5. DIAGRAMATIC AND GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 5.1 Introduction: In the previous chapter, we have discussed the techniques of classiticationand tabulation that help in summarising the collected data and presenting them in a systematie manner However, these forms of presentation do not always prove to be interesting to the common man, ‘One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which statistical results may be presented is through diagrams and graphs. Just one diagram is enough to represent a given data more effectively than thousand words. Moreover even a layman who has nothing to do with numbers can also understands diagrams. Evidence of this ean be found in newspapers, magazines, journals, advertisement, etc. An attempt is made in this chapter to illustrate some of the major types of diagrams and. graphs frequently used in presenting statistical data. 5.2. Diagrams: ‘A diagram is a visual from for presentation of statistical data, highlighting their basic ‘ucts and relationship. Ifwe dravv diagrams on the basis of the data collected they will easly be ‘understood and appreciated by all Ii readily intelligible and save a considerable amount of time and energy. 5.3. Significance of Diagrams and Graphs: Diagrams and graphs are extremely useful becauise of the following reasons, 1. They are attractive and impressive, . They make data simple and intelligible. . They make comparison possible 4. They save time and labour. 5. They have universal utility, 6. They give more information ‘They have a great memorizing effect. 5.4 General rules for constructing diagrams: The construction of diagrams is an art, which can be acquired through practice. However, observance of some general guidelines can help in making them more attractive and effective. The diagrammatic presentation of statistical facts will be advantageous provided the following rules are observed in drawing diagrams. 581. A diagram should be neatly drawn and attractive. 2. The measurements of geometrical figures used in diagram should be accurate and proportional. ‘The size of the diagrams should match the size of the paper. Every diagram musthave a suitable but short heading. ‘The scale should be mentioned in the diagram, Diagrams should be neatly as well as accurately drawn with the help of drawing instruments Index must be given for identification so that the reader can easily make out the meaning of the diagram. Footnote must be given at the bottom of the diagram. Economy in cost and energy should be exercised in drawing diagram, 5 Types of diagram; In practice, a very large variety of diagrams are in use and new ones are constantly being, added, For the sake of convenience and simplicity, they may be divided under the following heads: 1. One-dimensional diagrams 2. Twoxdimensional diagrams. 3. Three-dimensional diagrams 4, Pictograms and Cartograms ‘One-dimensional diagrams: In such diagrams, only one-dimensional measurement, i¢ height is used and the width isnot considered. These diagrams are in the form of bar or line charts and can be classified as 1. Line Diagram 2. Simple Diagram, Multiple Bar Diagram Sub-divided Bar Diagram Percentage Bar Diagram Line Diagram: Line diagram is used in ease where there are many items to be shown and there is not, much of difference in their values. Such diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for each item according to the scale. The distance between lines is kept uniform, Line diagram makes ‘comparison easy, but itis less attractive, 59,Example 1: Show the following data by a line chart: warts Je [a [= [2 a we pe fe ba fe ioe 7 as 2 I [ : : t Simple Bar Diagram Simple bar diagram can be drawn either on horizontal or vertical base, but bars on horizontal base more common, Bars must be uniform width and intervening space between bars must be equal. While constructing a simple bar diagram, the scale is determined on the basis of the highest value in the series, To make the diagram attractive, the bars can be coloured, Bar diagram are used in ‘business and economics. However, an important limitation of such diagrams is that they ean present only one classification or one category of data. For example, while presenting the population for the last five decades, one can only depict the total population in the simple bar diagrams, and not its sex-wise distribution. Example 2: Represent the following data by a bar diagram. Year Production (in tones) 1991 4s 1992 40 1993 2 1994 35 1995 50 60Solution : Simple Bar Diagram “ sz “| ui Es 2 ‘ ° near” 19219831088) Year Multiple Bar Diagram: Multiple bar diagram is used for comparing two or more sets of statistical data, Bars are constructed side by side to represent the set of values for comparison. In order to distinguish bars, they may be either differently coloured or there should be different types of erossings or dotting, ete. An index is also prepared to identify the meaning of different colours or dottings. Example 3: Draw a multiple bar diagram for the Following data Year Profit before tax (in lakhs of rupees) Profit after tax (in lakhs of rupees) 1998 195 80 1999 200 87 2000 165 45 2001 140. 32 Solution : Multiple Bar Diagram 4 460) zt ei Ey i r “ 2a a ‘one ” 1909” 2000” 2004 v ‘Profit bofore tax Profit aftor tax 61‘Sub-divided Bar Diagrat In a sub-divided bar diagram, the bar is sub-divided into various parts in proportion to the values given in the data and the whole bar represent the total, Such diagrams are also called ‘Component Bar diagrams. The sub divisions are distinguished by different colours or crossings, ordottings. ‘The main defect of such a diagram is that all the parts do not have a common base to «enable one to compare accurately the various components of the da Example 4: Represent the following data by a sub-divided bar diagram ‘Monthly expenditure (in Rs.) Expenditure items Family A Family B Food 75 5 Clothing 20 25 Education 15 10 Housing Rent 40 65 Miscellaneous 25 35 Solution : ‘Sub-divided Bar Diagram Monthly expenditure (in Rs) Food Ba Housing Rent Percentage bar diagram: This is another form of component bar diagram, Here the components are not the actual values but percentages of the whole. The main difference between the sub-divided bar diagram and pereentage bar diagram is that in the former the bars are of different heights since their totals may be different whereas inthe latter the bars are of equal height since each bar represents, 100 percent. In the case of data having sub-division, percentage bar diagram will be more appealing than sub-divided bar diagram, 62Example 5: Represent the following data by a percentage bar diagram, Particular Factory X Factory Y Selling Price 400 650 Quantity Sold 240 305 ‘Wages 3500 53000 ‘Materials 2100 3500 Miscellaneous 1400 2100 Solution: Convert the given values into percentages as follows: Particulars Factory A Factory B RS, % RS, % Selling Price. 400, 5 650 6 ‘Quantity Sold 240 3 365 3 Wages 3500 46 5000 B Materials 2100 28 0 30 Miscellaneous 1400 18, 2100 18 Total 7640 100 11615 100 Solution : ‘Sub-divided Percentage Bar Diagram Percentages osusessassé Factory A Factory 8 Particulars: [EiSeling price Ciauantity sold MMateriais _EEMiscellaneous 5.5.2 Two-dimensional Diagrams: Inone-dimensional diagrams, only length9 is taken into account. Butin two-dimensional diagrams the area represent the data and so the length and breadth have both to be taken into account. Such diagrams are also called area diagrams or surface diagrams. The important types of area diagrams are: 1. Rectangles 2. Squares 63Rectangles: Rectangles are used 10 represent the relative magnitude of two or more values. The area of the rectangles are kept in proportion to the values. Rectangles are placed side by side for comparison. When two sets of figures are to be represented by rectangles, either of the two methods may be adopted. ‘We may represent the figures as they are given or may convert them to percentages and then subdivide the length into various components. Thus the percentage sub-divided rectangular diagram is more popular than sub-divided rectangular since it enables comparison to be made ona percentage basis Example 6: Represent the following data by sub-divided percentage rectangular diagram. tems of Expenditure Family A, Family B (income Rs. 5000) (income Rs. 8000) Food 2000) 2500 Clothing 1000 2000 House Rent 800 1000) Fuel and lighting 400 500 Miscellaneous 800 2000 Total 5000) 8000 Solution: The items of expenditure will be converted into percentage as shown below: Items of Expenditure Family A Family B Rs. y Rs. Y Food 2000 40 2500 31 Clothing 1000 20 2000 25 House Rent 800 16 1000 1B Fuel and lighting 400 8 500 6 Miscellaneous 800 16 2000 25 Total 5000 100 8000 100SUBDIVIDED PERCENTAGE RECTANGULAR DIAGRAM [Bree caning Brose Bria ance Bits] Squares: ‘The rectangular method of diagrammatic presentation is difficult to use where the values of items vary widely. The method of drawing a square diagram is very simple, One has to take the square root ofthe values of various item that are to be shown in the diagrams and then select a suitable scale to draw the squares, Example 7: Yield of rice in Kys. per acre of five countries are Country, USA. | Australia] UK | Canada [India Yield of rice in Kgs per acre 6400 1600 | 2500 | 3600 [4900 Represent the above data by Square diagram, Solution: ‘To draw the square diagram we calculate as follows: Country Yield Square root] Side of the square in em USA 400, 30 4 ‘Australia 1600 40 2 UK. 2500 30 2.5 3600. 60 3 India 4900) 70 3.5 om Tem o USA, CANADA INDIA 65Pie Diagram or Circular Diagram: Another way of preparing a two-dimensional diagram is in the form of cireles. In such diagrams, both the total and the component parts or seetors can be shown. The area of a circle is proportional to the square of its radius, While making comparisons, pie diagrams should be used on a percentage basis and not on an absolute basis. In constructing a pie diagram the frst step is to prepare the data so that various components values can be transposed into corresponding degrees on the circle. ‘The second step is to draw a circle of appropriate size with a compass, The size of ‘the radius depends upon the available space and other factors of presentation. The third step is to measure points on the circle and representing the size of each sector with the help of a protractor Example 8: Drawa Pie diagram for the following data of production of sugar in quintals of various countries. ‘Country, Production of Sugar (in guintals) Cuba 2 Australia a7 India 35 Japan 16 Egypt 6 Solution: The values are expressed in terms of degree as follows. Production of Sugar Country In Quintals | In Degrees Cuba 2 134 Australia 47 102 Tndia 35 Japan 16 Egypt 6 Total 166 66Pie Diagram [mcuba lmaustralia |sSindia |Japan [ChEgypt 3 Three-dimensional diagrams: Three-dimensional diagrams, also knownas volume diagram, consistof cubes, cylinders, spheres, etc. In such diagrams three things, namely length, width and height have to be taken into account, OF all the figures, making of cubes is easy. Side ofa cube is drawn in proportion to the cube root of the magnitude of data, Cubes of figures can be ascertained with the help of logarithms. The logarithm of the figures can be divided by 3 and the antilog of that value will be the cube-rooe Example 9: Represent the following data by volume diagram, ‘Category ‘Number of Students Under graduate 64000 Post graduate 27000 Professional 3000 Solution: ‘The sides of cubes can be determined as follows ‘Category Number of Students | Cube root Side of cube Under graduate 64000. 40 4om Post graduate 27000 30 em Professionals, I 8000 20 2em dem 3em 2em Undergraduate Postgraduate Professional er4 Pietograms and Cartograms: Pictograms are not abstract presentation such as lines or bars but really depict the kind of data we are dealing with. Pictures are attractive and easy to comprehend and as such this method is particularly useful in presenting statistics to the layrnan, When Pictograms are used, data are represented through a pictorial symbol that is carefully selected Cartogramsor statistical mapsare used to give quantitative informationas a geographical basis. They are used to represent spatial distributions. The quantities on the map can be shown in many ways such as through shades or colours or dots or placing pictogram in each geographical unit. 5.6 Graphs: A graph is a visual form of presentation of statistical data, A graph is more attractive than a table of figure, Even @ common man can understand the message of data ftom the graph. ‘Comparisons can be made between two or more phenomena very easily with the help of a graph. However here we shall discuss only some important types of graphs which are more popular and they are | Histogram 2. Frequency Polygon [Link] Curve 4. Ogive 5. Lorenz Curve 5.6.1 Histogram: ‘A histogram is a bar chart or graph showing the frequency of occurrence of each value of the variable being analysed. In histogram, data are plotted as a series of rectangles. Class intervals are shown on the “X-axis? and the frequencies on the “Y-axis ‘The height of each rectangle represents the Frequency ofthe class interval, Fach rectangle is formed with the other sos to give a continuous picture, Such a graph is also called staircase orblock diagram. However, we cannot construct @ histogram for distribution with open-end classes. It is also quite misleading if the distribution has unequal intervals and suitable adjustments in frequencies are not made Example 1 Draw a histogram for the following data, Daily Wages: ‘Number of Workers 0-50 8 50-100 16 100-150 27 150-200 19 200-250 10 250-300 6 68Solution : HISTOGRAM 7 Example 1 For the following data, draw a histogram, 108 is 350 Daily Wages (in Rs) Marks ‘Number of Students 21-30 6 31-40 15 41-50 2 51-60 31 61-70 17 71-80 9 Solutio} Fordrawinga histogram, the frequency distribution should be continuous. I then first make it continuous as follows. iti Marks ‘Number of Students 20.5-30.5 6 30.5-40.5 15 40.5-50.5 22 50.5-60.5 31 60.5-70.5 17 70.5-80.5 9 69 notcontinuous,HISTOGRAM [Number of Students Marks Example 12: Draw & histogram for the following data. Profits Number of (in lakhs) Companies 0-10 4 10-20 12 20-30 24 30-50 32 50-80 18 80-90 9 90-100 3 Solution: ‘When the class intervals are unequal, a correetion for unequal class intervals must be made, The frequencies are adjusted as follows: The frequency of the class 30-50 shall bedivided by twosince the class interval isin double. Similarly the class interval 50-80 can be divided by 3. Then draw the histogram. Now we rewrite the frequency table as follows. 70Profits ‘Number of (in lakhs) Companies 0-10 4 10-20 12 20-30) 24 30-40 16 40-50 16 50-60 6 60-70) 6 70-80 6 80-90 3 90-100 3 HISTOGRAM : Profit (in Lakhs) 5.6.2 Frequency Polygon: If we mark the midpoints of the top horizontal sides of the rectangles ina histogram and Join them by a straight line, the figure so formed is called a Frequency Polygon. This is done under the assumption that the frequencies in a class interval are evenly distributed throughout the class. The area of the polygon is equal to the area of the histogram, because the area left outside is just equal to the area included in it. Example 13: Draw a frequency polygon for the following data, Weight (in kg) ‘Number of Students 30:35 4 35-40 7 4045) 10 45-50. 18 50-55 ry 35-60 8 60-65 3 nmFREQUENCY POLYGON Number of Students ‘Weight (in kes) 5.6.3 Frequeney Curve: If the middle point ofthe upper boundaries of the rectangles ofa histogram is corrected by a smooth freehand curve, then that diagram is called frequency curve, The curve should begin and end ut the base line Example Draw a frequency curve for the following data, Monthly Wages No. of family (in 0-1000 21 1000-2000 38 2000-3000 56 3000-4000 "4 4000-5000) 6 5000-6000 40 {6000-7000 29 7000-8000 14 72Solution : FREQUENCY CURVE - Monthly Wages in Rs. 5.6.4 gives: For a set of observations, we know how to construct a frequency distribution. In some cases we may require the number of observations less than a given value or more than a given value. This is obtained by a accumulating (adding) the frequencies upto These cumulative frequencies are then listed in a table is called cumulative frequency table, The curve table is obtained by plotting cumulative frequencies is called a cumulative frequency curve or an ogive. There are two methods of constructing ogive namely: 1. The * less than ogive” method 2. The ‘more than ogive” method. In less than ogive method we start with the upper limits of the classes and go adding the frequencies. When these frequencies are plotted, we get a rising curve, In more than ogive method, we start with the lower limits of the classes and from the total frequencies we subtract the frequency of each class, When these frequencies are plotted we get a declining curve. 73Example 15: Draw the Ogives for the following data. ‘Class interval Froquenc) 20-30 4 30-40 6 40-50 B 30-60 25 60-70 32 70-80 19) 80-90 8 90-100 3 Solution : (Class Timit Less than ogive More than ogive 20 0 10 30 4 106 40 10 100. 50 23 87 60 48. a 70 80 30 80 99, u 90 107 3 100. 110 0 Ogives axis Lem~ 10 units, yaxis Lem= 10 units Cumulative frequency Class timit 74,5.6.5 Lorenz Curve: Lorenz curve is a graphical method of studying dispersion, It was introduced by ‘[Link], a great Economist and a statistician, to study the distribution of wealth and income. Its also used to study the variability in the distribution of profits, wages, revenue, etc, It is specially used to study the degree of inequality in the distribution of income and, ‘wealth between countries or between different periods. It is a percentage of cumulative values ‘of one variable in combined with the percentage of cumulative values in other variable and then, Lorenz curve is drawn, ‘The curve starts from the origin (0,0) and ends at (100,100), Ifthe wealth, revenue, land tc are equally distributed among the people of the country, then the Lorenz curve will be the diagonal of the square. But this is highly impossible. ‘The deviation of the Lorenz curve from the diagonal, shows how the wealth, revenue, land ete are not equally distributed among people. Example 16: In the following table, profit earned is given from the number of companies belonging to two areas A and B. Draw in the same diagram their Lorenz curves and interpret them, Profit earned ‘Number of Companies 135 28 Solution: 2 3 5 2 & 25 g 25 26 12 25 75LORENZ-CURVE 100 % so 0 o Line of Equal Distribution 0 0 Cumulative Percentage of Profit o 20 40 0 *0 100 ‘Cumulative Percentage of Company Exercise ~5 Choose the best answer: Which of the following is one dimensional diagram. (a) Bardiagram —(b)Piediagram ——_(c) Cylinder (@) Histogram Percentage bar diagram has (a) data expressed in percentages (b) equal width (©) equal interval (@) equal width and equal interval 763 Frequency curve (a) begins at the origin (b) passes through the origin (©) begins at the horizontal line (a) begins and ends at the base line, With the help of histogram we can draw (a) frequency polygon (b) frequency curve (©) frequeney distribution (a)all the above Ogives for more than type and less than type distribution intersect at (a)mean—(b) median (©) mode (a) origin Fill in the blanks: Sub-divided bar diagram are also called___ diagram, In rectangular diagram, comparison is based on__of the rectangles. Squares are dimensional diagrams. Ogives for more than type and less than type distribution intersects at Curve is graphical method of studying dispersion. Answer the following: What is diagram? How diagrams are useful in representing statistical data ‘What are the significance of diagrams? ‘What are the rules for making a diagram? ‘What are the various types of diagrams ‘Write short notes on (a) Bar diagram (b) Sub divided bar diagram. ‘What is a pie diagram? Write short notes on @) Histogram b) Frequency Polygon ©) Frequency curved) Ogive ‘What are less than ogive and more than ogive? What purpose do they serve? ‘What is Lorenz curve? Mention its important. 7