1.

Cotton (Cellulose Fiber)

• Reactive groups in fiber: –OH hydroxyl groups.
• Bond compatibility:
o Reactive dyes → Fiber –OH reacts with dye reactive group (e.g., –Cl, –SO₂–, –COOR).
Forms covalent bond → very strong, wash-fast.
o Fiber –OH + Dye–Cl → Fiber–O–Dye + HCl
o Direct dyes → Dye molecules attach via hydrogen bonds & Van der Waals forces with
cellulose –OH. Not very strong (low wash fastness).
o Vat dyes → In reduced soluble form, penetrate cellulose, then oxidize inside fiber →
physical entrapment.

Compatibility: Cotton prefers dyes that can form covalent or strong hydrogen bonding.

2. Silk (Protein Fiber – Fibroin)

• Reactive groups in fiber: –NH₂ (amino), –COOH (carboxyl), –OH (hydroxyl) from
amino acids.
• Bond compatibility:
o Acid dyes → Fiber –NH₃⁺ (from amino groups) bonds ionically with dye –SO₃⁻ group.
o Fiber –NH₃⁺ + Dye –SO₃⁻ → Ionic bond
o Reactive dyes → Form covalent bonds with –NH₂ or –OH groups.
o Metal-complex dyes → Coordination bond between dye metal ion and silk amino
groups.

Compatibility: Silk accepts dyes well because it has multiple reactive sites (ionic +
covalent + coordinate bonding).

3. Wool (Protein Fiber – Keratin)

• Reactive groups in fiber: –NH₂, –COOH, –SH (sulfur from cystine), peptide linkages.
• Bond compatibility:
o Acid dyes → Wool –NH₃⁺ ↔ Dye –SO₃⁻ (ionic bond).
o Reactive dyes → Covalent bond with amino groups.
o Chrome dyes → Wool + metal ion + dye → chelation/coordination bond (very strong).
o Hydrophobic interactions (with some dyes) also possible.
 Compatibility: Wool is versatile in bonding → ionic, covalent, and coordinate bonds
possible.

4. Jute (Lignocellulosic Fiber)

• Reactive groups in fiber: –OH (from cellulose), but lignin reduces accessibility.
• Bond compatibility:
o Direct dyes → Hydrogen bonding with –OH groups.
o Basic dyes → Cationic dye ↔ Anionic acidic sites in hemicellulose/lignin →
ionic bond.
o Vat dyes → Physical entrapment after oxidation.

Compatibility: Jute has limited dyeability due to lignin, but basic and direct dyes can bond
reasonably.

5. Viscose (Regenerated Cellulose Fiber)

• Reactive groups in fiber: –OH (like cotton but more amorphous & porous).
• Bond compatibility:
o Reactive dyes → Covalent bond with –OH groups (same as cotton but stronger
uptake due to porosity).
o Direct dyes → Hydrogen bonds (better shades than cotton, but low fastness).
o Vat dyes → Penetration + oxidation → physical entrapment.

Compatibility: Viscose bonds better than cotton (more amorphous → dye diffusion is
easier).

Bond Compatibility Summary Table

Fiber Reactive Groups Dye Classes Bond Type
Cotton –OH Reactive, Direct, Vat Covalent, Hydrogen bond,
Entrapment
Silk –NH₂, –COOH, – Acid, Reactive, Metal- Ionic, Covalent, Coordination
OH complex
Wool –NH₂, –COOH, – Acid, Chrome, Reactive Ionic, Covalent, Coordination
SH
 Jute –OH, Lignin sites Basic, Direct, Vat Hydrogen bond, Ionic,
Entrapment
Viscose –OH (amorphous) Reactive, Direct, Vat Covalent, Hydrogen bond,
Entrapment

Dyebath Conditions for Different Fibers

Fiber Dye Type Dyebath Temp pH Range Time Notes
(°C) (min)
Cotton Reactive 50–60 9–11 45–60 Cold/medium temp
dye prevents hydrolysis;
covalent bond formation
with –OH.
Direct 90–100 9–10 60–90 Requires high temp for
dye penetration; H-bond
attachment.
Vat dye 50–60 11–13 60– Reduced soluble form
(reduction), 90– (reduction) 120 penetrates, oxidized in
100 (oxidation) fiber; high fastness.
Sulphur 90–95 11–12 60–90 Hot bath for reduction and
dye penetration.
Silk Acid dye 50–60 4–5 30–60 Ionic bond between –NH₃⁺
groups and –SO₃⁻ dye;
gentle temp preserves fiber.
Reactive 40–60 8–9 30–60 Covalent bond formation
dye with –NH₂/–OH groups.
Metal- 50–60 4–5 30–60 Coordination bond
complex formation; slow heating
ensures uniform uptake.
Natural 60–70 4–6 30–60 Pre-mordanting improves
dyes fastness.
Wool Acid dye 45–60 4–5 30–60 Ionic bond; avoid >65°C to
prevent felting.
 Reactive 40–50 8–9 30–60 Covalent bonding with
dye amino groups; mild temp
required.
Chrome 50–60 3–5 30–60 Metal chelation; strong
dye fastness.
Natural 50–60 4–5 30–60 Wool receptive; gentle
dyes heating.
Jute Direct 90–100 9–10 60–90 Hydrogen bonding;
dye pretreatment improves
uptake.
Basic dye 60–80 9–10 30–60 Ionic bond with acidic sites
in fiber; moderate temp.
Vat dye 50–60 11–13 60– Physical entrapment inside
(reduction), 90– (reduction) 120 fiber; high fastness.
100 (oxidation)
Reactive 50–60 9–11 45–60 Pretreatment needed due to
dye lignin; covalent bond with –
OH.
Viscose Reactive 50–60 9–11 45–60 Covalent bond formation;
dye high dye uptake due to
amorphous cellulose.
Direct 90–100 9–10 60–90 Hydrogen bonding; bright
dye shades.
Vat dye 50–60 11–13 60– Penetrates amorphous
(reduction), 90– (reduction) 120 regions; oxidized to
100 (oxidation) insoluble form.
Acid dye 50–60 4–5 30–60 Rarely used; ionic bonding
possible but uncommon.

Key Observations
1. Protein fibers (silk, wool) → Acidic bath (pH 4–5) preserves structure and allows ionic
bonding.
2. Cellulosic fibers (cotton, viscose, jute) → Alkaline bath (pH 9–11) needed for
reactive/vat dye covalent bonding.
 3. Temperature → High for cellulose (direct/vat), moderate for protein fibers to avoid
felting.
4. Time → Longer for high penetration dyes (vat, direct), shorter for reactive/acid dyes.

1. Cotton (Cellulosic Fiber)

Dye Migration Process:
1. Diffusion from dyebath: Dye molecules move from high concentration (bath) to low
concentration (fiber surface).
2. Surface adsorption: Dye molecules first attach to fiber surface via hydrogen bonds or
Van der Waals forces.
3. Diffusion into fiber interior: Dye penetrates amorphous regions of cellulose; crystalline
regions resist penetration.
4. Chemical bonding:
o Reactive dye: Forms covalent bond with –OH groups.
o Direct dye: Remains mostly physically adsorbed via hydrogen bonds.
5. Fixation: Heat, alkali, or oxidation (for vat dyes) completes bond formation and prevents
washout.
Factors affecting migration: Temperature, dye concentration, fiber moisture, agitation.

2. Silk (Protein Fiber)

Dye Migration Process:
1. Diffusion into fiber: Small dye molecules penetrate through the gaps between fibroin
molecules.
2. Surface attachment: Dye interacts with fiber’s –NH₂, –COOH groups.
3. Ionic/Covalent bonding:
o Acid dye: Ionic bond with –NH₃⁺.
o Reactive dye: Covalent bond with –OH or –NH₂.
4. Fixation: Mild heat and acid bath stabilize the dye inside the fiber.
Notes: Silk is highly amorphous → dye migration is rapid and uniform → bright, deep colors.
3. Wool (Protein Fiber)
Dye Migration Process:
1. Swelling of fiber: Wool absorbs water → scales open slightly → easier dye penetration.
2. Diffusion: Dye molecules move along amorphous keratin regions inside fiber.
3. Surface adsorption: Dye attaches to accessible –NH₂ and –COOH groups.
4. Bond formation:
o Acid dye → ionic bond.
o Chrome dye → coordinate bond.
o Reactive dye → covalent bond.
5. Fixation: Maintains fiber strength and color fastness.
Notes: Wool is heat-sensitive → slow, controlled migration prevents felting and uneven shades.

4. Jute (Lignocellulosic Fiber)

Dye Migration Process:
1. Diffusion into fiber surface: Dye penetrates cellulose-rich regions.
2. Obstruction by lignin: Lignin in jute reduces migration → dye stays mostly on surface.
3. Adsorption: Hydrogen bonds or ionic bonds form with cellulose or hemicellulose
groups.
4. Fixation: High temperature or chemical treatment helps bind dye.
Notes: Migration is slower and less uniform than cotton or viscose → often requires
pretreatment to remove lignin/wax for better dye penetration.

5. Viscose (Regenerated Cellulose Fiber)

Dye Migration Process:
1. Rapid diffusion: Amorphous cellulose regions absorb water → dye molecules diffuse
quickly.
2. Surface adsorption: Dye first attaches to fiber surface via hydrogen bonds.
3. Chemical bonding:
o Reactive dye → covalent bond with –OH.
 o Direct dye → hydrogen bond.
4. Fixation: Heat or alkali completes bonding.
Notes: Migration is faster and deeper than cotton due to higher amorphous content → brighter
shades and better uniformity.