More on Details Plotting

Drawing paper sizes

Drawing sheets may be obtained from a standard roll of paper or already cut to size. Cut sheets
sometimes have a border of at least 15 mm width to provide a frame and this frame may be
printed with microfilm registration marks, which are triangular in shape and positioned on the
border at the vertical and horizontal centre lines of the sheet.
Title blocks are also generally printed in the bottom right hand corner of cut sheets and contain
items of basic information required by the drawing office or user of the drawing.

Typical references are as follows:

 Name of firm,
 Drawing number,
 Component name,
 Drawing scale and units of measurement,
 Projection used (first or third angle) and or symbol,
 Draughtsman’s name and checker’s signature,
 Date of drawing and subsequent modifications,
 Cross references with associated drawings or assemblies.

Standard size reductions from A0 to 35 mm microfilm.

Presentation
Drawing sheets and other documents should be presented in one of the following formats:
(a) Landscape—presented to be viewed with the longest side of the sheet horizontal.
(b) Portrait—presented to be viewed with the longest side of the sheet vertical.
Lettering
Drawings invariably need dimensions and notes and if these are added in a careless and
haphazard manner, then a very poor overall impression may be given. Remember that technical
drawings are the main line of communication between the originator and the user. Between a
consultant and his client, the sales manager and his customer, the designer and the manufacturer,
a neat well-executed technical drawing helps to establish confidence. The professional
draughtsman also takes considerable pride in his work and much effort and thought is needed
with respect to lettering, and spacing, in order to produce an acceptable drawing of high
standard. The following notes draw attention to small matters of detail which we hope will assist
the draughtsman’s technique of lettering.

(a) Lettering may be vertical or slanted, according to the style which is customarily used by the
draughtsman. The aim is to produce clear and unambiguous letters, numbers, and symbols.
(b) If slanted lettering is used, the slope should be approximately 65_–70_ from the horizontal.
Legibility is important. The characters should be capable of being produced at reasonable speed
and in a repeatable manner. Different styles on the same drawing spoil the overall effect.
(c) Use single stroke characters devoid of serifs and embellishments. [We will look into later
types later in the course unit]
(d) All strokes should be of consistent density.
(e) The spacing round each character is important to ensure that ‘filling in’ will not occur during
reproduction.
(f) Lettering should not be underlined since this impairs legibility.
(g) On parts lists or where information is tabulated, the letters or numerals should not be allowed
to touch the spacing lines.
(h) All drawing notes and dimensions should remain legible on reduced size copies and on the
screens of microfilm viewers.
(i) Capital letters are preferred to lower case letters since they are easier to read on reduced size
copies of drawings. Lower case letters are generally used only where they are parts of standard
symbols, codes or abbreviations.
(j) When producing a manual drawing the draughtsman should take care to select the proper
grade of pencil for lettering. The pencil should be sharp, but with a round point which will not
injure the surface. Mechanical pencils save time and give consistent results since no resharpening
is necessary.
(k) Typewritten, stencilled system may be used since these provide uniformity and a high degree
of legibility.

Drawing modifications

Revisions and modifications are regularly made to update a product, due for example, to changes
in materials, individual components, manufacturing techniques, operating experience and other
causes outside the draughtsman’s control. When a drawing is modified, its content changes and it
is vital that a note is given on the drawing describing briefly the reason for change and the date
that modifications were made. Updated drawings are then reissued to interested parties. Current
users must all read from a current copy. Near the title block, on a drawing will be placed a box
giving the date and Issue No., i.e. XXXA, XXXB, etc. These changes would usually be of a
minimal nature.
If a component drawing is substantially altered, it would be completely redrawn and given an
entirely new number.
The following suggestions are offered to assist in the preservation of drawings when erasures
have to be made.

1. Use soft erasers with much care. Line removal without damaging the drawing surface is
essential.
2. An erasing shield will protect areas adjacent to modifications.
3. Thoroughly erase the lines, as a ghost effect may be observed with incomplete erasures when
prints are made. If in any doubt, a little time spent performing experimental trial erasures on a
sample of a similar drawing medium will pay dividends, far better than experimenting on a
valuable original.

Care and storage of original drawings

Valuable drawings need satisfactory handling and storage facilities in order to preserve them in
first class condition. Drawings may be used and reused many times and minimum wear and tear
is essential if good reproductions and microfilms are to be obtained over a long period of time.
The following simple rules will assist in keeping drawings in ‘mint’ condition.

1. Never fold drawings.

2. Apart from the period when the drawing is being prepared or modified, it is good policy to
refer to prints at other times when the drawing is required for information purposes.
3. The drawing board should be covered outside normal office hours, to avoid the collection of
dust and dirt.
4. Too many drawings should not be crowded in a filing drawer. Most drawing surfaces, paper or
plastics, are reasonably heavy and damage results from careless manipulation in and out of
drawers.
5. Do not roll drawings tightly since they may not lie flat during microfilming.
6. Do not use staples or drawing pins. Tape and drawing clips are freely available.
7. When using drawings, try to use a large reference table. Lift the drawings rather than slide
them, to avoid smudging and wear.
8. Drawings should be stored under conditions of normal heat and humidity, about 210C and 40–
60% relative humidity.
Descriptive Statistics

Statistical techniques and procedures are applied in all fields of academic research; wherever
data are collected and summarized or wherever any numerical information is analyzed or
research is conducted, statistics are needed for sound analysis and interpretation of results.

Geographers use statistics in numerous ways;

 To describe and summarize spatial data.

 To make generalizations concerning complex spatial patterns.
 To estimate the probability of outcomes for an event at a given location.
 To use samples of geographic data to infer characteristics for a larger set of geographic
data (population).
 To determine if the magnitude or frequency of some phenomenon differs from one
location to another.
 To learn whether an actual spatial pattern matches some expected pattern.

Statistical data provide the cartographer with insight into a variety of issues and topics. The size
of a database is directly dependent upon both the number of observations and the number of
variables. Generally, we work with one variable at a time in an attempt to identify the spatial
aspects of a single topic which is the approach of thematic cartography.

Working with large data sets is sometimes difficult and cumbersome. In an effort to handle large
quantities of data, we tend to classify the data into smaller groupings. In doing so we are
generalizing the data in order to simplify the process of analysis and mapping by placing the
attributes into convenient categories. The result of classification enhances the under-standing of
the spatial patterns and information contained within the data.

Ratio, Proportion, Percent, and Rate

Four of the simplest derived indices used by geographers and cartographers are ratios,
proportions, percents, and rates. A ratio is a good way of expressing the relationship between
two data entities. It is expressed as

where fa is the number of items in one entity and fb the number in a second entity. The number
of items is referred to as the frequency. A familiar ratio in geography is population density, de-
fined as the number of people per square mile or other areal unit. This statistic is used to allow
for comparison of population data without the impact of size.
Proportion is the ratio of the number of items in one group (class) to the total of all items. It is
written:

where fa is the number of items (frequency) in a class and N is the total number of items or total
frequency.

Typically, proportions are multiplied by 100, yielding a percentage.

Percentage change is another frequently calculated variable based upon a single variable for
two different time periods.

Rates are similar to percentages except that the relation-ship is a value per some much larger
value. It is determined by the relationship of an observed number compared to a potential
number of occurrences for a given time or place.

For example, the General Fertility Rate (GFR);

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Central tendency (or, more commonly, a measure of central tendency) is a central or typical
value for a probability distribution. It may also be called a center or location of the distribution.
Colloquially, measures of central tendency are often called averages. The most common
measures of central tendency are the arithmetic mean, the median and the mode. A central
tendency can be calculated for either a finite set of values or for a theoretical distribution, such as
the normal distribution. Occasionally authors use central tendency to denote "the tendency of
quantitative data to cluster around some central value." The three main measures of central
tendency are:
  Arithmetic mean (or simply, mean) – It is calculated as sum of all measurements
divided by the number of observations in the data set. It is denoted by symbol ‘ ’. The
mean is calculated for a dataset below as an example;

Q; Calculate mean of 2,3,5,6,7,9,3,5,10,14,22

Ans; Since, Mean =

Mean= 8

 Median – the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data
set. The median and the mode are the only measures of central tendency that can be used
for ordinal data, in which values are ranked relative to each other but are not measured
absolutely. The median is simply the middle observations of the ranked dataset. As an
example the median of dataset given below is calculated;

Q: Calculate median of 2,3,2,4,5,11,7,8,9,11,19,23,25

Ans; Since for determining the median, the data has to be arranged either in ascending order or
descending order; therefore the data could be arranged as;

2,2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,11,19,23,25 OR 25,23,19,11,11,9,8,7,5,4,3, 2,2

The middle observation in both the cases is ‘8’, therefore median of given dataset is ‘8’.

 Mode – It is defined as the most frequent value or observation in the data set. This is the
only central tendency measure that can be used with nominal data, which have purely
qualitative category assignments. As an example, the mode of below given dataset is
calculated;

Mode of 2,3,5,4,5,6,4,5,9,10,5 is ‘5’ because it is most common observation.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Dispersion (also called variability, scatter, or spread) denotes how stretched or squeezed a
distribution (theoretical or that underlying a statistical sample) is. Common examples of
measures of statistical dispersion are the variance, standard deviation and interquartile range.
Dispersion is contrasted with location or central tendency, and together they are the most used
properties of distributions. A measure of statistical dispersion is a non-negative real number that
is zero if all the data are the same and increases as the data become more diverse. Most measures
of dispersion have the same units as the quantity being measured. In other words, if the
measurements are in metres or seconds, so is the measure of dispersion. Such measures of
dispersion include:

 Standard deviation
 Mean deviation
 Quartile deviation
 Range

Standard deviation (SD, also represented by the Greek letter sigma ‘σ’ or the Latin letter s) is a
measure that is used to quantify the amount of variation or dispersion of a set of data values. A
low standard deviation indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean (also called the
expected value) of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the data points are
spread out over a wider range of values. The mathematical formula for calculating standard
deviation is;

Where is the individual observations; is the mean and ‘N’ is the no. of observations

Mean deviation- The mean deviation (also called the mean absolute deviation) is the mean of
the absolute deviations of a set of data about the data's mean. For a sample size, the mean
deviation is defined by

where is the mean of the distribution.

DATA CLASSIFICATION

Classification is the process of assigning items to a group, or a set according to their attributes. It
is a technique of purposefully removing detail from an input data in the hope of revealing
important patterns (spatial distribution). We do so by assigning a characteristic value to each
element in the input set. If the number of characteristic values is smaller than the input set, we
have classified the input set. When the input data set may have been itself the result of some
classifications, we talk of reclassification.
Consider the following as an example:
If we observe a set of 100 vehicles in a shopping center parking lot, we will see a large variety of
makes, models, color, and size. Each of these descriptors can be used to classify the vehicles into
five classes. The Table below displays possible groupings so that within a group or class, the
vehicles are similar in character but when comparing the different classes, they are different.
This is similar to techniques discussed below in classifying quantitative numerical attribute data.

The more classes utilized, the more complex and often confusing the classification. Too few
classes oversimplifies the data and can hide detail. The cartographer often selects four or five
classes in which to group the data. There are no rules that state how many classes are required.
In producing a choropletic map using quantitative data, one needs to come up with meaningful
classes. There is no general answer to this, but to read a map, the number of classes should not be
greater than
- 6 for black and white map (6 gray values)
- 12 for a coloured map using e.g. two different colours
To calculate the appropriate number of classes there are two rules of the thumb:
- Maximum number of classes = √( number of items)
- Maximum number of classes = 1 + 3.32 *log (number of items)

A classification merges different mapping mints into the same class. In classification of vector,
data there are two possible results. The input features may become output features in a new data
layer, with an additional category assigned, noting changes to the spatial extents of the original
features. A second output is obtained when adjacent features with the same category are merged
into one bigger one through the process of spatial merging, aggregation or dissolving. There are
basically two kinds of classification: user controlled and automatic.

(i) User controlled classification: In this method, we (the GIS user) indicate which
attribute is, or which ones are the classifications parameters and define the classification
method i.e. declaring the number of classes as well as the correspondence between the
old and new classes ‐ referred to as manual in arc GIS

(ii) Automatic classification: These are provided by the GIS software where the user
only specifies the classes in the output data set. The system automatically determines the
class breaks; these are several techniques of determining the class breaks.
(a) Equal interval: The minimum and maximum values Vmax ‐ Vmin are determined
and the (constant) interval size for each category is calculated as Vmax ‐ Vmin /n where
n is the number of classes the user chooses.
(b) Equal frequency technique (Quantile classification): The objective is to create
categories with roughly equal numbers of features per category. The total numbers of
features is determined first, and the required number of categories is then used to
calculate the number of features per category. The class break points are then determined
by counting off the features in order of the classification parameters values. Not good for
features with widely different values.
(c) Logarithm: The range of classes is not constant but increases or decreased
exponentially.
(d) Natural breaks: This method uses the distribution of the values and looks for local
minimums. Classes are based on natural groupings of data values. The features are
divided into classes whose boundaries are set where there are relatively big jumps in the
data values.
Another automatic classification scheme is the standard deviation which shows you the
amount a features attribute varies for the mean (provided in arc map). The mean values
 calculated and the class breaks are by successively adding to it or subtracting from it the
standard deviation.

More on Data Classifi cation Schemes

The selection of the appropriate data classification scheme is determined by the characteristics of
the data and the desired level of generalization. The requirements of a classification scheme are:
1. Encompass the full range of the data.
2. Have neither overlapping values nor vacant classes.
3. Be great enough in number to avoid sacrificing the accuracy of the data, but not be so
numerous as to impute a greater degree of accuracy than is warranted by the nature of
the collected observations.
4. Divide the data into reasonably equal groups of observations.
5. Have a logical mathematical relationship if practical.

These five requirements are laudable and every cartographer ought to attempt to use these as
guidelines in determining the class limits in data classification.

Natural Breaks
The gaps between sequential observations are varied with some gaps being quite small and
others of varying magnitude. These gaps are what make the data have a spatial non-uniform
distribution. The cartographer can use the breaks in the data sequence as break points in the
classification process. When the cartographer uses a graphic display of the data distribution, such
as histograms or dispersion graphs, the steps are visually identified as natural breaks in the data.
These breaks can also be identified mathematically using a standard spreadsheet program.
When this approach is used the procedure is said to identify maximum breaks in the data.
Normally, however, both processes are referred to as a natural break classification. The
philosophy behind this technique is that we expect the data to cluster naturally, falling into small
groups with gaps or breaks between the groups.

Mean and Standard Deviation

If the data set displays a normal frequency distribution, class boundaries may be established by
using its standard deviation value. Class boundaries are compiled by comparing the mean and
standard deviation, then determining the boundaries by adding or subtracting the deviation from
the mean. Usually no more than six classes are needed to account for most values in a normal
distribution (Figure below). This method yields a constant class interval because the standard
deviation is unchanging.
This technique assumes two things. First, a normal distribution of the data exists, producing the
traditional bell-shaped curve. Second, the number of observations should be large enough in
order to justify the classification/simplification of the data.
Equal Interval
The equal interval classification assumes a desire for the data range of each class to be held
constant. This is sometimes referred to as an equal step classification. The determination of that
step is relatively simple. Simply divide the range of the entire data set by the number of classes
being used.
Using a hypothetical data set as an example, the data set range is a maximum of 1188 and a
minimum of 88. A five class equal interval would be comprised of steps of 220. No problem
exists as long as the second ranked data value is within the step value of the largest data value.

Equal Frequency
Equal frequency classification distributes the number of observations equally among each of the
classes. Frequently the cartographer divides the data into quantiles. This term is used to describe
the assigning of total frequency (observations) into a set of equal proportions. Commonly,
quartiles (four divisions) or quintiles (five divisions) are used. The use of quartiles and quintiles
is an accepted technique among scientists and researchers in the business world as earnings are
reported on a quarterly basis. Teachers evaluate their students and identify an individual who is
in the top twenty percent of the class. This level of data generalization also allows for the
comparison between variables in order to establish potential or probability. For example,
counties classified in the highest quartile in median household income, rate of unemployment,
and percent poverty may indicate counties that have relatively high rates of nonviolent crime.
A quantile equal frequency classification will produce five classes with ranges of various widths
in order to preserve the equal distribution of the observations. This technique will never produce
the possibility of a zero observation class as we just observed with equal interval approach. This
method works well when the number of observations is easily divisible by five (or however
many classes are specified).
User Defined
Although this method is not defined by a mathematical formula or rules for distributing the
observations as with the previous classification schemes, it is included in the GIS and mapping
software as a technique to permit maximum utility. The user defined method permits the
cartographer to specify data values for in identifying class breaks. If the results of the
classifications presented here produce what may seem as odd break points within the data, the
user can specify a new data range and implement the procedure as if it were an equal interval
classification.
There are times when the classifications techniques produce distributions that create spatial
patterns that are somewhat questionable. If one were to have a classification whereby a single
enumeration unit of the next higher (or lower) class is found within a much larger grouping of
observation, it would imply some difference that may be created only by the mathematical
approach taken. Upon examining the data, the user defined method would allow for adjustment
in the range of the class which would produce a more homogeneous spatial pattern.
The user defined method permits the cartographer to apply personal knowledge or logic in order
to produce a more meaningful visual display of the spatial data.

Data classification scheme

examples
COMPARISON OF CLASSIFICATION SCHEMES:
Advantages Vs. Disadvantages