CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

Instructional materials are materials which assist teachers to make their lessons explicit to learners.
They are used to transmit information, ideas and notes to learners (Ijaduala, 2017). It was stated that
instructional materials can be referred to as the widely variety of equipment and materials used for
teaching/learning by teachers to stimulate self-activity on the part of the pupils. Instructional materials
include both visual and audio-visual equipments. Visual equipments are those materials that you see.
These include; flashcards, posters, charts, textbooks, real objects, models, chalkboard, and so on. While
Audio-visual materials are those materials that stimulate both the visual (sight) and audio (hearing) senses
Examples are; computers, tape recorder, radios, videos, televisions among others. Their importance in the
teaching/ learning process is not to be over-emphasized. Brown, (2018) summarized the role of
instructional materials as follows:

i. It promotes meaningful communication, hence effective learning.

ii. It ensures retention, thus making learning more permanent.
iii. It helps to overcome the limitation of classroom by making the inaccessible accessible.
iv. They encourage participation especially if students are allowed to manipulate materials used.
Despite all these roles of instructional materials, most teachers still teach in our schools without
instructional materials, reasons being that they are not available or some concepts do not require
instructional materials. However some conceived that instructional materials cannot be improvised and
some reason that instructional materials are too difficult to manipulate or that instructional materials waste
a lot of time in the classroom. Usman and Adewumi, (2019).

2.1 The Concept of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials have been defined as “any systematic description of techniques and
exercises to be used in the classroom teaching” (Brown, 2017). This definition is in line with what the
study tries to find out on how the teacher use the materials and how the students respond to it since the
material itself consists of systematic exercises and techniques to use the exercises. Therefore, the study
tries to reveal the use of materials with appropriate exercises and techniques as perceived by the teachers
and the students.

1
Instructional materials exist in different forms of materials comprising textbooks, instructional aids
(novels, plays, computer software, etc), and supplementary materials (maps, magazines, study guides,
realias, workbooks, etc) (Richards, 2019). These forms of materials are important for the present study as
to know to a certain extend the use of different kinds of materials in the classroom and how the students
make responses to it.

The use of instructional materials can be seen from its relation to other elements. In practice,
instructional materials are interacted with other aspects of teaching, and how it interacts with curriculum,
methodology, teacher and students gives foundation to the role of the materials (Richards, 2019). The role
of the instructional materials is important in language teaching as it provides basis for the content of
lessons, the balance of skills taught, and the kinds of language practice students take part in (Richards,
2018). The use of instructional materials can be analyzed from material preparation process to material
implementation process (Byrd, 2018). These two steps from material preparation to implementation are
everyday task of the teacher to use the materials. Respectively, Cameron, (2017) refers the first to “task-
as-plan” and the second to “task-inaction”. These two processes, therefore, will be used for the framework
of the study. Before the advent of Western education in Nigeria, certain aspects of scientific knowledge
were included in traditional forms of education (Abdullahi, 2017).The arrival of the British missionaries
on the coast of Lagos in 1859 and subsequent establishment of churches and elementary schools in the
town of Topo near Badagry in 1861 marked the beginning of western education in Nigeria. Abdullahi,
(2017) notes, the foundations for science teaching in Nigeria were laid between 1861 and 1897 when the
rudiments of science were introduced in the timetable of some missionary primary schools and teacher
training colleges. The teaching of science in Nigerian secondary schools, however, commenced after 1931
with the establishment of secondary schools. Bajah, (2016) argues that the science curriculum in
secondary schools at that time was nature study, which involved learning about the environment, plants,
animals and non-living things. Consequently, the coverage and depth of science subjects taught in
secondary schools were very low due to the scarcity of trained teachers and resources for science
teaching (Abdullahi, 2017).

Very few students in secondary schools attempted science at external examinations conducted by
Oxford and Cambridge Examination Boards before 1931, while most of those students who attempted it,
failed (Abdullahi, 2017). Of significance is that, at that time, many parents were uneducated traders,
clergymen, carpenters, and fishermen and the few educated parents preferred sending their children abroad

2
to study law, medicine and humanity courses rather than science and this consequently led to little
progress being made in encouraging science education in Nigeria among the citizens.

The pressures from Nigerian nationals who had the opportunity to study abroad and the subsequent
Education Ordinances (i.e. legislation on education) led the colonial government to establish post-
secondary institutions and this marks the beginning of modern science teaching in Nigerian secondary
schools. The first post-secondary institution, Yaba College(which was later upgraded in 1963 to be known
as Yaba College of Technology) was established in 1932 and the first graduates from this college went to
secondary schools to teach science and lay the foundation for the development of an appropriate
curriculum in science for secondary students (Ogunleye, 2017).

A notable problem during this period was that the science curriculum was modelled on British
syllabi, with content and activities in science that were beyond the experience of the Nigerian students and
culturally inappropriate. Also, the science taught in secondary schools reflected the British requirements
and aspirations rather than those of Nigeria (Taiwo, 2015).

2.2 Characteristics of Good Instructional Materials

Good instructional materials are an important part of the process of instruction (Richards, 2019)
which is in principle having an underlying instructional philosophy, approach, method, and content,
including both linguistic and cultural information (Kitao and Kitao, 2017). In addition, the material itself
is basically written based on beliefs that the writers have about what language is and how it should be
taught.

Good materials, of course, are not easy to find and able to do many of the things that a teacher
would normally do as part of his or her teaching. In addition to the characteristics of instructional
materials mentioned above, referring to Rowntree, (2019) good materials should:

• Arouse the learners’ interest

• Remind them of earlier learning
• Tell them what they will be learning next
• Explain new learning content to them
• Relate these ideas to learners’ previous learning
• Get learners to think about new content

3
• Help them get feedback on their learning
• Encourage them to practice
• Make sure they know what they are supposed to be doing
• Enable them to check their progress
• Help them to do better

2.3 The roles of instructional materials in the science classroom

Instructional materials are highly important for teaching especially for inexperienced teachers. The
teachers rely on instructional materials in every aspect of teaching (Crist, 2018). They need materials for
background information on the subjects they are teaching. Young teachers find it difficult to express
themselves when they enter the classroom. Therefore they need instructional materials to help them.
Teachers often use instructional materials for lesson planning. These materials are also needed by teachers
to assess the knowledge of their students.

Teachers often assess students by assigning tasks, creating projects and administering
examinations. Instructional materials are essential for all these activities (Crist, 2018). These materials can
also help teachers create assignment and project ideas for students. Teachers are required to use several
different methods to assess their students in order to provide the most accurate assessments. Instructional
materials often provide innovative and creative ways to assess students’ performance. It is hard to imagine
any teacher who is capable of teaching effectively without accompaniment of instructional materials. In
addition to this, any teacher who is deprived of instructional materials must likely experience stress and
anxiety on daily basis (Crist, 2018).

Instructional materials are also designed to develop the learner to achieve his/her desires objectives
in a learning situation. Instructional materials bring science to bear in the classroom. Offorma in Usman
and Adewumi, (2016) stated that successful implementation of any curriculum is fully dependent on the
quality and quantity of instructional materials available to teachers and pupils for use in schools.
Instructional materials stimulate learner’s interest; help both the teacher and the learner to overcome
physical limitation during presentation of subject matter. Similarly, materials enrich learning and make it
more pleasurable. They are used as checks to the teachers’ knowledge and means of transmission.
Instructional materials also give the teacher the air of guidance, coordination, supervision and more time
for correction, brighten the classroom and bring variety in the class lesson (Eya, 2004). Usman, (2018)
described instructional materials as information carrying technologies that can be used for instruction.
4
Instructional materials have always held out in their different ways, the bright hope of delivery
educational information and experiences widely, quickly, vividly with realism and immediacy that printed
media could hardly achieve. A teacher for instant can explain and describe a pipette or burette but it is
very hard to tell the students exactly what a pipette or burette looks like without a picture for clarity. The
picture of a pipette or burette is an instructional material that would help the students to understand the
lesson.

Betiku, (2018) explained that the term instructional material comprise all available and accessible,
theoretical, practical and skill oriented resources, which facilitate the learning acquisition and evaluation
of vocational technical skills. According to him they integrate all the devices that assist in transmitting the
facts, skills, attitudes and knowledge to the learners within the instructional system and as may be applied
in the word of work. Usman and Adewumi, (2016) observed that instructional materials have been found
to enhance the quality of the learning experience for learning in many ways. Among them are; they
improve multi-sensory and multi-image factors responsible for inability of teachers to improvise
instructional materials for the teaching and learning of science.

2.4 Influence of Instructional Materials in the teaching and learning process

The age at which children enter primary school today makes the use of instructional materials very
expedient. This age between 3 – 9 years falls within Piaget concrete and preoperational stages of
intellectual development. However Maduabum, (2007) asserted that various devices exist that can be
employed to assist in the teaching learning process especially in the junior secondary Schools. Such
devices vary from simple locally made to complex and sophisticated instructional media like radio sets,
televisions, film trips, projectors, computers, and so on. Some of them are designed and cannot be
available in the child’s ordinary classroom experience. The teacher’s task as a communicator, facilitator,
modelin identification of figures, can be supported by a wise use of a variety of instructional materials that
expand significantly.

Most research findings from the works of Sisteiland, (2017), emphasized the use of instructional
materials as aids for effective learning. He noted that availability and application of instructional materials
is advancement in teaching. He stated that instructional materials do not only help to bring about an
enhanced respect for the teachers knowledge of the subject but instructional materials are important
because with them learners have a clear view of what is being taught. It helps in getting attention of the

5
students. With instructional materials the class is more realities and it gives a view point on the topic.
Instructional materials help the teacher to teach well as to make her lesson clear and understandable to the
students Ogunleye, (2017) reported that instructional materials were inadequate in secondary Schools in
Nigeria. They further stated that the available ones are not usually in good conditions. However, a
professionally qualified science teacher no matter how well trained would be unable to put his ideas into
practice if the school setting lacks the equipment and materials necessary for him or her to translate his/her
competence into reality.

Thus, science is resource intensive, and in a period of economic recession, it may be very difficult
to find some of the electronic gadgets and equipment for the teaching and learning of basic science in
schools. Thus simple materials are needed for scientific instructions. Kindler as quoted by Fakunle (2018)
declared that people generally remember 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, 30% of what
they see, 50% of what they hear and see, 70% of what they say and 90% of what they say and they do. He
stated that Chinese concluded that: I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I understand. Thus instructional
materials cannot be left outside in the teaching and learning process especially in basic science, which is
the bedrock of scientific and technological development.

Educational resources have played great significance in the various school systems including
secondary schools. They are important tools for teaching and learning. Shazia (2019) pointing out the
importance of teaching resources in the school opined that teachers use different materials to teach their
students for effective learning. To Nwaham (2019), school resources are materials, equipment, facilities,
amenities, instructional materials, buildings or finance (money) available in the school which aids to
improve teaching and learning. They arouse the interest of learners and help the teachers to explain the
concepts easily. In the same vein, Aila (2018) pointed out that teaching resources are vital because they
are used to enhance teaching and learning, generate more interest and create a situation where the students
would fully engage in classroom activities

Nzeneri (2010) opined that teaching effectiveness demand the use of appropriate resources to
facilitate and improve the quality of instruction and to benefit greater number of learners. It aids the
attainment both instructional objectives and educational goals. Chang (2009) was of the opinion that the
use of teaching resources would make discovered facts glue firmly to the memory of students. Slavin
(2010) also added that, a well planned and imaginative use of visual resources in lessons should do much
to banish apathy, supplement inadequacy of books as well as arouse student’s interest by giving them

6
something practical to see and do, and at the same time helping to train them to think things out
themselves. Slavin further suggested a catalogue of useful visual aids that are good for teaching subject as
English Language like pictures, diagrams, maps, film strips and models. The selection of materials which
are related to the basic contents of a course or a lesson helps in-depth understanding of such a lesson by
the students in that they make the lesson attractive to them, arresting their attention and thus motivating
them to learn. In this regards, school heads should ensure that resources are extensively available and
utilized for teachers to enable everyone in the classroom situation to participate actively.

2.5 Integrated Materials as Aids in the Teaching and Learning of Basic Science

In any educational system the most prevailing factor dominating over other educational needs is
the need for the students to understand the teaching and the lesson of the subject. However, this may not
be achieved until the teacher as the custodian of knowledge have the proper understanding of the subject
matter, properly employed instructional materials and adopted suitable method in the teaching of the
subject; this is with view to make the learning interesting and pleasurable (Chaudian, 2019). He described
instructional material as a means of motivation of learning, to supplement the written of spoken words in
the transmission of knowledge, attitude and ideas. It is also for emphasis to clarify or vitalize the
instruction he added. The teaching can be made more effective by the use of locally available instructional
materials. The concern of a teacher always is to convey his message to his students in the most simple,
convincing and practical way. Some teachers have a strong belief in recitation as the only mean of
remembering what has been learnt at the expense of practical instruction. This idea supported Olaitan &
Agusiobo, (2018) who also hold that it should be emphasized that although all teachers use some visual
instructional material; many do not use them. In a nut shell this stressed that some teachers have
misconception about instructional materials that they have to be sophisticated or imported before they
become effectively use.

Anzaku, (2016) viewed that any teacher who is concerned about his students is bound to give
thought to anything that is likely to help them to learn during teaching and learning processes as direct
experience is the best teacher. The teacher must have the proper knowledge of how to utilize the
instructional materials to appeal to the students’ senses of seeing, hearing, smelling, testing and touching.
He can only appeal to all these senses if he has the proper knowledge of instructional material and utilize
them effectively to make teaching interesting to students especially of basic sciences. He further clarified
that unlike teachers in those days who relied on few or no materials in their teaching just because they had

7
the believed that they could force knowledge no matter how unpleasant it might be into the supposedly
empty brain of their students. But modern teaching today belief that learning should consist of pleasurable
activities for the learners so that the students can develop interest in the subject and to it will provide to
students the adequate skill.

Selecting instructional materials will help into teaching the lesson and more importantly the learner
to acquire the necessary knowledge (FGN, 2014). It is further said that instructional materials most
certainly accelerate the rate at which students learn and also make teaching and learning interesting and
comparatively easy. Teachers therefore, should consider selecting materials to suit the age of the students
they teach, so that at the end of their lesson, their objective will be achieved and there will be a change in
the behaviour due to experience they had in the course to teaching and learning with the audio and visual
materials. It was observed by Balogun, (2016) that lack of qualified teachers to teach in junior secondary
schools have rendered teaching ineffective, realistic and meaningful teaching are very difficult to achieve
due to improper utilization of instructional materials and their inadequacy in most secondary schools lead
to poor performance of students in basic sciences in our junior Secondary School Certificate Examination.
Lack of staff motivation has also reduced the level of commitment among teachers, since the teaching is a
student (child) centered activity. Some teachers see the use of instructional resources as cumbersome, time
wasting, and it can lead to easy understanding of the subject by the students.

 Types of Teaching Resources

Balogun, (2016) examines some of the divisions of instructional materials as relate to their
importance. This will enable us understand terminologies like visual instructional material, projected and
non-projected materials, hardware and software resources and so on. The categories of the aids are as
follows: Audio aids: these include record players, tape recorder and recording from radio program.
Another category is visual aids which involves three dimensional (3D) objects or projects and so on.
Instructional material is another category. It comprises of text books, real objects, maps. Projected
material is the category that includes film slide, film strip. Non-projected materials category among such
includes maps and globes. Lastly audio visual provides students with audio and visual experience by
appearing to the hearing and seeing sense at the same time. As there is special apparatus in teaching and
learning process in secondary schools from such teaching and learning; thus, it could almost have endless
categories of items. Basically instructional materials are classified into three groups: Visual resources,
Audio resources and Audio visual resources.

8
  Visual Teaching Resources

These are teaching and learning devices that appeal mostly to the visual sense. In this category, we
have such devices like simple visual devices like pictures such as slides, film strip, and transparencies.
Also they are inexpensive, often simple to use and above all clear and impressive in their presentation
(Opara, 2015).

 Audio Teaching Resources

These are teaching devices appeal mostly to auditory sense. They consist of radio programs, audio
recordings such as cassettes, compact disc records and mp3. Some examples of these media are devices
like the telephone and radios walkie-talkie. Since audio aids appeals mostly to the auditory sense, for them
to be effective, pupils must not be auditory impaired. Radios, records players, tape recorders and mp3s
that are becoming common house hold items could be judiciously and effectively utilized in the classroom
as well (Opara, 2015).

 Audio-Visual Teaching Resources

These are instructional devices that have the capacity to provide the features of audio and visual media
simultaneously. Opara, (2015). On this note also asserted that typical of media in this category are the
television, video taped programs/recordings, sound films, film strips and slides with synchronized sound.
These are often produces commercially and sold to the other kinds of apparatus are expensive and not
available to schools, such as projectors, opaque projectors and overhead projectors. They further however
said, time immemorial, audio-visual materials existed but were not incorporated into educational system

 Pictures and Maps

With regards to these Opara, (2015). opined that pictures also provide date which can be critically
examined through carefully observed map. Instructors usually use map of some kinds, but many in rural
area especially in primary schools have none at all. So sometime where maps are available they are not
relevant to use. It is therefore important that it is up to date and relevant map be among reference materials
in the schools or class library or in the personal library of every teacher. He added maps should not be
drawn on the board. Because they cannot be preserved until you need them again. Samuel & Ameh (2017)
further added that it is better to draw the maps on materials which may be preserved in case of used
frequently especially such map of States, Nigeria and Africa. These may equally be printed on the outside

9
walls with the permission of the authorities, like that of the world continents. Producing of maps and those
of complete active and valuable learning activities is a useful resource which can extend the value of any
large piece of clean plastic or paper which can be long over the map. It can then be drawn upon with
charcoal or soft crayons to indicate roads, foundries, historical place and other useful feature. It can be
printed even on the plastics which can be carefully cleaned and place well and be reused frequently.

 Graphs and Charts

Graphs and chart are useful ways of illustrating information in dramatic visual presentation. Graphs
are of various types; bar graphs, line graphs, pictorial graphs, circle (pie) graphs which could be drawn or
placed on notice board, flamed board and chalk board (Samuel & Ameh, 2017)

 Radio and Television

Radio is more useful since some types may be uses without electricity, this can be used to tape a radio
broadcast which can be repeated at any time. Tape recorder is among the most useful piece of equipment.
Tape can be replayed over and over. Speeches of the guest speaker can be kept and use by other students
at other time. A panel discussion, debate or cultural music and drama can be kept filed and used again
(Samuel & Ameh, 2017)

 Reading Materials

Most schooling has to do with reading materials as the first resource. A student that read well can
succeed in school. Teachers need to select book and other reading materials to become consistent with the
objective of the subject. Textbook is the most frequently used reading materials. The book has certain
advantage in the subject in a meaningful way and they providing assorting place of learning. Book equally
has disadvantages to both the students and the teachers, thereby becoming over dependent upon it Ngozi,
Samuel & Ameh, 2017) indicated that students learn fast and better when they are motivated properly
through different teaching aids. This is because teaching aids develop the proper image when the students
see, hear, taste and smell properly. It also creates the environment of interest for the student.

2.6 Teacher Attitude towards the Learning of Basic Science

One fact is clear beyond any doubt: governments, educators and stakeholders alike appreciate the
importance of science and its product – technology, to the development of any nation. The importance of

10
technology particularly basic technology in the technological development of a nation cannot be
overemphasized. To ensure a meaningful teaching-learning process, the new Basic Education Curriculum
is designed to respond to the ideals of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the goals of
Education for All (EFA) as well the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy
(NEEDS). The Basic Education Curriculum lays a strong foundation for basic scientific and technological
skills, among others. It can thus be seen that the teacher's attitude is very crucial in curriculum
implementation. Shukla, (2021).

The attitude of a teacher, consciously or unconsciously, can greatly affect students' academic
performance. In the literature, there have been many research studies on the effect of different
instructional strategies on student's attitudes (Adedapo, 2013). A common hypothesis concerning teacher's
attitudes and student's achievement seems to be like students taught using the right approach or attitude
achieved at a higher level because their teachers have displayed the right attitude among others to deal
with different types of classroom problems. After all, it has been established that teachers' attitudes highly
influence students' interest in learning. A study of teachers' characteristics and students' learning Oyediran
(2019) reported that teachers' qualifications, experiences and subject knowledge were positively related to
students' learning. In a study conducted by Adedapo, (2013). the qualification and experience of the
teacher influenced the mastery of some Basicscience concepts by students. A teacher's attitude is said to
affect the way he presents the material to the students, which in turn affects students' achievement
(Adedapo, 2013). In a study of the relationship between science teacher characteristics and students'
achievement and attitude, Oyediran, (2019) reported that teachers' knowledge of the processes of science
and teachers' attitudes towards science teaching was positively related to students' achievement in science
and students' achievements and attitudes respectively.

Moreover, the personality traits of the teachers are more powerful and influential than the course
contents or instructional strategies used in the classroom (Adedapo, 2013). If a teacher appears not
interested or careful about a particular subject or student, he/she will be unable to foster a supportive
learning environment. In addition to that, teachers with negative attitudes may not be as approachable to
students as teachers who are positively motivated. So students may find it difficult to approach the teacher
in their free time to clear their doubts on the grey areas of the subject he/she teaches.

11
2.7 Teacher Factor and Academic Performance in Basic Science

In Nigerian schools today, teacher quality is a priority area in the education policy. Science plays
an important role in the scientific and technological development of a nation. Salamt, (2019), explained
that student’s performance (academic achievement) plays an important role in producing the best quality
graduates who will become great leaders and manpower for the country. Balogun, (2016) stated that
success of any teaching and learning process which invariably influences students’ academic performance
depends on how effective and efficient the teachers are.

According to Reid, (2015), learning preference refers to a persons “natural, habitual and preferred
way” of assimilating new information. It means that students differ in ways they understand the
instruction that are more effective for them. He reported that some students seem to learn better when
information is presented through words (verbal learners), whereas others seem to learn better when it is
presented in the form of pictures (visual learner). Students learning processes differ, some will like the
teacher to come to class with instructional materialS which helps them to recall during examination while
others will like the teacher to teach verbally.

Views and empirical studies have been analyzed that poor performance of students in junior
secondary schools In Ilesa East Local Government Area have been blamed on teachers qualifications, poor
quality of teaching, teacher’s method of teaching, lack of qualified and experienced science teachers and
poor infrastructure. Over the year, student’s performance in Basics Science has not been encouraging. The
poor performance of students in junior secondary school certificate is very evident in the number of
students that enroll for science including technical and scientific studies related to the subject of the junior
secondary school level which also goes further to affect there enrolment at the senior secondary school.
Reid, (2015).

Specifically, highly qualified teachers are required to;

1. have sufficient subject matter knowledge and teaching skills.

2. hold at least a National Certificate in Education (NCE).
Balogun, (2016) stated that teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, pupils and methodology and
techniques of imparting knowledge are great attributes which have significant effects on their academic
performance. He explained further that for students to perform well in any examination, one of the

12
prerequisites is that their teachers must know them and have profound knowledge of their state of
physical, intellectual and psychological readiness. The teacher must be well versed in the content of the
subject matter he/she is teaching. He must know the appropriate method to adopt in different situations.

It is noted that the success of students in any examination depends largely on qualified and
dedicated teachers. If the teachers are qualified and have mastery of their subjects, that will improve the
performance of the students. Oshodi (1998), Dujilemi (2002), reiterated that students in any country
cannot perform beyond the quality of the teachers. In his own contribution, Bangbade (2004), found out
that teachers attributes have significant relationship with students’ academic performance. According to
him, such attributes include teacher’s knowledge of the subject matter, communication ability, emotional
stability, good human relationship with the students and interest in the job. He concluded that students
whose teachers lack the knowledge of the subject matter, who have poor communication ability, poor
emotional stability and lack of interest in the job perform poorly. Adeyemo (2019), opined that apart from
the basic entry qualifications teachers possess, other attributes greatly influence their efficiency and
effectiveness which invariably influence student’s academic performance.

Alimi and Balogun (2019) stated that teachers’ knowledge of the subject matter, pupils and
methodology and techniques of imparting knowledge are great attributes which have significant effects on
their academic performance. Rena (2019) explained further that for students to perform well in any
examination, one of the prerequisites is that their teachers must know them and have profound knowledge
of their state of physical, intellectual and psychological readiness. The teacher must be well versed in the
content of the subject matter he/she is teaching. He must know the appropriate method to adopt in
different situations. Babajide (2001) found out that the poor quality of teachers in the secondary schools in
the state have a negative influence on the students’ academic performance in both internal and external
examinations.

He concluded that one of the measures to adopt in the state to improve students’ academic
performance was re-orientation of teachers, by organizing in service training for them and through an
adequate screening of candidates to be recruited so that the best candidates are appointed. In an effort to
improve student achievement, some educational research has focused on the development of highly
qualified teachers. Fenstermacher and Richardson, cited in Berliner, (2015) distinguish between good
teaching and successful teaching as follows. By “good teaching” we meant that the content taught accords
with disciplinary stands of adequacy and completeness and the method employed are age-appropriate,

13
morally defensible and competence with respect to content. By “successful teaching” we mean that the
learner actually acquires some reasonable and acceptable level of proficiency from what the teacher is
engaged in teaching. Alexander (2015), states that the tendency to evaluate teacher qualities on the basis
of student performance is given even greater emphasis. With the increased demands for accountability in
line with performance standards, students’ achievement is considered an accurate measure of teacher
effectiveness and has become a basis for value added teacher assessment system. Lochran (2019) argues
that “the outcome” question is what currently motivates teacher education. She set down three ways in
which outcomes of teacher education are constructed. One of them is long term impact outcome (refers to
the relationships) between teacher qualifications and student learning. Teacher qualification encompasses
teachers’ scores on tests and examinations, their years of experience, the extent of their preparations in
subject matter and what qualifications they hold in their area of expertise and their on-going professional
development. He went on to posit that the relationship between teacher qualification and student learning
as the percentage of variance in student scores accounted for by teachers qualifications when other
variables are held constant or adjusted

2.8 Problems in using Instructional Materials

At this juncture, teachers of today want to start their professional carrier with a strong desire to do
their best in teaching job. In fact, many are not satisfied to teach as well as their teachers taught them but
are prepared too much better by a broad mastering of subject matter content, professional techniques and
the effective use of instructional materials. Moreover, the children of today are growing up in a digital
world of mass information and as a result, the good teacher in order to conform to this trend should
employ all such resources as pictures, illustrations, television or radio and many other digital audio-visual
materials in daily lessons (Opara, 2015). While all these new techniques and equipment are being
introduced into many of our educational instructions, it is discouraging to point out that most of schools in
which the new techniques are to be demonstrated are not enriched with necessary equipment that will
facilitate the teachers work in the modern ways. Most importantly, many of the secondary and elementary
schools are not installed with electricity let aside supply of the necessary modern digital tools. This creates
problems in the use of such material as computers, television, film, chips and other electrical and digital
equipment. In most of the resource centres in towns or in schools they were not adequately equipped to
provide the essential facilities in the production use and storage of instructional materials. A resource
centre which is considered as a place where a wide range and variety of educational materials and

14
equipment or information carriers are created, stored and retrieved; it is now quite disappointing that
majority of the centers in Nigerian educational institutions at all levels are merely the building without the
necessary instructional materials or readymade materials in stock (Doosuur & Sandra, 2017).

Most of the readymade instructional materials purchased and stocked in our resource centre or
school libraries are normally out dated, old fashion and not in tune with modern day techniques and
practices. Also, the cost of producing materials like textbook, workbooks programmed text, firm and so on
is very high or expensive which makes it difficult to produce enough and add adequate readymade
instructional materials (Samuel & Ameh, 2017). However, the problems associated with readymade
instructional materials can be summarized as follows: Inadequate supply to schools and resource centers
and improper handling and use by school management and teachers. Secondly, it has to do with poor
storage facilities in the resource centers and libraries. Insufficient finance or resources to provide
instructional materials has been another long lasting bottle neck. Thirdly, it involved incompetence of
most teachers on how to operate and make use of modern and digital instructional materials which go
along with problems in selecting and utilizing the appropriate materials.

In spite of the advantages of instructional materials, there are problems confronting their selection

in Islamic Studies. Among these problems are

Lack of Fund: There is no adequate support or patronage from the government and school

administrators to encourage teachers of Basic science in preparing instructional materials/resources. Some

of the materials are very expensive to provide by teachers. F o r example, projected, electronic mass media

and media that are retaining permanent knowledge to the students

Teacher’s Attitude: Many of the school teachers are ignorant of using, those instructional
materials and induction course, lecture: and seminars are not organized in teaching profession as they are
organized in the civil services to up-grade knowledge and to facilitate the use of sophisticated instructional
materials. Teachers also do not make maximum use of the few instructional materials at their disposal,
because many of them do not have the knowledge of operating them

Learner's Attitude: Many learners are not interested in choosing Islamic Studies as a Pcareer,

hence, they are ashamed and feel unconcern in supporting the teachers in the necessary training on the use

15
and preparation of instructional materials. Also, the stealing of those instructional materials and problem

of the students mishandling those instructional materials while teachers are not in the classroom, there is

the problem of not leaving the instructional materials in the classroom, so that student can make use of

them at their leisure and convenient time

Lack of facilities: Like resource room, - prostration room and library. Many schools have no good

building to store materials' for safety and on the part of those who have neglect Islamic Studies and held

the belief that it is not essential part of its teachings

In conclusion

Many researchers have written on what instructional are and much is being said about the place of
teaching aids in the teaching and learning process. Studying basic sciences should be effectively
accompanied by the use of physical and concrete object as teaching aids which does not only make
learning interesting, effective and meaningful but also conceptualized the concept taught. This is because
teaching aids help both the teacher and students in learning general rules and concepts. Thus, there is a
need to always use teaching aid when teaching Basic Sciences in Junior Secondary Schools. Teaching aids
help both the teachers and students in learning general rules and concepts. However, there is a need to use
teaching aid when teaching of basic sciences especially at Junior Secondary Schools level because of the
comprehensive nature of the subject which at later stage or in Senior Secondary Schools level may split
into various subjects such as Physic, Biology, and Chemistry. Based on the discussion of this paper, it can
be concluded that there is a significant difference in students’ academic practical performance in basic
science when relevant teaching aids are used by teachers or not. Therefore to obtain good results its better
if teaching aids were adequately provided and employed than when instructional materials were not used.
Also, teachers can improve very well in both their performance and mastery of the subject matter when
they endeavour to acquire, learn and understand modern tools, or else provide by improvising teaching
aids locally were necessary.

16