ELS 100a History of the English Language

ELS 100: HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, a three-unit course, designed for
Bachelor of Arts in English students, provides a detailed exploration of the historical
development of the English language, tracing its evolution from Old English to its present
status as a global language. The curriculum emphasizes the significant transformations in
English grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation from the Old English period to the
modern era.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The course will examine major social and political events in England, including the
Anglo-Saxon Conquest, the Danish Invasion, and the Norman Conquest, analyzing their
profound effects on the trajectory of the English language. Additional areas of focus
include the rise of the middle class, the advent of dictionaries, the Great Vowel Shift, the
contributions of 18th-century grammarians, the global dissemination of English, and the
emergence of World Englishes.

LEARNING OUTCOMES AND COMPETENCIES

The overarching aim of this course is to furnish students with a robust

understanding of the historical forces that have shaped the English language. Students
will gain insights into how social events, political changes, and scientific advancements
have left indelible marks on the language, particularly in its lexicon. The course will
elucidate the ways in which socio-political shifts in England have influenced linguistic
development and will investigate the factors that have facilitated the global expansion of
English.

COURSE AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Comprising three units, each with specific learning objectives, this course is
designed to:

1. introduce students to the historical continuum of the English language,

from its earliest origins to its contemporary role as a global lingua franca;

2. highlight pivotal events that have significantly influenced the emergence

and growth of English;

3. familiarize with the major diachronic changes in English grammar,

vocabulary, and pronunciation; and

4. prepare students for advanced academic pursuits in the study of English as

a world language.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:

• trace the historical evolution of the English language from the Old English
period to the present day;

• identify key milestones and stages in the development of English;

• describe the historical events that have shaped the emergence and
evolution of English;

• explain the factors that have contributed to the growth of English as a

global language;

• analyze and discuss significant diachronic changes in English grammar,

vocabulary, and pronunciation; and

• engage in advanced studies and research pertaining to the development of

English as a world language.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

UNIT 1- OLD ENGLISH (450-1100AD)

LESSON 1 ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THE ROOTS; THE LANGUAGE

SITUATION IN ENGLAND BEFORE ENGLISH; THE ROMAN
CONQUEST

INTRODUCTION

Every language possesses roots and a history, and English is no exception. To

understand the origins of English, we must delve into its past. The history of English is
broadly divided into three periods: Old English (450-1100 AD), Middle English (1100-
1500 AD), and Modern English (1500 AD-present). This unit provides background
knowledge on the origin of English and the environment that fostered Old English. We
will explore the language family to which English belongs, the earliest inhabitants of
Britain and their languages, and how socio-political changes impacted their culture,
recognizing that language is an integral part of a people's culture.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

1. trace the origin of the English Language;

2. identify other languages within the Indo-European family; and
3. explain how languages influenced the region before the emergence of
English.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

ENGLISH LANGUAGE: THE ROOTS

English did not originate in England. The image below illustrates a simplified
language family tree, specifically focusing on the Indo-European language family where
English originated. This family is one of the largest and most widely spoken language
families in the world.

• Indo-European: At the top, this represents the proto-language from which

many languages across Europe and Western and Southern Asia are derived.

• Germanic and Latin: The tree splits into two major branches:

◦ Germanic languages (shown in blue): These include English,

Dutch, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, and German.

◦ Latin/Romance languages (shown in orange): These include

Portuguese, French, Italian, and Spanish.

The diagram shows how languages evolved and diversified over time from a
common ancestor.

Figure 1. Indo-European language family

The next image presents a family tree illustrating the relationships between
languages within the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. It shows
how these languages have evolved and branched out from a common ancestor known as
Proto-Germanic.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

• Proto-Germanic: This is the reconstructed ancestor of all Germanic

languages. It is not directly attested in written records but has been inferred through
comparative linguistics.

1. West Germanic:

◦ Anglo-Frisian: Includes languages like English and Frisian.

◦ Netherlandic-German: Includes Dutch and German.

2. North Germanic:

◦ West Scandinavian: Includes Icelandic, Faroese, and Norwegian.

◦ East Scandinavian: Includes Danish and Swedish.

3. East Germanic: Only represented by Gothic, which is now extinct.

Figure 2. Germanic Language Family Tree

THE LANGUAGE SITUATION IN ENGLAND BEFORE ENGLISH

English arrived in England around the middle of the 5th century, but Britain had
been inhabited for thousands of years prior. The earliest known inhabitants, the Celts,
spoke Celtic languages, which are another branch of the Indo-European family. Celtic
languages were extensive in England, and some are still spoken in parts of Wales and the
Scottish Highlands. Although Latin was later introduced, Celtic remained the language of
the populace, especially in rural areas. The Celts were present in Spain, West Germany,
Italy, and Great Britain at the beginning of the Christian era. Today, Celtic languages are
mainly found in remote areas of France and Britain. The impact of Celtic on modern

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

English is primarily seen in place-names like Belfast, York, London, Glasgow, Cardiff, and
river names like Avon, Clyde, Dee, Don, Forth, and Usk. Celtic remained predominant until
the Roman occupation introduced Latin.

THE ROMAN CONQUEST

The Romans, under Julius Caesar, first invaded Britain in 55 B.C., with a full
conquest in AD 43 under Claudius. The Roman occupation lasted until AD 410,
significantly influencing Britain with Roman civilization and culture. Latin became the
official language, especially in towns and cities, while Celtic persisted in rural areas.
Although Latin wasn't widespread enough to survive subsequent Germanic invasions, it
contributed to the English lexicon. For example, the Old English "Caester" (an enclosed
place) comes from the Latin "casta" (camp), seen in place-names like Chester, Dorchester,
Manchester, and Lancaster. Latin also influenced names like Newport, Portsmouth (from
'portus' meaning gate), Larchmont, Oakmont (from 'mons' meaning mountain), and
Torrington (from 'turris' meaning tower).

CONCLUSION

English originated from dialects of Germanic tribes in North-western Europe,

belonging to the Indo-European language family alongside German, Dutch, Flemish, and
Frisian as West-Germanic languages. Before English, Celtic tribes spoke Celtic, which was
the first language in Britain. The Romans then conquered the Celts, introducing Latin as
the language of communication and politics, though Celtic survived in rural areas.

SUMMARY

This lesson has shown that English came from a dialect of the Germanic tribes in
Northwest Europe. Latin and Celtic were spoken in England before the Germanic tribes
brought English. Remnants of Celtic and Latin languages can still be found in modern
English place-names.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Where did the English language originate?

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2. Mention four (4) languages that belong to the West Germanic branch of the
Indo-European family.

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3. What do you think are the benefits of studying the history of the English
Language?

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Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Explain the functions of the Celtic language in the England of the 5th
century?
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Describe the contributions of the Roman conquest to the development of

the English language.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 2- ANGLO- SAXON CONQUEST: THE ORIGIN AND STATUS OF

OLD ENGLISH; SOME FEATURES OF THE OLD ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

Last time, we learned that English came to England with Germanic tribes—the
Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—from Northern Europe (now Denmark and Germany). This
lesson explains how they moved to and took over Britain. Their language, Anglo-Saxon, is
what we call Old English. We'll also look at Old English features to see how much English
has changed over time in terms of grammar, words, and pronunciation.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. name the Germanic tribes that invaded Britain in the 6th century; and
2. describe some features of Old English.

ANGLO-SAXON CONQUEST time, the Celts lost their separate

identity. The Angles and Saxons were the
The Romans ruled Britain for over
biggest and most powerful tribes. People
300 years. When the Roman Empire
called them "Saxons," but later "Angles"
weakened, soldiers left Britain to defend
became the main name. The land became
other areas. This left the Celts in Britain
Englaland (land of the Angles), which
open to attack. The Picts and Scots from
later became England.
the north attacked the Celts. The Celts
asked the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes for
help. These Germanic tribes came and
fought off the Picts and Scots. However,
they then turned on the Celts, taking
their land. The Celts couldn't push them
out. Some Celts moved to Wales,
Cornwall, and Scotland. Others stayed
and mixed with the new settlers. Over

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

THE ORIGIN AND STATUS OF OLD ENGLISH

Old English was the language of these Germanic tribes. It was a mix of their
different ways of speaking. There were four main types of Old English: Northumbrian,
Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish. English is part of the Germanic language family. Old
English had strong and weak stress patterns, like other Germanic language.

SOME FEATURES OF OLD ENGLISH

Old English (450-1150 AD) was like Latin in its grammar. It used lots of inflections
(endings on words). Nouns, adjectives, and verbs changed endings to show different cases
(like subject, object, etc.). Old English also sounded different from modern English. Many
Old English words came from Germanic languages, but some have disappeared. After the
Normans came, French became important, and many Old English words were replaced by
French and Latin words.

Examples:

Old English Germanic Modern English

Heorte Herz Heart
Cuman Kommen Come
Eald Alt Old

Irregular verbs such as:

Drincan-dranc-druncen (Old English)

Drink-drank-drunk (Modern English)

In pronunciation, OE differs in great deal from ModE

OE ModE

Stan Stone

Halig Holy

Gan Go

Ban Bone

Rap Rope

Ceen Keen

Sceap Sheep

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Mann Man

Wif Wife

Cild Child

The Lord’s Prayer

(Old English- Anglo-Saxon versus Modern English)

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

CONCLUSION

The Anglo-Saxon conquest was a key event, bringing English to Britain. Old English
was influenced by Latin because the Romans had been in Britain for a long time. Old English
was the main language, but it had different forms or dialects.

SUMMARY

The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes came to England after being invited to help the Celts.
They ended up taking over. This time it was called the Old English period because of their
language. Old English mixed features of the tribes' languages and was similar to Latin. It had
different dialects. Over time, most of the original features of Old English have disappeared.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Why did the Romans leave Britain, leaving the Celts unprotected?
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2. How did the Anglo-Saxons conquer Britain?
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Discuss the origin of Old English?

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Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Why was Old English grammar like Latin?

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 3- INFLUENCES ON THE OLD ENGLISH: RELIGION, THE

DANISH INVASION AND THE AGE OF VIKINGS

INTRODUCTION

In Lesson 2, you learned how Germanic tribes took over Britain in the 6th century,
bringing Old English—a mix of their languages and Celtic. Roman culture also left its mark.
Old English kept changing because of outside influences. This lesson focuses on two main
influences: Christianity and the Danish (Viking) invasions.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain how Christianity affected Old English; and

2. discuss the effects of the Danish invasions on the English language.

RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE ON OLD ENGLISH

Christianity came to England around AD 597 and greatly impacted the language for
over 500 years. The Roman Catholic Church became important, and Latin, the church's
language, was brought back into use. Missionaries introduced not only Christianity but also
education and classical ideas. Many Latin words were adopted into Old English, especially
related to the church and its organization. Examples include "church," "bishop," "altar,"
"angel," "priest," and "school." The church also influenced everyday life, with words related to
clothing and household items such as cap, sock, silk, mat, sack, purple, words denoting food
such as beef, cabbage, lentil, millet, pear, oyster, lobster, mussel. Some words related to
education and learning such as school, Latin, master, grammatic, verse, meter, rotary. Names
of trees, plants and herbs are also rooted in religion. Examples are lily, pine, aloes, balsam,
fennel, hyssop, mallow, and myrrh.

THE DANISH INVASION AND THE AGE OF THE VIKINGS

Towards the end of the Old English period,

the Danes (Vikings) invaded from
Denmark. They were related to the Anglo-
Saxons in language and culture. Their
attacks began in the 8th century and
peaked in the 11th

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

century when the King of Denmark ruled

England. The Danes eventually settled in
England and blended with the local
population, adopting Anglo-Saxon
customs and language. The period of the
Danish activities and influence from 1014-
1039 is known as Viking Age. This
influenced Old English, especially in place
names.

The three stages of the Danish (Viking) attacks on England were:

1. Early Plundering: From about AD 787 to 850, the Danes raided towns and
church facilities.

2. Invasion and Capture: Around AD 850, the Danes invaded with a large fleet and
captured major cities like Canterbury, London, York, and East Anglia. By 878, they controlled
almost all of Britain.

3. Political Adjustment and Assimilation: From 878 to 1042, the Danes settled in
England, gradually integrating into the local population. In 1042, a Danish king ruled England
for 25 years.

Scandinavians and Danish are not the same, but there is a close relationship.

• Scandinavia: This is a geographical region in Northern Europe, typically

referring to Norway, Sweden, and Denmark where Scandinavians settle.

• Danes: Danes are an ethnic group and nationality specifically from Denmark.
Denmark is a country within Scandinavia, so all Danes are Scandinavian, but not all
Scandinavians are Danes.

The Danes introduced words related to the sea, law, and everyday life, such as "law,"
"sky," "skin," "egg," and "sister." The Danish influence was more about everyday interaction
than introducing new ideas, as Christianity did.

In the Scandinavian sound “sk” is retained in Modern English such as skin, sky, skill.
Native words such as ship, shall, fish have “sh” in Modern English. Also words with the
retention of “g” sound such as give, get, egg. More than 600 places with the name ending in
-by are Scandinavian such as Grimsby, Wgitby, Derby, Rugby etc.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

CONCLUSION

Two major influences on Old English were Christianity and the Danish invasions.
These events brought new words into the English language.

SUMMARY

Christianity introduced religious and church-related words into Old English. The
Danish invasions brought everyday words and influenced place names. The Danes blended
into English society and introduced words through daily interactions.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Name ten words that came from Christianity's influence on English.

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Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Name five words that are of Scandinavian origin.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

UNIT 2- MIDDLE ENGLISH (1100-1500AD)

LESSON 1- MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD: THE NORMAN CONQUEST
(1066-1200); THE ASCENDANCY OF FRENCH: THE
FUSION OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH; RE-
ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

We've traced English's origins and started the Middle English period (12th to
the influences on its grammar and 15th centuries). This lesson explores how
vocabulary. The Norman Conquest was a French, brought by the Normans,
major event that changed English and influenced English.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the link between the Norman Conquest and the French language;
2. describe French's position in England during the Middle English period;
3. discuss the relationship between French and English at this time; and
4. explain why English was brought back after French was dominant.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD: THE NORMAN CONQUEST (1066-1200)

The Normans were descendants of Vikings and France, favored the

other settlers who lived in Normandy (northern France). French. In 1066, William,
They were advanced and progressive. Before the conquest, Duke of Normandy,
England and Normandy had ties. An English king married a claimed the English
Norman, and his son Edward, raised throne by force, defeating
King Harold at the Battle
of Hastings. William
became king and brought
in a new nobility. French
became the second
official language, used by
the upper class. Unlike the
Anglo-Saxon language
that replaced the existing
Celtic adopted to be used
side by side with English
but the two languages
were to perform different
roles.

THE ASCENDANCY OF FRENCH

French became the language of government. French-speaking officials were

appointed, and French-speaking bishops took over religious houses. Many French merchants
came to England. For about 200 years, French was the language of the ruling class. At first,
only Normans spoke French, but English people learned it to gain social status. Bilingualism
became common. The masses still spoke English, but it was seen as the language of the lower
class. The close ties between England and Normandy helped French stay important. English
kings were also dukes of Normandy and spent much time there.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

THE FUSION OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH

French influenced English life socially, politically, and religiously. Archbishops and
monks were often Norman and spoke French. English kings married French wives. However,
English survived in monasteries and among some church members. French was the language
of high society, while English was for the lower class.

RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH

After 1200, social and political changes led to English being brought back into public
service. The English and Normans had mixed and intermarried. In 1204, King John lost
control of Normandy, causing conflict between England and France. English nobles lost their
French estates, and English nationalism grew. In 1362, English was used at the opening of
Parliament. By 1425, English became more popular. English survived because it was well-
established with written literature and a strong tradition, unlike Celtic before the Anglo-
Saxon invasion. The good relation of English and French lasted for about 150 years and
during this period, it was speculated that the number of Normans in England were about two
percent of the population. French was mainly the language of government, law,
administration, literature and the church. Latin was also used in education, administration
and worship. By the 13th century the position of English became clearer when it was evident
that a number of sermons, prayers, poems and songs were written in English language.
Finally in 14th century, major achievements in Middle English literature began to emerge,
with the works of Geoffrey Chaucer.

CONCLUSION

Several factors led to the decline and survival of English in the 11th and 12th
centuries. The most important was French becoming the language of the ruling class after
the Norman invasion in 1066. However, in the 12th and 13th centuries, socio-economic and
political factors helped English rise again.

SUMMARY

The Norman Conquest of 1066 brought French as the second official language of
England. French became the language of government, law, and literature, raising its status.
French speakers were high class, while English speakers were low class. However, English

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

remained the language of the masses. During the 13th and 14th centuries, economic and
political situations changed. English and France became enemies. French influence declined,
and English rose again due to its literature and tradition. When Normandy was lost to
England in 1204, English nobles focused on England, helping English revive as the language
of government, law, literature, commerce, and religio

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Describe how the French language came into England.

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2. Explain the effect of the elimination of the English nobility on the English
language.
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Self-Assessment Exercise 2

1. Give at least three reasons why the French language became the superior
language during the early years of the Norman occupation of England.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

2. Explain the status of English in England of this period.

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Self-Assessment Exercise 3

1. Do you think that the loss of Normandy by King John of England helped the re-
establishment of English in any way?
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2. Identify some factors that aided the revival of English.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 2- ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE 13TH CENTURY; THE DECLINE

OF FRENCH; THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS; BLACK
DEATH; AND GENERAL ADOPTION OF ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

This section explores the shift from French to English in 13th-century England,
highlighting the rise of the English middle class as a key factor. It explains why English
eventually became the language of government and education.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the relationship between English and French in 13th-century England;

2. identify reasons for the decline of French; and
3. discuss factors leading to the widespread use of English.

ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN THE 13TH CENTURY

In the 13th century, both French and English were important for communication. The
upper class still used French, but more as a social custom rather than their native language.
Meanwhile, English grew in popularity, especially as nobles who lost ties to Normandy began
to favor it. Many French words were adopted into English as French speakers in England
began using English. Literature intended for the nobility started being translated from
French to English. By the end of the century, even upper-class children spoke English as their
first language. English was used in parliament, law courts, and public communication,
signaling a general preference for English among the English people.

THE DECLINE OF FRENCH

French started losing its official status in 1204 when King John lost control of
Normandy. This affected English nobles, who lost estates and connections to France, leading
them to identify more as Englishmen and embrace English culture and language. The
Hundred Years' War (1337-1453), during which English kings claimed the French throne,
further fueled animosity between the two countries, increasing interest in using English. By
the late 13th century, French was losing ground, even in the church and universities.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Additionally, the Norman French spoken in England was a mix of dialects, not standard
French, making it easier to abandon.

THE RISE OF THE MIDDLE CLASS

The importance of a language often depends on the importance of its speakers. As the
lives and status of common people improved, so did the position of English. The Black Death
in 1349 caused a labor shortage, increasing the importance of the working class and their
language, English. The growth of towns and a wealthy merchant class further strengthened
the social and economic position of English speakers, contributing to the language's triumph.

THE BLACK DEATH

The Black Death, a devastating leading to English replacing French in

pandemic in the mid-14th century (1340s- official contexts and fostering a flourishing
1350s), profoundly influenced the English of English literature.
language during the Middle English
period. This era, which spans roughly from
1150 to 1500, saw significant linguistic
changes due to the plague's impact. The
drastic reduction in population,
particularly among the working class who
primarily spoke English, led to a labor
shortage that empowered the surviving
English speakers. As their social and
economic importance grew, so did the
prominence of their language, eventually

GENERAL ADOPTION OF ENGLISH

From the early 14th century, English gained dominance. Popular literature shifted
from French to English. Although French didn't disappear entirely and was still used in
courts, English largely replaced it. By 1362, parliament was opened with a speech in English.
By 1388, many professional associations submitted reports in English. Later in the century,
much of parliament’s business was conducted in English. English was adopted in the legal
system, with a 1362 law mandating that court proceedings be in English because French was
becoming less known. Similarly, English began to be used in schools, becoming widespread
by 1385. By the 15th century, many nobles could no longer speak French. English also

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

replaced French in writing. After 1450, letters and official records were generally written in
English. This widespread adoption of English led to a new interest in literature, with notable
works by Geoffrey Chaucer and others marking a high point in English literary achievements.

CONCLUSION

Social and economic conditions in the 14th century favored the re-establishment of
English as England's primary language. As interest in English grew and the importance of
French declined, English quickly became the language of law, public administration,
parliament, education, religion, and general communication.

SUMMARY

In the 13th century, English advanced as the upper classes began to prefer it over
French. The loss of Normandy led nobles to embrace English, and their children spoke it as
their first language. French declined in the 14th century due to renewed interest in English,
the Hundred Years' War, and the provincial nature of French in England. The rise of the
middle class, spurred by the Black Death, and the growth of English cities further promoted
English. Key factors in the general adoption of English included laws replacing French in
courts and government, the adoption of English in schools, and its acceptance in writing.
Thus, English was re-established as the primary language of England.

Self-Assessment Exercise 1

1. Describe the position of English and French in the 13th century.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

2. Explain how French loan words found their way into English at this time.
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Self Assessment Exercise 2

1. Discuss the factors that gave rise to the decline of French in English in the 13th century.
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Self Assessment Exercise 3

1. Identify some factors that were responsible for the general adoption of English in the
14th and 15th centuries.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 3- MIDDLE ENGLISH – GRAMMAR, VOCABULARY, SPELLING,

AND SOUNDS

INTRODUCTION

Why do languages change? and social/environmental changes

Languages are systems where parts influence vocabulary. Remember, the
affect each other. For instance, "trone" periods of English (Old, Middle, Early
became "throne," showing how Modern, Late Modern) are just labels to
spelling changes can lead to mark major shifts. This lesson explores
pronunciation changes. Contact changes in Middle English grammar,
between languages, like French and vocabulary, spelling, and sounds.
English after the Scandinavian era, also
causes change. People imitate
prestigious languages (like French),

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. identify changes in Middle English grammar;

2. describe Middle English vocabulary characteristics;
3. distinguish between Old and Middle English spellings and sounds; and
4. explain why languages change.

MIDDLE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Middle English grammar is marked by the decline of inflections (word endings). Old
English had fixed stress patterns, making it hard to hear inflections. This system gradually
disappeared.

1. Word Order: A fixed subject-verb-object (SVO) order emerged.

◦ Old English: "robbed they"

◦ Middle English: "they robbed"

2. Nouns: Noun endings simplified.

◦ Plurals mainly used "-s," "-es," or "-en" (e.g., "oxen”, boxes).

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

3. Adjectives: Adjectives lost inflections.

◦ Old English: "blinda," "blinde," "blindan" (for different forms of "blind")

◦ Middle English: "blind" (for all forms) - "blind man" or "blind men"

4. Pronouns: Demonstratives and pronouns simplified.

◦ "se, seo, Oæt" (the) became "the" and "that."

◦ "pes," "peos," "pis" (this) became "this."

5. Personal pronouns like "he" (he), "heo" (she), "hit" (it)

6. Verbs: Verbs simplified with the decay of inflections.

◦ Old English had strong (irregular) and weak (regular) verbs.

◦ Many strong verbs died out or became weak.

◦ Example: "write, wrote, written" (strong) vs. "walk, walked, walked" (weak)

◦ Variations existed: "ache" could be "oke" or "ached."

◦ Simple present tense inflections still existed.

MIDDLE ENGLISH VOCABULARY

French heavily influenced Middle English vocabulary, with about 10,000 French
words entering English in the 13th century, mainly in law, administration, medicine, art,
fashion, science, and learning.

Examples:

◦ Administration: authority, empire, duke, crown

◦ Law: adultery, accuse, arrest, assault

◦ Religion: baptism, cathedral, chaplain, clergy

◦ Military: ambush, army, besiege, captain

◦ Food and Drink: appetite, beef, biscuit, cream

• General Nouns: action, affection, adventure, age, country

• Adjectives/Verbs: active, amorous, calm, certain, natural, advise, arrange,

close, cry

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

• Latin Influence: Thousands of Latin words entered via French, mainly technical
terms.

• Scandinavian, Dutch, Russian, Arabic: Some loanwords from these languages.

• Impact: Native English words decreased from over 90% to about 75% of the
lexicon.

MIDDLE ENGLISH SPELLINGS

Spelling was influenced by the French invasion, sound changes, and population
movement. No standard spelling existed, and writers used spellings based on their dialects.

1. French Influence: Norman scribes adopted French spelling conventions.

o sh replaced sc (OE scip > ship)
o qu replaced cw (OE cwen > queen)
o gh replaced h (OE riht > right)
o ch replaced c (OE cin > chin)
o wh replaced hw (OE hwaet > what)
o c replaced s (OE is > ice)
o ou replaced u (OE wund > wound)

▪ Printing: William Caxton's printing in 1476 was a step toward standardization

▪ Dutch Influence: Dutch printers added "h" to "ghost" (originally "gast").
▪ Other Changes: Added "e" to words ("olde") or doubled consonants ("shoppe").

MIDDLE ENGLISH SPEECH SOUNDS

New pronunciations emerged, but correspondence between sounds and letters

wasn't always regular.

1. Vowels: Old English vowel system was reconstructed.

2. Original diphthongs became pure vowels, and new diphthongs emerged.
3. /h/ sound: Disappeared from words like "hring" (ring) but was later restored.
4. /v/ sound: Became important, distinguishing /v/ and /f/.
5. /s/ and /z/ sounds: French influence brought contrast, as in "zeal" and "seal."
6. /ŋ/ sound: Distinguished meanings, as in "thing" and "thin."

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

CONCLUSION

Middle English saw gradual changes in grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and sounds,
influenced by social, political, and economic factors. These changes structured grammar,
stabilized spellings, and enhanced vocabulary.

SUMMARY

Middle English is marked by the disappearance of inflections, simplified

nouns/verbs/adjectives, and a fixed grammatical structure. French and Latin loanwords
enriched the vocabulary. Spelling became more stable with printing, and pronunciation
changes led to Modern English pronunciations.

Self- Assessment Activity 1

1. Summarize the characteristics of Middle English and provide concrete examples for
each characteristic.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 4- STANDARD ENGLISH: HOW LONDON'S DIALECT

TOOK OVER

INTRODUCTION

Languages naturally have regional variations (dialects). In the previous lessons,

Middle English had about six dialects. The Standard English we know today comes from a
mix of these local dialects.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe what makes the London dialect unique; and

2. explain why Standard English rose to prominence.

THE RISE OF STANDARD ENGLISH

Standard English developed from Middle English dialects, becoming widely accepted
by the 15th century. The East Midland area of England was key to this.

• Compromise: The East Midland dialect was between the Northern and
Southern dialects, making it a bridge for communication.

• Population: The East Midland district was the largest and most populated area.

• Universities: Oxford and Cambridge may have helped with standardization.

• Literary Language: A regional literary language evolved, especially in areas like

Northamptonshire.

• Printing: The development of printing helped spread a single standard.

• London's Importance: London's role as the political and commercial center

was most influential.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

THE SPREAD OF THE LONDON DIALECT

By the late 15th century, the

London Standard was used in writing
across England.

• Printing Press: The

introduction of printing in 1476 helped a
lot. Caxton, an English printer, used the
London dialect in his works.

• Advice to Writers: Authors

advised poets to use the language of the
court and the London area.

CONCLUSION

Standard English came from the London dialect, which was a middle ground between
Northern and Southern dialects. London's importance as England's capital helped spread the
dialect.

SUMMARY

Between the late 14th and early 15th centuries, the London dialect (from the East
Midland area) became the standard for England, especially in writing. This happened
because:

• The Midland dialect was a compromise between North and South.

• London was the largest and most important city.

• Printing helped spread the London dialect.

• Universities contributed to the standard.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Self- Assessment Activity 1

1. Discuss at least four factors that gave rise to development of Standard English.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

UNIT 3- MODERN ENGLISH (1500AD- Present)

LESSON 1- EARLY MODERN ENGLISH PERIOD (1500-1750): SOME

CHARACTERISTICS; THE RENAISSANCE ENGLISH; CHANGES
IN GRAMMAR

INTRODUCTION

We can't study language history without looking at social events that influenced it.
Think about the Anglo-Saxon conquest, the Norman Conquest, the Black Death, and the rise
of the Middle Class. These events shaped the English language. The period from Chaucer to
Samuel Johnson (roughly 1400-1800) is key. Some scholars focus on 1500-1750, highlighting
the printing revolution, which began in 1476 with William Caxton's printing press. This
period (1500-1650) is also known as the Renaissance.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the general characteristics of Early Modern English;

2. identify features of Early Modern English grammar and vocabulary; and

3. explain how printing technology contributed to the development of English.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY MODERN ENGLISH (1500-1750)

Printing technology, developed in Germany, greatly impacted European languages. In

England, printed books replaced handwritten ones within a century. By 1640, over 20,000
titles were published in English. Books were no longer just for the upper class.

• Printing promoted a standard, uniform language.

• Popular education grew rapidly, and literacy became widespread.

• Commerce, transportation, and communication influenced language.

• Social consciousness made people more aware of language standards.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD

Two main forces were at play: The printing press, new reading
habits, and the spread of ideas expanded
1. A force for change in
vocabulary. Education influenced
vocabulary.
grammar, spelling, and pronunciation.
2. A force to preserve English During the Renaissance (from Caxton in
grammar. 1476 to around 1650), there was renewed
interest in classical languages and rapid
growth in science, medicine, and the arts.
New words were borrowed from Latin,
French, Greek, Italian, Spanish, and
Portuguese. Words also came from over 50
other languages.

CHANGES IN GRAMMAR AND PRONUNCIATION

By the Renaissance, major changes in grammatical structure had already occurred.

1. Verbs developed wider use of auxiliaries.

▪ Does he speak the truth?
▪ I think he did.

2. Sentences tended to be long and loose with repeated “and” and “then”
▪ And I shall pray for them unto Almighty God that he of his benign
grace reward them and that it profited to all of them…

3. Double negatives were used.

▪ I cannot do no wrong.

4. Some verb inflections fell out of use.

▪ Speaketh, pleaseath, know’st spake.

5. Adjectives lost their inflections.

▪ Expressions like most unkindest or more longer , were no more in
use

6. Pronouns like "thou," "thee," "thine", and “ye” fell into disuse.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

7. The pronoun "who" as a relative pronoun developed.

8. The "-s" plural became general.

9. New conjunctions emerged, like "because."

10. Participial constructions became common (use of verbs with -ed, -en, or
-ing

CONCLUSION

The Renaissance brought changes to the English language. Vocabulary changed more
than grammar due to scientific explorations and increased knowledge. Social changes
greatly influence language.

SUMMARY

The Early Modern Period was characterized by:

1. Rapid growth of printing technology.

2. Growth of popular education and literacy.

3. Modern developments in commerce, transportation, and communication.

4. Social consciousness.

These factors radically affected English vocabulary. New terms emerged, and
borrowing became necessary. A force also emerged to preserve existing grammar structures.

Self- Assessment Exercise 1

1. Describe the general characteristics of the early modern period.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

2. How do those characteristics affect English language grammar and vocabulary?

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 2- RENAISSANCE ENGLISH: DICTIONARIES, SHAKESPEARE,

AND THE KING JAMES BIBLE

INTRODUCTION

This lesson continues the history of English during the Renaissance and Early Modern
English period. It focuses on the influences on the English vocabulary. We'll look at early
dictionaries and the contributions of William Shakespeare and the King James Bible.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain the importance of early dictionaries in the history of English;

2. discuss William Shakespeare's contributions to the English vocabulary during

the Renaissance; and

3. discuss the contributions of the King James Bible to the development of the
English language during the 16th and 17th centuries.

THE EMERGENCE OF DICTIONARIES

The first attempt to list all English words was Nathaniel Bailey's dictionary in 1721.
Early dictionaries explained difficult words.

1. Robert Crawdrey's A Table Alphabetical of Hard Words (1604): Explained

about 3,000 terms.

2. John Bullkar's English Expositor (1616).

3. Henry Cockeram's English Dictionaries (1623).

4. Edward Philips' New World of Words (1658).

5. Samuel Johnson's dictionary of 1755 accounted for additions to the language.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

SHAKESPEARE AND THE WORLD OF

WORDS

Shakespeare influenced English

pronunciation, syntax, usage, and
vocabulary. He had a large vocabulary and
used new words freely.

1. New words first used by

Shakespeare: agile, catastrophe, critical,
demonstrate, dire, extract, hereditary, 3. Shakespeare's use of some
modest, vast, armada, mutiny. words was closer to their original Latin
meaning. He also used hyphenated
2. Earliest occurrence in
compound words.
English: accommodation, assassination,
barefaced, courtship, dwindle, eventful, Examples of Shakespeare's
laughable, obscene, pedant, reliance. hyphenated compounds: Arch-heretique,
baby-eyes, break-vow, giant-world, half-
blown, heaven-moving.

THE KING JAMES BIBLE

King James authorized a new

translation of the Bible. Translators
followed guidelines:

1. Use the Bishops' Bible

where possible.

2. Consult the Tyndale Version

and other earlier versions.

3. Maintain recognized
chapter divisions and proper names.

4. Translations were reviewed

by other members.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

The translators did not introduce new vocabulary or change grammatical structure.
They used old words and idioms.

CONCLUSION

Dictionaries, William Shakespeare, and the King James Bible influenced 16th and
17th-century English. They helped develop, enrich, and stabilize the standard vocabulary.

SUMMARY

Dictionaries of hard words provided meanings for difficult English words.

Shakespeare's creative use of words enriched the English vocabulary. The King James Bible
illustrated Standard English and helped maintain stability.

Self-Assessment Activity 1

1. Compare and contrast the influence of Shakespeare and the King Jame Bible on the
English Language of the 17th Century.
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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 3- CHANGES IN PRONUNCIATION; THE GREAT VOWEL

SHIFT; SOME FEATURES OF GRAMMAR

INTRODUCTION

Sound changes are crucial in English language history, impacting grammar and
vocabulary. Old English sounds differed significantly from Middle English. This lesson
explores consistent sound changes from Old English to modern times, focusing on the Great
Vowel Shift, which fundamentally altered the vowel system and shaped modern speech
sounds. We'll also examine English grammar features from the late 16th and early 17th
centuries.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

1. identify pronunciation changes in Early Modern English;

2. explain the Great Vowel Shift; and
3. describe grammar features of the early 17th century.

CHANGES IN PRONUNCIATION

Some English sounds remained stable, while others changed significantly.

Pronunciation changes varied regionally.

▪ Example 1: Sound /ɛ/ (as in "bed") remained consistent from Old

English.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

▪ Example 2: The "a" in Old English "stan" (stone) evolved to /ɔ:/ (like
"law") and then to modern "o" (store).

Consonant changes were less significant than vowel changes. Some voiced consonants
became voiceless or disappeared in Middle English.

▪ Example 3: The "w" sound was often lost in Middle English: Old English
"swa" became "so."

Most Old English short vowels (e, i, o, u) remained unchanged in Middle English. Long
vowels altered in length

▪ Example 4: Old English long vowels shortened when followed by double

consonants (Old English "great" vs. Middle English "gret").

Middle English "a" became /æ/ in the 16th century (as in "cat"). Middle English "u"
underwent "unrounding," pronounced as /ʊ/ (as in "full").

▪ Example 5: Early Modern English "u" became /ʌ/ (as in "cut").

Understanding short vowels across English history is relatively easy for modern
speakers, but long vowels present more challenges due to the Great Vowel Shift.

THE GREAT VOWEL SHIFT

The Great Vowel Shift impacted the seven long vowels in English: ī, e, ɛ, a, o, ɔ, u.

• Example 1: ī (pronounced /iː/) became /aɪ/ (e.g., /fiːf/ became "five").

• Example 2: e (pronounced /eː/) became /iː/ (e.g., /meːde/ became "mead").

• Example 3: ɛ (pronounced /ɛː/) became /Iː/ (e.g., /klɛːne/ became "clean").

• Example 4: a (pronounced /aː/) became /e/ (e.g., /naːme/ became "name").

• Example 5: o (pronounced /ɔː/) became /o/ (e.g., /ɡɔːto/ became "goat").

• Example 6: ɔ (pronounced /oː/) became /uː/ (e.g., /roːto/ became "root").

• Example 7: u (pronounced /uː/) became /aʊ/ (e.g., /duːn/ became "down").

"I" and "u" became diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aʊ/. By the 16th century, most vowels approached
their modern pronunciation. Spelling, fixed before the shift, no longer matched the changed
sounds.

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SOME FEATURES OF GRAMMAR

Late 16th and early 17th-century English grammar retained some old forms that have
since disappeared.

• The Noun: Plural and possessive singular inflections remained. Some nouns
had unchanged plurals (e.g., "sheep"). Old weak plurals (-n) survived but mostly shifted to -s
plurals. Some mixed plurals like children, oxen, brethren and some internal change of vowels
like mice, feet, survived.

Example 1: Shakespeare used "eyen" (eyes)

• The Adjective: Adjectives lost gender, number, and case inflections, retaining
only comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) degrees like fine-finer-finest. Double
comparatives/superlatives were used.

Example 2: Shakespeare used "more large,” “most boldest”

Words with more than one syllable take more and most such as -more
beautiful, most active, more careful

• The Pronoun: "Thou," "thy," and "thee" were replaced by "you." "Its" was
introduced as the possessive of "it."

Example 3: "His" was used as the possessive (e.g., "if the salt has lost his savor").

• The Verb: Verbs were used without auxiliaries in questions. Omission of

progressive forms was common.

Example 4: "Where goes he?" Rather than Where is he going?

• Impersonal verb use was common (e.g., "it pleases me not"). The third person

singular ending "-eth" was standard.

Example 5: "Goeth," "giveth."

• Some Old English strong verbs became weak. While a number of weak forms
became strong.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

Example 7: "Hide," "crowd" developed weak forms.

Example 8: blowed, growed, shined, shrinked, and swinged

OTHER CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN ENGLISH LANGUAGE

A. PHONOLOGY

The study of sound patterns and/or systems of the language

A Vietor Triangle is a schematic representation of

vowel sounds, created by Wilhelm Vietor
(1850-1918), German philologist and phonetician.
It shows the position of the tongue and jaw
according the vowel sound(s) required when
speaking.

A vowel diagram or vowel chart is a schematic

arrangement of the vowels. Vertical position on
the diagram denotes the vowel closeness, with
close vowels at the top of the diagram, and
horizontal position denotes the vowel backness,
with front vowels at the left of the diagram.
Vowels are unique in that their main features do
not contain differences in voicing, manner, or
place (articulation). Vowels differ only in the
position of the tongue when voiced! The tongue
moves either vertically and horizontally within
the oral cavity. Vowels are produced with at least
a part of their vocal tract obstructed.

o /i /- long i sound. This is made by extending your lips to either side of your face
as in a smile (or a grimace) and making a small opening between your upper
and lower lips and teeth. Make the sound a little long by counting 2 beats or 2
seconds.

Examples: eat, seed, reed, feed

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

o /I/ - short i sound. This sound is made in almost the same way as i, but shorter.
Move your lips slightly sideways and make a slightly wider opening of the
mouth. Now for one beat, say I.

Examples: sit, rid, lid

o /e/ or /Ɛi/ - long a sound. This sound is made by with your lips moving
sideways, more in a grimace than a smile, and the mouth slightly wider than
when we made I sound. Then, keeping the same lips position, make the mouth a
little smaller by closing it slightly.

Examples: mate, rate, lay

o /Ɛ/ – short e sound. This sound is made with your lips in a slight grimace and
the mouth is open wider than in Ɛi.

Examples: set, let, met

o /æ/ – short a/American a. – This one’s a bit tricky. Start with short e sound’s
position and add a bit of a ya (ja) sound at the end of it (Note: [j] in IPA is
pronounced as a [y] sound as in yet, and not jet.

Examples: sat, lap, mat

o /a/ – normal a. – Just drop your jaw and you’re all set. ^^

Examples: pot, got, not

o /Ɔ/– Italian a or Short o – Open your mouth wide as in a, but gently round your
lips like o.

Examples: straw, flaw, maw

o /O/ or /oƱ/ – Long o. – Gently round your lips and go from big to small, until
your lips are puckered like you’re kissing someone. Sustain for two beats.

Examples: go, flow, mow

o /U/ or /u/: –Long u. – It’s the same position as long u, only make the sound for
a shorter amount of time. U or u: - Long u sound. – Pucker up like you’re kissing
someone, and sustain the sound for two beats.

Examples: goo, flew, moo

o /u/ or /Ʊ/ - Short u sound. – Pucker up like you’re kissing someone,and keep it
short, but sweet.

Examples: book, foot, pull

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

o /ə/ - The Schwa sound. – This is the most common sound in American English.
It’s ubiquitous – which means you’ll find it everywhere! Open your mouth very
slightly, and grunt, like when someone pushes you gently.

Examples: but, stunt, gut

o /^/ - Another grunt sound. This is extremely similar to the schwa sound, the
only difference being it is stressed.

Examples: cup, bug, rug

Phonological Categories

1. OVERLAPPING DISTRIBUTION- when two sounds are capable of occurring in the

same environment

Make- Lake More- Mole

2. COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION- when two sounds are NOT capable of occurring

in the same environment

Pin- Spin Kill- skill

3. MINIMAL PAIRS- words in particular language that differ in only one phonological
element and have distinct meanings

Pin- Bin Zeal- Seal Pen-pan

PHONEME- one of the units of sounds that distinguish one word from another. Difference
in meanings between kiss and kill is the result of the shift in the phoneme /s/ and
/l/.

PHONE- speech sounds and is placed between the symbol [ ]

/p//U/ / /ʃ/- 3 Phonemes

[pUʃ] – 1 phone

Phonological Rules

1. Nasalization Rule- where airflow through the mouth is blocked and directed through the
nose.

/m/ /n/ /ŋ/

2. Aspiration Rule- pronounce with the sound of the breath. Aspirate the sounds [p, t, k]

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

if it is followed by the stressed vowel. These three sounds are always aspirated when they
are the only sound in the onset of a stressed syllable.
Pit, pick, tick, kit

3. Deletion Rule- delete the unstressed vowel

mystery - myst'ry memory- mem'ry

scenery - scen ry several- sev'ral

4. Schwa Rule- Schwa is the most common vowel sound in the English language because
most unstressed vowels are pronounced as a schwa. Schwa is a relaxed /u/ or /ī/ sound
made quickly with barely parted lips.

Compete- competition Maintain- maintenance

5. Assimilation Rule- spreading a feature of a sequential phoneme

BOMB- /b/ /a/ /m/

LIT - /l//I/ t/

6. Epenthesis Rule- insertion of sounds (i.e unstressed sound such as schwa /ə/)

Ath’lete fil’m alar’m

7. Metathesis Rule- transposition of sounds

Ask - [ aks]

Iron - [aI ərn]

B. MORPHOLOGY
It is the branch of linguistics that deals with the structure of words.

Remember:

Many words have meaning by themselves or can stand alone as words.

Such words are free morphemes like nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

INFLECTIONAL AND DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES

Bound grammatical morphemes are commonly known as affixes.

Two general categories of affixes:

1. Inflectional Affixes

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

2. Derivational Affixes

Eight Types of Inflectional Affixes

1. Plural -s boys
2. Possessive 's boy's cellphone
3. Comparative -ег older
4. Superlative -est oldest
5. Present -s walks
6. Past -ed walked
7. Past participle -en driven
8. Present participle -ing driving

Few of the Examples of Derivational Affixes

Anti which means against (anti-terrorism, anti- anxiety)

Auto which means by itself/oneself (autobiography, autograph)

bi which means two (bicycle, bimonthly)

un/ dis which indicates negation (disagree, distrust, unable)

hetero which means others, another, different (heterogeneous, heterosexual)

ex which means former (ex-chairman, ex- president)

mini which means small, minimum, least or miniature (minibus,

minicomputer)

-ish which means somewhat/ or it pertains to nationality (sluggish,

snobbish) (British, Polish)

–ity state of being (oddity)

-ist A person (florist)

-sion/-tion state/quality of being (transition)

-ship position held (membership)

-ology science of (archaeology)

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WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

1. Derivation- adding a derivational affix, thus changing the meaning of the word
Ex: orient> orientation moral> amoral real> realize
2. Category Extension- extending a morpheme from one syntactic category to another
Ex: Chair (n) Chair (vb.)

Work (n) Work (vb.)

3. Compounding- combining two words to make a new one Ex: put- down

Ex. Headmistress brain-dead

4. Root Creation- inventing a brand new word

Ex: Kodak, nylon, orlon, quark, watt, sandwich

5. Clipping- shortening a word

Ex. Facsimile> fax hamburger > burger gasoline> gas

6. Blending- two words combined together to form another word

Ex. Smoke + fog > SMOG

Breakfast + Lunch > BRUNCH

7. Acronym- the initial letters have corresponding word equivalent

SOCO> Scene of the Crime Operation

SCUBA> Self- Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

8. Borrowing- taking a word from another language

Piano (Italian)

Yogurt (Turkish)

Barbecue (Spanish)

C. SEMANTICS
The study on the linguistic meanings of words

Meanings can be classified into two categories:

1. Denotative Meaning- literal meaning/ use of the word/ concept

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2. Connotative Meaning- different associations with the conceptual meaning

Consider the hereunder example:

Mother- a person who gives birth to offspring/ female parent (denotative meaning)

Mother- affectionate, warmth, security, sacrificial love (connotative meaning)

Semantic Class- a word that shares the same semantic property

Examples:

Female- girl/ woman/ lady

Teacher- educator/ mentor/ professor/ educationalist

Build- create/ establish/ make/ develop/ construct

Semantic Relations- words are related to one another in a variety of ways.

I. A. Homonyms-different words that are pronounced the same, may or may not be
spelled the same and with different meanings.

Examples: A. bear and bare

tale and tail

(Note: spelled differently, with different meanings, but pronounced the same)

B. bank "financial institution" or "of a river"

race "contest of speed", or "ethnic group"

(Note: same pronunciation, same spelling but with different meanings)

B. Polysemy- when a word has multiple meanings

good means "well-behaved" as in a good child,

“sound” in terms of investment

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C. Heteronyms are words spelled the same but pronounced differently and having
different meanings, such as:

a. Dove (bird) and dove (past tense of dive)

b. sow (pig) and sow (to scatter seeds)

D. Homographs are words spelled the same, pronounced the same and having
different meanings, such as:

a. lead to manage/ direct lead the metal

b. pen as used in writing pen as the cage

II. Synonyms are words/ concepts having the same or nearly the same meaning

Examples: deep/ profound

buy/ purchase

understand/ comprehend

conceal/hide

III. Antonyms are words that are opposite in meaning

Kinds of Antonymy

1. Complementary antonyms- contradictory antonyms, offer no middle grounds

alive-dead asleep-awake present-absent

2. Gradable antonyms- fall on the opposite spectrum

small-big near-far hot-cold

3. Relational Opposites- pairs that establish a relationship from opposite perspectives

employee- employer buyer- seller teacher-student

IV. Hyponyms- words which meanings are specific instances of a more general word
Example: a. flower- daffodil

b. color- white

c. insect- ant

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

D. SEMANTIC CHANGES

1. Semantic Narrowing- the meaning of the word becomes less general or inclusive than
its earlier meaning. In other words, the meaning's change is from GENERAL TO SPECIFIC

Examples:

MEAT (OE) - Food in general

MEAT (ModE)- Only one kind of food which is meat/animal flesh

STARVE (OE)- Generally, to die

STARVE (ModE)- to die in hunger

2. Semantic Generalization- NARROW definitions change to GENERAL ONES

Examples:

AROMA ((14TH CENTURY) - smell of spices

AROMA (from 1841 up to present)- good smells in general

HOLIDAY (OE) - religious festival

HOLIDAY (ModE) - a day of festivity or recreation when no work is done.

3. Amelioration- when the meaning of a word becomes positive over time

Examples:

NICE (12TH CENTURY) - stupid, foolish

NICE (1830 UP TO PRESENT) - kind, thoughtful

GECK (geek)- (1510)- fool, dupe

GECK (geek) - (20th century up to present) - someone with special knowledge

4. Pejoration- when the meaning becomes negative

Examples:

NOTORIOUS (1548) -well-known for the commendable behaviour and acts

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

NOTORIOUS (17TH CENTURY UP TO PRESENT) - well-known for bad deeds/ behaviour

AWFUL (14TH CENTURY) worthy of awe, respect

AWFUL (1809 up to present) - very bad, unpleasant, or disgusting

5. Semantic reclamation (also known as reappropriation) is when individuals and

groups use and take ownership of derogatory words that have been used to oppress them.
Reclaimed words are usually political and controversial due to their present and historical
use of belittling oppressed groups such as women, the LGBTO + community, the disabled
community, and ethnic minorities.

Examples:

BITCH

‘Bitch’ has been used as a derogatory term throughout history, usually towards women. As
the formal meaning of the word is 'female dog', the term developed into an insult against
women by likening them to dogs.

'Bitch' is often used in a positive context with no insult intended, for example, Hey bitch!'
can be used as a sassy greeting used between friends and I'm going out with my bitches
tonight' connotes a group of close friends going out together.

SLUT

‘Slut’ is arguably still in the process of being reclaimed by women worldwide. The original
meaning of 'slut implied low standards and low personal hygiene. This meaning has
developed over time to describe women who have had a lot of sexual partners as women
with low standards of living.

A person of any gender who has the courage to lead life according to the radical proposition
that sex is nice and pleasure is good for you.

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CONCLUSION

Changes characteristic of the 16th century began earlier. The Great Vowel Shift was a
climax, forming the basis for modern English pronunciation. Grammar changes reflected the
language's ongoing development, intensified by the emergence of Standard English.

SUMMARY

Sound changes, especially in vowels, significantly shaped English. The Great Vowel
Shift altered seven long vowel sounds from Middle English to modern pronunciation.
Grammar changes included adopting the "-s" plural marker, adjectives losing inflections, and
pronouns shifting from "thou" to "you." Verb features included impersonal use, scarce
progressive forms, "-eth" endings, and weakening of some strong verbs. These changes laid
the groundwork for modern English.

Self- Assessment Exercise 1

1. Compare vowel sounds in Middle English and Modern English.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
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2. Contrast changes in vowel and consonant sounds between Old and Middle
English.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 4- THE 18TH CENTURY GRAMMARIANS; THE RISE OF

PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

INTRODUCTION

In the 18th century, English lacked consistent grammar. There were no established
rules defining correct English. Grammarians aimed to create these rules, leading to
prescriptive grammar. This unit explores their efforts, achievements, and failures.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. assess the contributions of early grammarians to standardizing English grammar;

2. explain the rise of prescriptive grammar and its definition; and
3. distinguish between prescriptive grammar and the grammar of the early modern
period.

THE 18TH CENTURY GRAMMARIANS

Before the 18th century, few attempts were made to formalize English grammar.
Earlier works focused on teaching English to foreigners or providing a basis for learning Latin
grammar.

Ben Johnson's "An English grammar ...for the Benefit of Strangers" (1640). It was in
18th century that English grammar was viewed as a subject worthy of study by itself.

John Wallis (1653) on his “Grammatical Linguae Anglicante” noted that Latin
structure differed significantly from English, making Latin grammar unsuitable for
describing English. In the 18th century, grammar descriptions specific to English emerged.
However, many grammarians were trained in Latin and Greek, leading them to impose
classical concepts on English.

Joseph Priestly (1761) published "The Rudiments of English Grammar."

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Robert Lowth's "Short Introduction to English Grammar" (1762) was influential, with
22 editions in the 18th century. Subsequent works often imitated Lowth's grammar.

• Example 1: John Ash's "Grammatical Institutes" (1763) served as an

introduction to Lowth's grammar.

• Example 2: Noah Webster's "A Grammatical Institute of the English Language"

(1784) was popular in America.

Most grammarians lacked formal language training. They aimed to:

(a) Codify language principles and create rules.

(b) Settle disputes and decide on usage.

(c) Identify and correct errors, improving the language.

Lowth argued that perceived irregularities stemmed from users' lack of awareness of
rules. Grammarians systematized English grammar and established rules for evaluation.
They aimed to resolve grammatical uncertainties, judging constructions as either right or
wrong.

THE RISE OF PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

Grammarians aimed to do for grammar what Johnson's Dictionary did for vocabulary:
prescribe usage. This meant dictating what to say, with deviations being condemned.

• Example 1: Expressions like "had rather" were rejected in favor of "I would
rather."

• Example 2: "Different from" was preferred over "different than" or "to."

• Example 3: "He is taller than I" was favored over "taller than me."

• Example 4: "Shall" was prescribed for the first person, and "will" for the third
person.

William Ward (1765) created a comprehensive set of prescriptions, reinforced by

Lindley Murray's "English Grammar" (1795). These works were controversial and seen as
the source of modern grammatical debates.

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Grammarians were guided by reason, history, and examples from Greek and Latin. The
reliance on classical languages led to attempts to fit English into Latin and Greek patterns.
However, the feeling that English should not be forced into a Latin mold grew in the 19th
century.

CONCLUSION

Traditional grammar, dictating right and wrong, originates from 18th-century

grammarians. They aimed to establish a platform for determining correctness in English.
This prescriptive approach sparked debate over whether usage or rules should determine
correctness. Modern descriptive grammarians now favor reflecting actual usage over
prescribing rules.

SUMMARY

Before the 18th century, English grammar lacked defined rules. Grammarians aimed
to:

(i) Codify language principles and create rules.

(ii) Identify and correct errors.

(iii) Settle usage disputes.

They applied reason, history, and references to Latin and Greek, formulating rules and
prescribing/proscribing grammatical forms. Their publications sparked controversy, with
critics arguing that English grammar should reflect actual usage rather than prescribed rules.

Self Assessment Exercise 1

1. Explain the aims of the 18th-century grammarians.

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________

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Self- Assessment Exercise 2

1. What does Prescriptive Grammar mean?

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
2. What do you think were the achievements of the 18th-century grammarians?
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 5- ENGLISH SINCE 1900

INTRODUCTION

The 19th century and after, are also referred to as late modern period, or simply the
period of modern English. Again we are going to look at some of the major influences on
English language which have been mainly on vocabulary. So far, we have seen that social
factors have contributed greatly to the growth of the language. Again, both political and social
factors had helped to strengthen the position of England as a world power especially with its
successive victories at wars during the 19th century (e.g. victory at Trafalgar, against France
in 1805 and against Russia at Crimea 1854-56). Its political and social reforms in the 19th
and 20th centuries were also important factors in establishing England as one of the world's
stable democracies. The world wars of the 20th century and its effects on the society; the
growth and importance of some of British colonies; their eventual independence and the
rapid growth of the United States as one of the greatest English speaking world powers
certainly have their influences on the English language of today. We shall consider in detail
some of these factors in Units 17 and 18. In this lesson, we shall be considering the more
influential factors as they relate to language, namely the growth of Science and Medicine,
Transport, Information technology, Journalism and Broadcasting and the world wars. You
shall also see how developments in other areas have affected English vocabulary.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the factors that influenced English vocabulary in the 19th century and
after; and
2. explain how English vocabulary has been largely affected by some new
developments across the world since 1900.

INFLUENCES ON THE 19" CENTURY ENGLISH AND AFTER

The period from the 19th century onward, often called the late modern period, saw
major changes in the English language, especially in vocabulary. These changes were driven
by social, political, and technological factors.

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KEY INFLUENCES

• Political and Social Factors: England's rise as a global power, marked by

victories in wars and stable democratic reforms, played a significant role. The growth of
British colonies, their independence movements, and the rise of the United States as a major
English-speaking power also had an impact.

• Science and Medicine: Advancements in these fields introduced many new

technical terms that eventually became part of everyday language. Examples include names
of diseases (like anemia), medical terms (like bacteriology), and common drug names (like
paracetamol), aspirin, analgesics, and penicillin.

In Physics, words such as relativity, transformer. Light, current, hydrogen

bomb, air raid, ballistic missiles, radio active, chain reaction were introduced.

Chemistry has given the English lexicon, nitrogen, alkali, biochemical,

astronaut, space craft, space shuttle

• Automobile and Transport Industry: The invention and evolution of vehicles

brought new words into English, such as "automobile" itself, as well as terms for car parts
and traffic-related concepts. We now talk about steering wheels, automatic transmission,
petrol, traffic lights, spare types, ticket and bus stop.

• Broadcasting, Information Technology, and Computing: Developments in

communication and computer technology have significantly impacted English vocabulary.
This includes terms related to radio, television, and computers, as well as the internet.
General terms such as program, memory, language, hard ware were introduced around 1940
to 1950, while words such as RAM, ROM, disk operating system, microprocessor, modem,
software, browse, hack, download, upload, browser, search engine, e-mail and yahoo were
known as early as 1980.

• Journalism: Journalists have been creative in coining new words and using
existing words in new ways to capture attention and convey information.

• World Wars: The World Wars introduced military terms and new meanings for
existing words such as aircraft gun, tank, gas mask, camouflage, and machine gun, many of
which have become part of everyday language.

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VOCABULARY AND DEVELOPMENT

New developments in science, technology, and society lead to the creation of new
words to describe them. These new words reflect and highlight the changes taking place.

Examples of New Words Over Time:

• 1839: photograph, photography

• Late 19th Century: telephone, typewriter

• Early 20th Century: aircraft, airplane

• 1933: deep-freezer, air-conditioned

• 1972: credit card, ecosystem

Many new words are created through the following (WORD- FORMATION PROCESSES)

1. Coinage such as KODAK, Frigidaire, Kleenex, Xerox or Zipper

2. Acronyms like Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Radio Detecting and
Ranging (RADAR)

3. Blending of existing words like Interpol (international + police )

Travelogue (travel + dialogue)

4. Clipping such as fax (facsimile), lab (laboratory)

CONCLUSION

Scientific and social developments are major drivers of vocabulary growth in English.
As new things happen, new words are needed to express them. This ongoing process ensures
that the English language continues to evolve and adapt.

SUMMARY

The rapid growth of English vocabulary from the 19th century onwards is due to
advancements in science, medicine, communication, information technology, journalism, and
the impact of world wars. Vocabulary development is ongoing; new words and expressions
emerge as the world evolves. Learning these new terms helps people update their knowledge
and benefit from emerging technologies.

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Self- Assessment Activity 1

1. Discuss the factors that directly influenced the development of English vocabulary of
the 19th century and after.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 6- SOURCES OF NEW WORDS, THE OXFORD ENGLISH

DICTIONARY, AND FUNCTIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

This lesson explores the features of late Modern English (1900 to present). We'll
examine how new words have entered the language, the role of the Oxford English Dictionary,
the issue of spelling reform, and the different functional varieties and dialects of Modern
English.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the sources of new words in Modern English;

2. explain the contributions of the Oxford English Dictionary;
3. identify different functional varieties of English; and
4. describe the efforts and impact of spelling reform.

SOURCES OF NEW WORDS

The most significant changes in English have been in its vocabulary. New words enter
the language through various means:

1. Borrowings from Modern European Languages: English has adopted words

from other languages.

◦ French: aperitif, chauffeur, garage

◦ Italian: ciao, vendetta

◦ Spanish: bonanza, canyon, cantina

◦ German: feschrift, angst

◦ Russian: troika, vodka, glasnost, perestroika

◦ Czech: robot

◦ Indian: loot, thug

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

◦ Persian: pyjamas

◦ Japanese: sake, yen, soy

2. Self-Explaining Compounds: New words are created by combining existing

words.

◦ fire-extinguisher

◦ finger-print

◦ know-how

◦ lip-stick

◦ streamline

◦ hitchhike

◦ e-mail

◦ babysitter

◦ life style

◦ greenhouse effect

◦ acid rain

3. Compounds from Greek and Latin Elements: These classical languages are
a source of scientific terms.

◦ genetics (from Greek roots meaning "well" and "to be born")

◦ telescope (tele from Greek meaning "far," scope from Greek meaning "water")

◦ automobile (auto from Greek meaning "self," mobile from Latin meaning
"moveable")

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4. Prefixes and Suffixes: Adding prefixes and suffixes to existing words creates
new words.

◦ transatlantic

◦ transcontinental

◦ transformer

◦ transmarine

◦ post-classical

◦ postgraduate

◦ prenatal

◦ preschool

◦ preview

◦ counterattack

◦ superman

◦ neoclassical

◦ stardom

◦ gangster

◦ profiteer

5. Coinages: New words are deliberately invented, often in media and

advertising.

◦ Xerox, Frigidaire, Kodak (originally trademarks)

◦ Acronyms: OPEC, ECOWAS, UNICEF

◦ Blends/Portmanteau Words: travelogue (travel + dialogue), Dictaphone

(dictate + telephone), electrocute (electricity + execute)

6. Words from Proper Names: Words are derived from people or places.

◦ sandwich (from the Earl of Sandwich)

◦ limousine (from a province in France)

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

◦ Mercedes, Ford, Volkswagen (named after inventors)

◦ boycott (from Captain Boycott)

7. Slang: Informal words or expressions used in specific contexts.

◦ joke, boom, slum, fad, scram, buzz, put-down, vamoose

8. Old Words with New Meanings: Existing words are given new meanings.

◦ mouse, boot, click, navigate (in computing)

◦ skyline (originally the horizon, now skyscrapers)

◦ record (no longer just music)

◦ sign-off, stand-by (in media)

◦ take-off, kick-off, call-up

THE OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was created because existing dictionaries were
inadequate. The British Philological Society began collecting missing words in 1857 and
aimed to record every word in the language since around the year 1000. The OED shows the
history, spellings, and usage of each word. The first edition was completed in 1895,
containing 240,165 main words. It is the largest dictionary of any language and has
influenced attitudes toward the English language.

FUNCTIONAL VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

Speech variations occur due to education, culture, profession, status, and regional
background. There are standard and non-standard varieties of English.

• Spoken Standard: Conversational language of educated people.

• Written Standard: Language of books and academic writing.

• Popular Standard: Used by uneducated people, characterized by slang and

pidgin.

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In Britain, the Spoken Standard is known as Received Pronunciation (RP). Regional

dialects also exist, such as Welsh, Scottish, and Irish English.

CONCLUSION

Modern English is characterized by an expanding vocabulary from various sources.

The Oxford English Dictionary addresses the need for a comprehensive record of words.
Spelling reform efforts have been unsuccessful, and functional varieties and regional dialects
continue to evolve.

SUMMARY

New words come from borrowings, compounds, Greek and Latin elements, prefixes
and suffixes, coinages, proper names, slang, and old words with new meanings. The Oxford
English Dictionary provides a comprehensive guide to English words, their spellings,
pronunciations, meanings, and usages. Spelling reform attempts failed, and English
continues to develop functional varieties and regional dialects.

Self-Assessment Activity 1

1. In what ways does the Oxford English Dictionary aid the growth of the English
language?
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_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 7- VARIETIES OF MODERN ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

The English language expanded significantly during the modern period, both in
vocabulary and geographical reach. By the mid-20th century, English speakers numbered
between 1.5 and 2 billion, spread across almost every country. Today, English is spoken as a
first language (L1) or official language (L2) in approximately 75 territories. This unit will
explore varieties of English in Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and Asia.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. describe the features of Australian and New Zealand English;

2. distinguish between South African English and some varieties of English in West
Africa; and
3. identify some general features of English in Southeast Asia (Singapore, Malaysia,
Philippines, and Hong Kong).

ENGLISH IN AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND SOUTH AFRICA

(a) English in Australia

English arrived in Australia with British settlers in the 18th century. The first British
presence was in 1770, and the first settlement, including convicts, was in 1788. Immigration
increased rapidly, and by 1900, the population was nearly 4 million. Australian English is
influenced by Cockney and Irish English, with differences in vocabulary and pronunciation.

1. Examples of Australian English:

◦ Kangaroo and boomerang are now general English words.

◦ Wombat (Australian animal) is not widely used outside Australia.

◦ Station (Australian term) is equivalent to the American term ranch.

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(b) English in New Zealand

New Zealand's natives are the Maori. European traders settled in the 1790s, and
official British occupation began in 1840. By 1900, the population was about 750,000. New
Zealand English has been influenced by:

1. A strong historical relationship with Britain.

2. A deep sense of national identity.

3. Increased awareness and use of Maori words.

(c) South African English

South Africa was colonized by the Dutch in the 1650s, but the British arrived around
1795. English was declared the official language in 1822 and was learned as a second
language by black natives. South African English has influences from Afrikaans and Dutch.

1. Examples of South African English:

◦ apartheid, commando, commandeer, trek

◦ location (where black Africans were required to live)

◦ lands (locations required for farming)

ENGLISH IN EAST AND WEST AFRICA

(a) English in East Africa

East African countries were colonized by the British from the 1850s. English was used in
administration, education, and law. After independence, English remained the official
language in some countries. British English was introduced in schools, reinforcing Standard
English.

1. Examples of East African English:

◦ Some phrasal verbs lose their adverbial particles (e.g., "pick" instead of "pick
up").

◦ Some plural nouns are treated as singular (e.g., "behaviours").

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(b) English in West Africa

English in West Africa is linked to colonization, slave trade, and the development of
pidgin and Creole languages. English became the lingua franca in these countries.

1. Examples of West African English:

◦ chop (meaning food in Sierra Leone, Ghana, and the Gambia)

◦ kola (fruit for stimulant, traditional symbol of unity, and bribery in Ghana and
Nigeria)

◦ stranger (used for guest in Sierra Leone and non-standard Nigerian English)

◦ aunty (used to address any older woman in Nigeria)

◦ Danfo (minibus), globe (bulb), machine/okada (motor-cycle), yellow-fever

(traffic warden), cash-madam (wealthy woman), area-boys (street urchins), go-slow (traffic
jam) in Nigeria

◦ rentage (rent) in Sierra Leone

◦ slowly-slowly in Ghana

ENGLISH IN SOUTHEAST ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

(a) English in Singapore

Singapore was part of Malaysia and a British colony until 1957. English is used as a
neutral, unifying language alongside local languages.

1. Examples of Singaporean English:

◦ Omission of "be" as an operator (e.g., "the man healthy")

(b) English in Malaysia

Bahasa Malaysia was adopted as the national language after independence, and the
use of English declined.

1. Examples of Malaysian English:

◦ I know how to get there.

◦ May I ask where does the cab stop?

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(c) English in Hong Kong

English is an official language in Hong Kong due to its colonial history.

1. Examples of Hong Kong English:

◦ ABC (Australian/American-born-Chinese)

◦ canto-speak (speaker of the Cantonese language)

◦ astronaut (a senior public servant)

◦ bo lei (a variety of strong black tea)

◦ big brother (an eldest male sibling in a family)

◦ chit (bill)

(d) English in the Philippines

The Philippines gained independence from the United States in 1946 and retains a
strong influence of American English. English is the second language, and both English and
Filipino are used in education.

CONCLUSION

The spread of English has resulted in new mother-tongue varieties and second-
language varieties. These "World Englishes" have developed native variations.

SUMMARY

The growth of English is evident in the increasing number of speakers worldwide.

English is a first language in Britain, the USA, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. In
East and West Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, English serves as an official or national
language. All varieties of English have their own features due to differences in environments,
cultures, and experiences.

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Self- Assessment Activity 1

1. Why is the British linguistic culture more evident in the New Zealand English than
in Australian English?
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________

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LESSON 8- THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE

INTRODUCTION

In previous units, we discussed the influences on Modern English and its spread.
English has grown from a language with about seven million speakers in Britain in the 17th
century to a global language with over 2 billion speakers today. This lesson explores the
reasons behind this growth and provides data on the state of World English as of 2001.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. discuss the factors responsible for the growth of English as a world language; and
2. suggest what the future of English may look like.

REASONS FOR THE GROWTH OF ENGLISH AS A WORLD LANGUAGE

The spread of English around the world is linked to several factors:

1. British Colonial Influences:

◦ English was the language of administration, law, education, and religion in

British colonies.

◦ English was compulsory in schools and a requirement for social advancement.

◦ Many former British colonies adopted English as their official or semi-official

language after independence.

2. Emergence of the United States as a World Economic Power:

◦ The USA's dominant economic position attracts international trade and

business.

◦ Businesses and organizations need English to develop links with the USA.

◦ Tourism and advertising depend on English.

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3. Internal Political Reasons:

◦ English can provide a neutral means of communication among different ethnic

groups within a country.

◦ A local variety of English can serve as a symbol of national unity.

4. Practical Reasons:

◦ English is the language of international air traffic control, policing, and

emergency services.

◦ It is the main language of international business, academic conferences, and

tourism.

5. Language of the United Nations (UN):

◦ English is an official language of the UN.

◦ Most UN business is conducted in English.

◦ Member countries are encouraged to learn English.

6. Intellectual Reasons:

◦ English is the language of science and technology.

◦ Over 80% of information in electronic retrieval systems is in English.

◦ Scholars access information on various subjects through English translations.

7. The Language of International Media Communication:

◦ English is the main language of satellite broadcasting (e.g., CNN, BBC, VOA).

◦ English influences local newspapers, television, radio, and advertising.

8. The Language of Entertainment:

◦ English is the main language of popular music and performing arts.

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

◦ It is the language of home computers, video games, and entertainment

programs.

CONCLUSION

English's prominence is due to historical, political, economic, and intellectual reasons.

Some scholars believe English will continue to develop local varieties and serve as a language
of identity. Factors like urbanization, literacy rates, and the number of native speakers will
influence its future status.

SUMMARY

English is a world language because of its historical advantage as a colonial language

and the rise of the USA as a leading economic power. It is the language of international
communication, education, science, technology, the United Nations, air traffic control,
policing, advertising, and entertainment.

Self-Assessment Activity 1

1. Do you think English will remain a world language in the next 50 years? Justify your
point.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ELS 100a History of the English Language

LESSON 9- AMERICAN ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

The rise of the United States as a world power is a key factor in the global status of the
English language. American English (AmE) is a new mother-tongue variety that has
influenced many world Englishes. This lesson explores the history and features of AmE and
distinguishes it from British English (BrE).

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. narrate the history of American English;

2. describe the features of AmE; and
3. distinguish between AmE and British English (BrE).

ENGLISH IN AMERICA

The first British expedition to America was in 1584. Settlers from different parts of
England landed in Virginia and Massachusetts. Due to different linguistic backgrounds,
variations in accent and language emerged.

1. Settlers in Virginia from the west of England voiced the 'r' after vowels.

2. Settlers in Massachusetts from the east of England did not.

In the 17th century, more immigrants settled in Pennsylvania and New York. Slave
trade brought slaves from West Africa, leading to the development of pidgin and Creole
languages. In the 18th century, mass migration from Ireland further shaped American
speech.

THE QUEST FOR GROWTH OF AMERICAN ENGLISH

American scholars, like Noah Webster, sought to establish an "American Standard" to

create an independent language system. Spelling reform was a major step. By the 1860s, the
American spelling system was established, along with distinct grammatical forms and
vocabulary.

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FEATURES OF AMERICAN ENGLISH

Differences in Spelling:

1. AmE (or) vs. BrE (our):

◦ color vs. colour

◦ favor vs. favour

◦ honor vs. honour

2. AmE (dgement) vs. BrE (dgement):

◦ acknowledgment vs. acknowledgement

◦ judgment vs. judgement

3. AmE (o) vs. BrE (ou):

◦ mold vs. mould

◦ smolder vs. smoulder

4. AmE (er) vs. BrE (re):

◦ center vs. centre

◦ theater vs. theatre

◦ liter vs. litre

5. AmE (e) vs. BrE (ae/oe):

◦ fetus vs. foetus

◦ medieval vs. mediaeval

◦ maneuver vs. manoeuvre

6. AmE (se) vs. BrE (ce):

◦ defense vs. defence

◦ license vs. licence

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◦ offense vs. offence

7. AmE (in) vs. BrE (en):

◦ indorse vs. endorse

◦ insure vs. ensure

8. AmE (single consonant) vs. BrE (double consonants):

◦ counselor vs. counsellor

◦ libelous vs. libellous

◦ quarreling vs. quarrelling

9. AmE (double consonants) vs. BrE (single consonant):

◦ fulfillment vs. fulfilment

◦ installment vs. instalment

◦ skillful vs. skilful

10. Other Spelling Differences:

◦ check vs. cheque

◦ draft vs. draught

◦ gage vs. gauge

◦ mustache vs. moustache

◦ plow vs. plough

◦ program vs. programme

◦ story vs. storey

◦ sulfur vs. sulphur

◦ tire vs. tyre

◦ whiskey vs. whisky

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Differences in Vocabulary:

1. AmE: faucet vs. BrE: tap

2. AmE: muffler vs. BrE: silencer

3. AmE: candy vs. BrE: sweets

4. AmE: driver's license vs. BrE: driving license

5. AmE: generator vs. BrE: dynamo

6. AmE: zero vs. BrE: nought, nil

7. AmE: line vs. BrE: queue

8. AmE: to ring vs. BrE: to call

9. AmE: game vs. BrE: match

10. AmE: soccer vs. BrE: football

11. AmE: gas vs. BrE: petrol

12. AmE: airplane vs. BrE: aeroplane

13. AmE: casket vs. BrE: coffin

14. AmE: cookie vs. BrE: biscuit

15. AmE: corn vs. BrE: maize

16. AmE: diaper vs. BrE: nappy

17. AmE: drapes vs. BrE: curtains

18. AmE: bookstore vs. BrE: bookshop

19. AmE: living room vs. BrE: sitting room

20. AmE: smock vs. BrE: overall

21. AmE: bill vs. BrE: bank note

22. AmE: flash light vs. BrE: touch light

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23. AmE: headlamp vs. BrE: headlight

24. AmE: candidature vs. BrE: candidacy

25. AmE: centennial vs. BrE: centenary

26. AmE: cook vs. BrE: cookery

27. AmE: racist, racism vs. BrE: racialist, racialism

28. AmE: transportation vs. BrE: transport

Differences in Grammar:

1. AmE: I'll see you at the weekend vs. BrE: I'll see you during the weekend

2. AmE: It's twenty after four vs. BrE: It's twenty past four

3. AmE: I haven't seen her in ages vs. BrE: I haven't seen her for ages

4. AmE: Monday through Friday vs. BrE: Monday to Friday inclusive

5. AmE: On Sundays we go to church vs. BrE: On Sundays we go to church

6. AmE: I looked out the window vs. BrE: I looked out of the window

7. AmE: Half the cash goes for clothes vs. BrE: Half the cash goes on clothes

8. AmE: They live on Broad street vs. BrE: They live in Broad street

9. AmE: I moved toward the car vs. BrE: I moved towards the car

10. AmE: Do you have the time? vs. BrE: Have you got the time?

11. AmE: The house was burned down vs. BrE: The house was burnt down

12. AmE: It's a half hour vs. BrE: It's half an hour

13. AmE: We shall see in the future vs. BrE: We shall see in future

14. AmE: She is still in the hospital vs. BrE: She is still in hospital

15. AmE: The government is democratic vs. BrE: The government are democratic

16. AmE: I'll go momentarily vs. BrE: I'll go in a moment

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17. AmE: I feel real good vs. BrE: I feel really good

Differences in Pronunciation:

1. AmE: /æzma/ vs. BrE (RP): /'asma/ (Asthma)

2. AmE: /klɛ:rk/ vs. BrE (RP): /kla:k/ (Clerk)

3. AmE: /klik/ vs. BrE (RP): /kli:k/ (Clique)

4. AmE: /'deta/ vs. BrE (RP): /'da:ta/ (Data)

5. AmE: /'li:3ar/ vs. BrE (RP): /'le3a/ (Leisure)

6. AmE: /'medisin/ vs. BrE (RP): /'medsn/ (Medicine)

7. AmE: /i'res/ vs. BrE (RP): /i'rez/ (Erase)

8. AmE: /'misal/ vs. BrE (RP): /'misail/ (Missile)

CONCLUSION

Americans have established a unique language culture. AmE has influenced other
varieties, including Canadian and British English. AmE is noticeable in many new Englishes
in Asia and Africa.

SUMMARY

English came to America in the 17th century with British settlements. Settlers with
different linguistic backgrounds led to distinct varieties and accents. Pidgin and Creole
developed in the Caribbean. American scholars like Noah Webster fostered a new American
linguistic identity. The uniqueness of AmE is evident in its spelling, grammar, vocabulary, and
pronunciation.

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Self- Assessment Activity 1

1. Compare and contrast the American English spelling with that of the British.

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REFERENCES

Algeo, John. (2010). The Origins and Development of the English Language. Boston:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Baugh, A.C. and Cable T. (2001). A History of the English Language, 5th ed. London: Routledge.

Culpepper, J. (1997). History of English. London: Routledge.

Kachru, Braj B. (1990). The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions and Models of
Nonnative Englishes.. Illinois: University of Illinois Press.

Lohr, Marisa. Open education. (2014). Accessed <[Link]

the- arts/culture/english-language/old-english-modern-english>.

Nelson, F. (1963). The History of English. New York: Norton and Co. Inc.

Owen, Alun and Brendan, O' Corraidhe. A Concise History of the English Language. n.d.

S. Nikku. (2022). Bicol State University. Accessed

[Link] university/bachelor-of-
elementary-education/vietor-triangle-of-11-amer-eng/37779249.

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