the level of glucose in the blood may
exceed the capacity of kidneys to reabsorb it (Sugar in the
urine is one test for diabetes).
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder in which the
immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas
It usually appears during childhood
Treatment consists of insulin injections, typically several
times per day.
Type 2 Diabetes
Type 2 diabetes, or non-insulin-dependent diabetes, is
characterized by a failure of target cells to respond normally
to insulin
Excess body weight and lack of exercise significantly
increase the risk of type 2 diabetes
It generally appears after age 40, but may develop earlier in
younger people who are sedentary
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Regulation of Appetite and Consumption
Overnourishment causes obesity, which results from
excessive intake of food energy with the excess stored as fat
Obesity contributes to type 2 diabetes, cancer of the colon
and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes
Researchers have discovered several of the mechanisms that
help regulate body weight.
Hormones regulate long-term and short-term appetite by
affecting a “satiety center” in the brain
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Ghrelin: a hormone secreted
by the stomach wall, triggers
feelings of hunger before meals
Insulin and Peptide YY: (PYY, a
hormone secreted by the small
intestine after meals, both
suppress appetite.
Leptin: a hormone produced by
adipose (fat) tissue, also
suppresses appetite and plays a
role in regulating body fat levels
Figure 42.UN04
Veins to heart Hepatic portal vein
Lymphatic system
Liver
Absorbed food Absorbed
Mouth Stomach (except lipids) water
Esophagus Lipids
Small intestine Anus
Secretions Secretions from
from gastric glands Secretions from liver
Rectum
salivary Secretions from pancreas Large
glands intestine
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.