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UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Concept of Circuit and Network

Types of elements
R-L-C Parameters
Independent and Dependent sources
Source transformation Technique
Laws
Simple Problems

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INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

Network theory is the study of solving the problems of electric circuits or electric
networks. In this introductory chapter, let us first discuss the basic terminology of electric circuits and the
types of network elements.
Basic Terminology
In Network Theory, we will frequently come across the following terms

Electric Circuit
Electric Network
Current
Voltage
Power
So, it is imperative that we gather some basic knowledge on these terms before proceeding further.
start with Electric Circuit.
Electric Circuit
An electric circuit contains a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a voltage
source or current source. The elements present in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel
connection, or in any combination of series and parallel connections.
Electric Network
An electric network need not contain a closed path for providing a flow of electrons from a
voltage source or current source. Hence, we can conclude that "all electric circuits are electric networks"
but the converse need not be true.
Current
The current "I" flowing through a conductor is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge.
Mathematically, it can be written as

I=

Where,
Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
t is the time and its unit is second.
As an analogy, electric current can be thought of as the flow of water through a pipe. Current is measured
in terms of Ampere. In general, Electron current flows from negative terminal of source to positive
terminal, whereas, Conventional current flows from positive terminal of source to negative terminal.

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Electron current is obtained due to the movement of free electrons, whereas, Conventional current is
obtained due to the movement of free positive charges. Both of these are called as electric current.
Voltage
The voltage "V" is nothing but an electromotive force that causes the charge (electrons) to
flow. Mathematically, it can be written as

V=

Where,
W is the potential energy and its unit is Joule.
Q is the charge and its unit is Coloumb.
As an analogy, Voltage can be thought of as the pressure of water that causes the water to flow through a
pipe. It is measured in terms of Volt.
Power
The power "P" is nothing but the time rate of flow of electrical energy. Mathematically, it
can be written as

P=

Where,
W is the electrical energy and it is measured in terms of Joule.
t is the time and it is measured in seconds.
We can re-write the above equation a

P=

Therefore, power is nothing but the product of voltage V and current I. Its unit is Watt.
Types of Network Elements
We can classify the Network elements into various types based on some parameters.
Following are the types of Network elements
Active Elements and Passive Elements
Linear Elements and Non-linear Elements
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Lumped Elements and Distributed Elements

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Active Elements and Passive Elements

We can classify the Network elements into either active or passive based on the ability of
delivering power.
Active Elements deliver power to other elements, which are present in an electric circuit.
Sometimes, they may absorb the power like passive elements. That means active elements have the
capability of both delivering and absorbing power.
Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.

That means these elements either dissipate power in the form of heat or store energy in the form of
either magnetic field or electric field.
Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Linear Elements and Non-Linear Elements
We can classify the network elements as linear or non-linear based on their characteristic to
obey the property of linearity.
Linear Elements are the elements that show a linear relationship between voltage and
current. Examples: Resistors, Inductors, and capacitors.
Non-Linear Elements are those that do not show a linear relation between voltage and
current. Examples: Voltage sources and current sources.
Bilateral Elements and Unilateral Elements
Network elements can also be classified as either bilateral or unilateral based on the direction
of current flows through the network elements.
Bilateral Elements are the elements that allow the current in both directions and offer the same impedance
in either direction of current flow. Examples: Resistors, Inductors and capacitors.
The concept of Bilateral elements is illustrated in the following figures.

In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals A to B through a passive element having
impedance of Z It is the ratio of voltage (V) across that element between terminals A & B and current (I).

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In the above figure, the current (I) is flowing from terminals B to A through a passive element having
impedance of Z I) is flowing from terminals A to B. In this case too, we will
get the same impedance value, since both the current and voltage having negative signs with respect to
terminals A & B.
Unilateral Elements are those that allow the current in only one direction. Hence, they offer different
impedances in both directions.
We discussed the types of network elements in the previous chapter. Now, let us identify the nature of
network elements from the V-I characteristics given in the following examples.
Example 1
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line passing through the
origin. Hence, it is linear element.
Step 2 Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants.
In the first quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) are positive. So, the ratios of
voltage (V) and current (I) gives positive impedance values.

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Similarly, in the third quadrant, the values of both voltage (V) and current (I) have negative values.
So, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values.
Since, the given V-I characteristics offer positive impedance values, the network element is a Passive
element.
Step 3 Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
For every point (I, V) on the characteristics, there exists a corresponding point (-I, -V) on the given
characteristics. Hence, the network element is a Bilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Linear, Passive, and Bilateral
element.
Example 2
The V-I characteristics of a network element is shown below.

Step 1 Verifying the network element as linear or non-linear.

From the above figure, the V-I characteristics of a network element is a straight line only between the
points (-3A, -3V) and (5A, 5V). Beyond these points, the V-I characteristics are not following the linear
relation. Hence, it is a Non-linear element.
Step 2 Verifying the network element as active or passive.
The given V-I characteristics of a network element lies in the first and third quadrants. In these two
quadrants, the ratios of voltage (V) and current (I) produce positive impedance values. Hence, the network
element is a Passive element.
Step 3 Verifying the network element as bilateral or unilateral.
Consider the point (5A, 5V) on the characteristics. The corresponding point (-5A, -3V) exists on the given
characteristics instead of (-5A, -5V). Hence, the network element is a Unilateral element.
Therefore, the given V-I characteristics show that the network element is a Non-linear, Passive,
and Unilateral element. The circuits containing them are called unilateral circuits.
Lumped and Distributed Elements
Lumped elements are those elements which are very small in size & in which simultaneous actions
takes place. Typical lumped elements are capacitors, resistors, inductors.

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Distributed elements are those which are not electrically separable for analytical purposes.
For example a transmission line has distributed parameters along its length and may extend for hundreds
of miles.
R-L-C Parameters
Resistor
The main functionality of Resistor is either opposes or restricts the flow of electric current.
Hence, the resistors are used in order to limit the amount of current flow and / or dividing (sharing) voltage.
Let the current flowing through the resistor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
resistor along with current, I and voltage, V are shown in the following figure.

flowing through it and the

resistance of that resistor. Mathematically, it can be represented as
V=I*R Equation 1
I=V/R Equation 2

Where, R is the resistance of a resistor.

From Equation 2, we can conclude that the current flowing through the resistor is directly proportional to
the applied voltage across resistor and inversely proportional to the resistance of resistor.
Power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
P=V*I Equation 3
Substitute, Equation 1 in Equation 3.

P= (IR) I
P=I2R Equation 4

Substitute, Equation 2 in Equation 3.

P=V*(V/R)

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P=V2/R Equation 5

So, we can calculate the amount of power dissipated in the resistor by using one of the formulae mentioned
in Equations 3 to 5.
Inductor
In general, inductors will have number of turns. Hence, they produce magnetic flux when
current flows through it. So, the amount of total magnetic flux produced by an inductor depends on the
current, I flowing through it and they have linear relationship.
Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
is the total magnetic flux
L is the inductance of an inductor
Let the current flowing through the inductor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol of
inductor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

According to law, the voltage across the inductor can be written as

V=

Substitute = LI in the above equation.

V=

V=

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I=

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
inductor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
P=V*I
Substitute V = in the above equation

p=

p=

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in an inductor as
W=

So, the inductor stores the energy in the form of magnetic field.
Capacitor
In general, a capacitor has two conducting plates, separated by a dielectric medium. If
positive voltage is applied across the capacitor, then it stores positive charge. Similarly, if negative voltage
is applied across the capacitor, then it stores negative charge.
So, the amount of charge stored in the capacitor depends on the applied voltage V across it and they have
linear relationship. Mathematically, it can be written as

Where,
Q is the charge stored in the capacitor.
C is the capacitance of a capacitor.
Let the current flowing through the capacitor is I amperes and the voltage across it is V volts. The symbol
of capacitor along with current I and voltage V are shown in the following figure.

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We know that the current is nothing but the time rate of flow of charge. Mathematically, it can be
represented as

I=

Substitute Q = CV in the above equation.

I=

I=

V=

From the above equations, we can conclude that there exists a linear relationship between voltage across
capacitor and current flowing through it.
We know that power in an electric circuit element can be represented as
P=V*I
Substitute I= in the above equation

p=

p=

By integrating the above equation, we will get the energy stored in the capacitor as
W=

So, the capacitor stores the energy in the form of electric field.

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Passive Sign Convention:

The concept of passive sign convention comes directly from the definition of voltage.
Voltage is a difference of charge between two places in space. Not an absolute quality. You could think of it
in terms of depth and height.
Something has an elevation or height only with respect to something else such as sea level. Likewise depth,
something is only deep compared to some level, again such as sea level.
There is one difference between depth and height. We consider height to be positive and depth to be
negative. One of the reasons why we do this is because we usually deal more with height than depth, and we
wish to minimize the amount of subtraction that we perform.
The passive sign convention is the same concept. It is an algorithm to decide what is adding potential energy
to the system and what is taking it away.
Here are some basic ground rules:
All resistors are either positive or negative uniformly. Which means that if you consider one resistor to
be positive (which is the common case) then all the resistors are positive.
At least one source is the opposite sign of the resistors. If only one is present then that is the one.
Always start by making your loop.
Why do we use this Passive sign convention?
One of the most important ideas of an electric circuit is that there is a source of power and a dissipater of
power. As circuit connections become more intricate this basic idea becomes more blurred. In some cases
there is more than one power supply at different circuit locations, such that simple addition of their power
magnitudes is not possible. We need to know which direction power supply and consumption is. The next
examples will illustrate this.

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Points A and B physical end points of an element. By convention A (+) has a higher potential than (-) by
amount V. If V is negative then B is higher than A. but the signs remain unchanged. The current I enter
point A and leaves point B .If I is negative then current is entering point B and existing point A.

Electric charge Q at point A gets moves from a higher potential to a lower potential (i.e from points A to B).
Since the charge is leaving at a lower potential the charge has lost potential energy. This is called a resistor.
If the charge moves from B to A it gains potential energy. This is called a source.

If we keep A and B as the (+) and (-) terminals, then there are four possible combinations. The two cases (-
V, -I) and (+V, +I) are ones where the element acts as a resistor, and it uses up energy. The two cases (-V,
+I) and (+V, -I) are ones where the element acts as a source, and it supplies energy.

If we flip A to be (-) and B to be (+) then we have effectively rotated the element by 180 degrees. All of the
above cases still hold true.

Being comfortable with the convention and being able to quickly visualize different combinations of +/- I or
+/- V from either terminal A or B will help in using the circuit solving methods of Mesh and Nodal
Analysis.

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Types of Sources
Active Elements are the network elements that deliver power to other elements present in an
electric circuit. So, active elements are also called as sources of voltage or current type. We can classify
these sources into the following two categories

Independent Sources
Dependent Sources
Independent Sources
As the name suggests, independent sources produce fixed values of voltage or current and
these are not dependent on any other parameter. Independent sources can be further divided into the
following two categories

Independent Voltage Sources

Independent Current Sources
Independent Voltage Sources
An independent voltage source produces a constant voltage across its two terminals. This
voltage is independent of the amount of current that is flowing through the two terminals of voltage source.
Independent ideal voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source voltage (VS) irrespective of the current value (I). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal voltage source is zero Ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal voltage sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical voltage source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical voltage source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal voltage source. This is due to the voltage drop across the internal
resistance (RS) of an independent practical voltage source.
Independent Current Sources
An independent current source produces a constant current. This current is independent of
the voltage across its two terminals. Independent ideal current source and its V-I characteristics are shown
in the following figure.

The V-I characteristics of an independent ideal current source is a constant line, which is always equal to
the source current (IS) irrespective of the voltage value (V). So, the internal resistance of an independent
ideal current source is infinite ohms.
Hence, the independent ideal current sources do not exist practically, because there will be some internal
resistance.
Independent practical current source and its V-I characteristics are shown in the following figure.

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There is a deviation in the V-I characteristics of an independent practical current source from the V-I
characteristics of an independent ideal current source. This is due to the amount of current flows through
the internal shunt resistance (RS) of an independent practical current source.
Dependent Sources
As the name suggests, dependent sources produce the amount of voltage or current that is
dependent on some other voltage or current. Dependent sources are also called as controlled sources.
Dependent sources can be further divided into the following two categories

Dependent Voltage Sources

Dependent Current Sources
Dependent Voltage Sources
A dependent voltage source produces a voltage across its two terminals. The amount of this
voltage is dependent on some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent voltage sources can be further
classified into the following two categories

Voltage Dependent Voltage Source (VDVS)

Current Dependent Voltage Source (CDVS)
Dependent voltage sources are represented with the signs and - inside a diamond shape. The
magnitude of the voltage source can be represented outside the diamond shape.
Dependent Current Sources
A dependent current source produces a current. The amount of this current is dependent on
some other voltage or current. Hence, dependent current sources can be further classified into the following
two categories

Voltage Dependent Current Source (VDCS)

Current Dependent Current Source (CDCS)

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Dependent current sources are represented with an arrow inside a diamond shape. The magnitude of the
current source can be represented outside the diamond shape. We can observe these dependent or controlled
sources in equivalent models of transistors.
Source Transformation Technique
We know that there are two practical sources, namely, voltage source and current source. We
can transform (convert) one source into the other based on the requirement, while solving network
problems.
The technique of transforming one source into the other is called as source transformation technique.
Following are the two possible source transformations

Practical voltage source into a practical current source

Practical current source into a practical voltage source
Practical voltage source into a practical current source
The transformation of practical voltage source into a practical current source is shown in the
following figure

Practical voltage source consists of a voltage source (VS) in series with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical current source as shown in the figure. It consists of a current source (IS) in
parallel with a resistor (RS).
The value of IS will be equal to the ratio of VS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
IS=

Practical current source into a practical voltage source

The transformation of practical current source into a practical voltage source is shown in the
following figure.

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Practical current source consists of a current source (IS) in parallel with a resistor (RS). This can be
converted into a practical voltage source as shown in the figure. It consists of a voltage source (V S) in series
with a resistor (RS).
The value of VS will be equal to the product of IS and RS. Mathematically, it can be represented as
VS=IS*RS
In this chapter, we will discuss in detail about the passive elements such as Resistor, Inductor, and
Capacitor. Let us start with Resistors.
Laws
Network elements can be either of active or passive type. Any electrical circuit or network
contains one of these two types of network elements or a combination of both.
Now, let us discuss about the following two laws, which are popularly known as laws.

Current Law
Voltage Law
Curr ent Law

equal to zero.
A Node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected to it. If only two circuit elements are
connected to a node, then it is said to be simple node. If three or more circuit elements are connected to a
node, then it is said to be Principal Node.
Mathematically, KCL can be represented as

Where,
Im is the mth branch current leaving the node.

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M is the number of branches that are connected to a node.

The above statement of KCL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is
equal to the algebraic sum of currents leaving a node". Let us verify this statement through the following
example.
Example
Write KCL equation at node P of the following figure.

In the above figure, the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 are entering at node P. So, consider negative
signs for these three currents.
In the above figure, the branch currents I4 and I5 are leaving from node P. So, consider positive signs
for these two currents.
The KCL equation at node P will be
-I1-I2-I3+I4+I5=0
I1+I2+I3=I4+I5

In the above equation, the left-hand side represents the sum of entering currents, whereas the right-hand
side represents the sum of leaving currents.
In this tutorial, we will consider positive sign when the current leaves a node and negative sign when it
enters a node. Similarly, you can consider negative sign when the current leaves a node and positive sign
when it enters a node. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note KCL is independent of the nature of network elements that are connected to a node.
Voltage Law
Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of voltages around a loop or
mesh is equal to zero.
A Loop is a path that terminates at the same node where it started from. In contrast, a Mesh is a loop that
contain any other loops inside it.

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Mathematically, KVL can be represented as

Where,
Vn is the nth voltage in a loop (mesh).
N is the number of network elements in the loop (mesh).
The above statement of KVL can also be expressed as "the algebraic sum of voltage sources is equal to the
algebraic sum of voltage drops that are present in a loop." Let us verify this statement with the help of the
following example.
Example
Write KVL equation around the loop of the following circuit.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, V S in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
voltage drops across the resistors R1 and R2 are V1 and V2 respectively.
Apply KVL around the loop.
VS-V1-V2=0
VS=V1+V2
In the above equation, the left-hand side term represents single voltage source VS. Whereas, the right-hand

why the left-hand side contains only one term. If we consider multiple voltage sources, then the left side
contains sum of voltage sources.

present while travelling around the loop. Similarly, you can consider the sign of each voltage as the polarity
of the first terminal that is present while travelling around the loop. In both cases, the result will be same.
Note KVL is independent of the nature of network elements that are present in a loop.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two division principles of electrical quantities.

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Current Division Principle

Voltage Division Principle
Current Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in parallel, the amount of current that
flows through each element gets divided(shared) among themselves from the current that is entering the
node.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of an input current source IS in parallel with two resistors R1 and R2.
The voltage across each element is VS. The currents flowing through the
resistors R1 andR2 are I1 and I2 respectively.
The KCL equation at node P will be
IS = I1+I2
Substitute I1= and I2= in the above equation

IS = + =

VS=
Substitute the values of V in I =
S 1

1I =

I1=
Substitute the values of V in I =
S 2

2I =

I2=

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From equations of I1 and I2, we can generalize that the current flowing through any passive element can be
found by using the following formula.
IN=IS Z1
Z1

This is known as current division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in parallel and only one current enters the node.
Where,
IN is the current flowing through the passive element of Nth branch.
IS is the input current, which enters the node.
Z1 , Z2 N are the impedances of 1st branch, 2ndbranch, Nth branch respectively.
Voltage Division Principle
When two or more passive elements are connected in series, the amount of voltage present
across each element gets divided (shared) among themselves from the voltage that is available across that
entire combination.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

The above circuit diagram consists of a voltage source, VS in series with two resistors R1 and R2. The
current flowing through these elements is IS. The voltage drops across the resistors R1and R2 are V1 and
V2 respectively.
The KVL equation around the loop will be
VS=V1+V2
Substitute V1 = IS R1 and V2 = IS R2 in the above equation

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VS= IS R1 + IS R2 = IS (R1 +R2)

IS =

Substitute the value of IS in V1 = IS R1.

V=
1

V=
1

Substitute the value of IS in V2 = IS R2.

V=
2

V=
2

From equations of V1 and V2, we can generalize that the voltage across any passive element can be found by
using the following formula.

vN = vS (
Z1

This is known as voltage division principle and it is applicable, when two or more passive elements are
connected in series and only one voltage available across the entire combination.
Where,
VN is the voltage across Nth passive element.
VS is the input voltage, which is present across the entire combination of series passive elements.
Z1,Z2 Z3 are the impedances of 1 st passive element, 2nd passive element, Nth passive element
respectively.

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Find the current flowing through 10 ohms resistor using KVL and KCL.

Method 1: LOOP ANALYSIS (BY CONSIDERING BRANCH CURRENTS)

INDICATE CURRENTS IN EACH BRANCH

APPLY KVL AT LOOP 1

20-5I1-5I2=0
I1+I2=4 1)

APPLY KVL AT LOOP 2

-10I3-5I4+5I2=0
I2-2I3-I4=0 2)
APPLY KVL AT LOOP 3
-5I5-5I5+5I4=0
I4-2I5=0 3)

FROM KCL I1=I2+I3, I3=I4+I5

SUB I5=I3-I4 I EQUATION 3, WE GET,

I4=2/3I3 4)

SUB I4 VALUE IN EQUATION 2, WE GET,

-8I1+11I2=0 5)
SOLVE 5 AND 1, WE WILL GET
I2=1.684A

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FROM EQUATION 1, SUB I2 VALUE WE GET I1= 2.31A

FROM KCL I3=I1-I2

I3 =2.31-1.64=0.63A
Current flowing through 10 ohm resistor Is I3 and the Value Is 0.63 A.

EX: Find the current flowing through R2 resistor

APPLY KCL AT NODE

I1+I2+I3=0

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Current Flowing Through R2 IS =

=0.8mA

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UNIT-II
NETWORK ANALYSIS

Network Reduction Techniques

Series and Parallel connection of Resistive Networks
Star to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks
Mesh Analysis
Network Theorems: Theorem
Theorem
Superposition Theorem
Problems

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Network Reduction Techniques:

There are two basic methods that are used for solving any electrical network: Nodal analysis and Mesh
analysis. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Mesh analysis method.
Series and parallel connections of resistive networks:
If a circuit consists of two or more similar passive elements and are connected in exclusively of series type
or parallel type, then we can replace them with a single equivalent passive element. Hence, this circuit is
called as an equivalent circuit.
In this chapter, let us discuss about the following two equivalent circuits.

Series Equivalent Circuit

Parallel Equivalent Circuit
Series Equivalent Circuit
If similar passive elements are connected in series, then the same current will flow through
all these elements. But, the voltage gets divided across each element.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single voltage source (VS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2 and R3. All these
elements are connected in series. The current IS flows through all these elements.
The above circuit has only one mesh. The KVL equation around this mesh is
VS = V1+V2+V3
Substitute the value of V1 = IS R1, V2 = IS R2 and V3 = IS R3
Vs = IS R1+ IS R2 + IS R3
Vs = IS (R1+R2 +R3)
The above equation in the form of Vs = IS REq where,
REq=(R1+R2 +R3)
The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

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That means, if multiple resistors are connected in series, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to sum of the resistances of all those multiple
resistors.
Note 1 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in series, then the equivalent
inductance will be
LEq= L1+L2+L3 N

Note 2 If capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CNare connected in series, then the equivalent
capacitance will be

Parallel Equivalent Circuit

If similar passive elements are connected in parallel, then the same voltage will be
maintained across each element. But, the current flowing through each element gets divided.
Consider the following circuit diagram.

It has a single current source (IS) and three resistors having resistances of R1, R2, and R3. All these elements
are connected in parallel. The voltage (VS) is available across all these elements.
The above circuit has only one principal node (P) except the Ground node. The KCL equation at this
principal node (P) is

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IS = I1+I2+I3
Substitute the value of I1 = , I2 = and I3 =

IS = + +

IS = ( + + )

VS= IS

The above equation in the form of Vs = IS REq where,

REq=

The equivalent circuit diagram of the given circuit is shown in the following figure.

That means, if multiple resistors are connected in parallel, then we can replace them with an equivalent
resistor. The resistance of this equivalent resistor is equal to the reciprocal of sum of reciprocal of each
resistance of all those multiple resistors.
Note 1 1, L2, ..., LN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
inductance will be

Note 2 capacitors having capacitances of C1, C2, ..., CN are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
capacitance will be
CEq = C1+C2+C3 ........................ +CN

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Example Problems:

1) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

fig(a)
Solution:

To get Req we combine resistors in series and in parallel. The 6 ohms and 3 ohms resistors are in parallel, so
their equivalent resistance is

Also, the 1 ohm and 5ohms resistors are in series; hence their equivalent resistance is

Thus the circuit in Fig.(b) is reduced to that in Fig. (c). In Fig. (b), we notice that the two 2 ohms resistors
are in series, so the equivalent resistance is

This 4 ohms resistor is now in parallel with the 6 ohms resistor in Fig.(b); their equivalent resistance is

The circuit in Fig.(b) is now replaced with that in Fig.(c). In Fig.(c), the three resistors are in series. Hence,
the equivalent resistance for the circuit is

2) Find the Req for the circuit shown in below figure.

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Solution:
In the given network 4 ohms, 5 ohms and 3 ohms comes in series then equivalent resistance is
4+5 + 3 = 12 ohms

From fig(b), 4 ohms and 12 ohms are in parallel, equivalent is 3 ohms

From fig(c), 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series, equivalent resistance is 6 ohms

From fig(d), 6 ohms and 6 ohms are in parallel, equivalent resistance is 3 ohms

From fig(e), 4 ohms, 3 ohms and 3 ohms are in series .Hence Req = 4+ 3+ 3 =10 ohms

Star to-Delta and Delta-to-Star Transformations for Resistive Networks:

Delta to Star Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed an example problem related equivalent resistance.
There, we calculated the equivalent resistance between the terminals A & B of the given electrical network
easily. Because, in every step, we got the combination of resistors that are connected in either series form
or parallel form.

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However, in some situations, it is difficult to simplify the network by following the previous approach. For
example, the resistors connected in either delta form or star form. In such situations, we have
to convert the network of one form to the other in order to simplify it further by using series combination or
parallel combination. In this chapter, let us discuss about the Delta to Star Conversion.

Delta Network
Consider the following delta network as shown in the following figure.

The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of delta network, when
the third terminal is kept open.

Star Network
The following figure shows the equivalent star network corresponding to the above delta
network.

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The following equations represent the equivalent resistance between two terminals of star network, when the
third terminal is kept open.

RAB = RA+RB
RBC = RB+RC
RCA= RC+RA
StarNetwork Resistancesin terms of Delta Network Resistances
We will get the following equations by equating the right-hand side terms of the above
equations for which the left-hand side terms are same.

A B
R +R
= Equation 1

B C
R +R
= Equation 2

C A
R +R
= Equation 3

By adding above three equations, we will get

2(R +R +R
A B C) =
R +R +R
= Equation 4
A B C

Subtracting equation 2 from equation 4, we will get

R +R +R - (R +R )
A B C B C = -

R A=

Subtracting equation 3 from equation 4, we will get

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R +R +R - (R +R -
A B C C A) =

RB =

Subtracting equation 1 from equation 4, we will get

R +R +R - (R -
A B C A+RB ) =

RC =

By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of star network from the resistances of delta
network. In this way, we can convert a delta network into a star network.
Star to Delta Transformation
In the previous chapter, we discussed about the conversion of delta network into an
equivalent star network. Now, let us discuss about the conversion of star network into an equivalent delta
network. This conversion is called as Star to Delta Conversion.
In the previous chapter, we got the resistances of star network from delta network as

RA =

RB =

RC =

Delta Network Resistances in terms of Star Network Resistances

Let us manipulate the above equations in order to get the resistances of delta network in
terms of resistances of star network.
Multiply each set of two equations and then add.
RARB+RBRC+RCRA=

R R +R R +R R =
A B B C C A

R R +R R +R R =
A B B C C A

By dividing equation 4 with equation 2, we will get

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By dividing equation 4 with equation 3, we will get

By dividing equation 4 with equation 1, we will get

By using the above relations, we can find the resistances of delta network from the resistances of star
network. In this way, we can convert star network into delta network.

Example problems:

1) Convert the Delta network in Fig.(a) to an equivalent star network

Solution:

2) Convert the star network in fig(a) to delta network

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Solution: The equivalent delta for the given star is shown in fig(b), where

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3) Determine the total current I in the given circuit.

Solution: Delta connected resistors 25 ohms, 10 ohms and 15 ohms are converted in to star as shown in
given figure.

R1 = R12 R31 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 10 x 25 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 5 ohms

R2 = R23 R12 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 15 x 10 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 3 ohms
R3 = R31 R23 / R12 + R23 + R31 = 25 x 15 / 10 + 15 + 25 = 7.5 ohms

The given circuit thus reduces to the circuit shown in below fig.

The equivalent resistance of

(20 + 5) ohms || (10 + 7.5) ohms = 25 x 17.5 / 25 + 17.5 = 10.29 ohms
Total resistance = 10.29 + 3 + 2.5 = 15.79 ohms
Hence the total current through the battery,
I = 15 / 15.79 = 0.95 A

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Mesh Analysis:
Mesh analysis provides general procedure for analyzing circuits using mesh currents as the circuit
variables. Mesh Analysis is applicable only for planar networks. It is preferably useful for the circuits that
have many loops .This analysis is done by using KVL and Ohm's law.
In Mesh analysis, we will consider the currents flowing through each mesh. Hence, Mesh analysis is also
called as Mesh-current method.
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only one
mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference) of
two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure ofMesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
Step 1 label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
Step 2 Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh currents.
Step 3
then law.
Step 4 Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.

Example
Find the voltage across 30 resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in clockwise
direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.

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Step 2 1 flows through 20 V voltage source and

current I2 -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh currents,
I1 and I2, flows through 10 resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given circuit. When
we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as greater than all other mesh
currents of the circuit. The mesh equation of first mesh is

Step 4 Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand side
terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

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Therefore, the voltage across resistor of the given circuit is84 V.

Note 1

is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.
Note 2
number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

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Network Theorems:
Introduction:
Any complicated network i.e. several sources, multiple resistors are present if the single element response is
desired then use the network theorems. Network theorems are also can be termed as network reduction
techniques. Each and every theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us see some important
theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
Theorem and theorem (Introduction) :
roblems having
many active and passive elements. Using these theorems the networks can be reduced to simple equivalent
circuits with one active source and one element. In circuit analysis many a times the current through a
branch is required to be found wh
such cases finding out every time the branch current using the conventional mesh and node analysis methods
is quite awkward and time consuming. But with the simple equivalent circuits (with one active source and

theorems are dual theorems.

Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source in series with a resistance
(Impedance).The equivalent voltage source VTh is the open circuit voltage looking into the terminals(with
concerned branch element removed) and the equivalent resistance RTh while all sources are replaced by their
internal resistors at ideal condition i.e. voltage source is short circuit and current source is open circuit.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the
load resistance RL
circuit with VTh connected across RTh & RL .

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Main steps to find out VTh and RTh :

1. The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a & b
after removing the concerned branch/element
2. Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals is found out using the conventional network
mesh/node analysis methods and this would be VTh .
3. Thevenin's resistance RTh is found out by the method depending upon whether the network contains
dependent sources or not.
a. With dependent sources: RTh = Voc / Isc
b. Without dependent sources : RTh = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals with all
voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short
circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
4. Replace the network with VTh in series with RTh and the concerned branch resistance (or) load resistance
across the load terminals (A&B) as shown in below fig.

Fig.(a)
Example: Find VTH, RTH and the load current and load voltage flowing through R L resistor as shown in fig.
by using Theorem?

Solution:
The resistance RL is removed and the terminals of the resistance RL are marked as A & B as shown in the
fig. (1)

Fig.(1)

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Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH). We have already
removed the load resistor from fig.(a), so the circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig (1). Now we
have to calculate the Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both and resistors as this

appear

across resistor as resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals.
So, VTH = 12V

Fig (2)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) as shown in fig.(3)

Fig(3)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin's Resistance (RTH)We have Reduced
the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to replace it with a short circuit as shown in figure (3) We can see
that resistor is in series with a parallel connection of resistor and 12k resistor. i.e.:
|| (|| = in parallel with)
RTH
RTH =
RTH =

Fig(4)

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Connect the RTH in series with Voltage Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in fig (5) i.e. Thevenin's circuit with load resistor. This is the
equivalent circuit.

VTH

Fig (5)
Now apply law and calculate the load current from fig 5.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)= 12V /
IL= 0.75mA
And VL = ILx RL
VL= 3.75V
Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of sources and resistors(Impedance),can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a resistance
(Impedance),the current source being the short circuited current across the load terminals and the resistance
being the internal resistance of the source network looking through the open circuited load terminals.

(a) (b)
Figure (a) shows a simple block representation of a network with several active / passive elements with the
load resistance RL connected across the terminals and figure (b) shows the Norton equivalent
circuit with IN connected across RN & RL .
Main steps to find out IN and RN:
The terminals of the branch/element through which the current is to be found out are marked as say a
& b after removing the concerned branch/element.

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Open circuit voltage VOC across these two terminals and ISC through these two terminals are found
out using the conventional network mesh/node analysis methods and they are same as what we
obtained in equivalent circuit.
Next Norton resistance RN is found out depending upon whether the network contains dependent
sources or not.
a) With dependent sources: RN = Voc / Isc
b) Without dependent sources : RN = Equivalent resistance looking into the concerned terminals
with all voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage
sources short circuited and ideal current sources open circuited)
Replace the network with IN in parallel with RN and the concerned branch resistance across the load
terminals(A&B) as shown in below fig

Example: Find the current through the resistance RL (1.5

below using equivalent circuit.

Fig(a)
Solution: IN = Isc ,RN=Voc/ Isc.
load resistor as shown in (Fig 2), and Calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton
Current (IN).

Fig(2)

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We have shorted the AB terminals to determine the Norton current, I N.

the circuit
to the Source is:-
|| (|| = in parallel with)
RT = /
RT = +
RT =
IT = V / RT
IT = 12V /
Now we have to find ISC = IN
ISC = IN = 3A x = 2A.
ISC= IN = 2A.

Fig(3)
All voltage & current sources replaced by their internal impedances (i.e. ideal voltage sources short circuited
and ideal current sources open circuited) and Open Load Resistor. as shown in fig.(4)

Fig(4)
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (R N) We have Reduced the

resistor is in series with a parallel combination of resistor and resistor. i.e.:

|| (|| = in parallel with)
RN = + x /
RN =
RN =

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Fig(5)
Connect the RN in Parallel with Current Source IN and re-connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig (6)
i.e. Norton Equivalent circuit with load resistor.

Fig(6)
Now apply the Law and calculate the load current through Load resistance across the terminals
A&B. Load Current through Load Resistor is
IL = IN x [RN / (RN+ RL)]
IL= 2A x
IL = 1.5A IL = 1. 5A
Superposition Theorem:
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one current
or voltage sources sometimes it is easier to find out the voltage across or current in a branch of the circuit by
considering the effect of one source at a time by replacing the other sources with their ideal internal
resistances.
Superposition Theorem Statement:
Any linear, bilateral two terminal network consisting of more than one sources, The total
current or voltage in any part of a network is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages in the
required branch with each source acting individually while other sources are replaced by their ideal internal
resistances. (i.e. Voltage sources by a short circuit and current sources by open circuit)
Steps to Apply Super position Principle:
1. Replace all independent sources with their internal resistances except one source. Find the output
(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis.

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2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.
Example: By Using the superposition theorem find I in the circuit shown in figure?

Fig.(a)
Solution: Applying the superposition theorem, the current I2 in the resistance of 3 due to the voltage
source of 20V alone, with current source of 5A open circuited [ as shown in the figure.1 below ] is given by
:

Fig.1
I2 = 20/(5+3) = 2.5A
Similarly the current I5 in the resistance of 3 due to the current source of 5A alone with voltage source of
20V short circuited [ as shown in the figure.2 below ] is given by :

Fig.2
I5= 5 x 5/(3+5) = 3.125 A
The total current passing through the resistance of is then = I2 + I5= 2.5 + 3.125 = 5.625 A
Let us verify the solution using the basic nodal analysis referring to the node marked with V in fig.(a).Then
we get :

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3V-60+5V=15
8V-60=75
8V=135
V=16.875
The current I passing through the resistance of =V/3 = 16.875/3 = 5.625 A.

EX:Using KCL,KVL Find the currents in all the sources of the circuit of the following figure[10 M]

Method 1: LOOP ANALYSIS (BY CONSIDERING BRANCH CURRENTS)

INDICATE CURRENTS IN EACH BRANCH

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APPLY KVL AT LOOP 1

5 -3I1-3I2-3I1=0
-6I1-3I2-5=0 1)
APPLY KVL AT LOOP 2
-2I3-2(I3+ I4) -5-2(I3+ I4) +3 I2=0
3I2-6I3-4I4-5=0 2)
APPLY KVL AT LOOP 3
-I4-I4-I4+2I3+5 =0
2I3-3I4+5=0 3)
FROM KCL I1=I2+I3 +I4 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4)
SUB EQUATION 4 IN 1, WE WILL GET
-6(I2+I3 +I4) - 3I2+5=0
-9I2-6I3-6I4+5=0 5)
SOLVE 5 AND 2, WEWILL GET
-6I2-I4+5=0 6)
SOLVE 5 AND 3, WE WILL GET
-9I2-15I4 +20=0 7)
SOLVE 6 AND 7, WE WILL GET

Sub I4 value in equation 6 we will get,

Sub I2 value in equation 1 we will get,

Sub I4, I2, I3 values in equation 4 we will get

I3= -0.925
I3= 1.11 A
currents in all the sources are I1, I3 +I4, & I4
I1 = A
I4 = A
I4+ I3 = + (-1.11) = -0.185A

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EX: Find the current flowing through R4 resistor [10 M]

Method 1: NODAL ANALYSIS

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Assume considered node voltage is superior, so all currents are always leaving at node

Apply KCL at node

I1+I2+I3+I4=0

=0

V=26.6V
` Current through R4 Resistor Is I4=

I4=26.6/100=0.266 A

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UNIT-III
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
Dc Generator
Principle Of Operation
Constructional Features
EMF Equation
Dc Motor
Principle Of Operation
Back EMF
Torque Equation
Single Phase Transformer
Principle Of Operation
Constructional Features
EMF Equation
Simple Problems

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DC GENERATOR
Principle of DC Generator:
There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is DC generator. Whatever
may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An AC generator
produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of these generators produce
electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
According to this law, when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force, due to
which an emf is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of
change of flux (magnetic line force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause a current to flow if the
conductorcircuitisclosed.
Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

1. Magnetic field
2. Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.

Now we will go through working principle of DC generator. As, the working principle of ac generator is not
in scope of our discussion in this section.

Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.

Let's us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal
position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e. AB and CD of the loop
cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.

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As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the current can be
determined by Flemming's right hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch thumb, index finger and
middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicates the direction of motion
of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of magnetic field i.e. N - pole to S - pole, and middle
finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor. Now if we apply this right hand rule,
we will see at this horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B and on the other side
of the loop current will flow from point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now upper side of
the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position). At this
position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field. Hence there
will be no question of flux cutting and consequently there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop comes
in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the previous horizontal position as
shown in the figure beside.

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Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate of flux cutting

on other side from D to [Link] if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side AB comes
in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front of N pole, the current flows
from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows from C to D and
when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.

If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop comes in front
of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e. downward to the reference plane and
similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole, current through it flows in same direction i.e.
upwards from reference plane. From this, we will come to the topic of principle of DC generator.

Now the loop is opened and connected it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split ring are made
out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated from each other. The external
load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which are rest on these split slip ring segments.
Working Principle of DC Generator

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It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e. brush no 1 in
contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of the induced current in the
coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a and b are also reversed which results
that brush no 1 comes in touch with the segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows
from L to M. The wave from of the current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is
unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model. The position of
the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the segments a and b from one brush to
other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at right angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is so
become in that position, the induced emf in the coil is zero.
Construction of DC Generator
During explaining working principle of DC Generator, we have used a single loop DC
generator. But now we will discuss about practical construction of DC Generator.
A DC generator has the following parts

1. Yoke
2. Pole of generator
3. Field winding
4. Armature of DC generator
5. Brushes of generator and Commentator
6. Bearing
Yoke of DC Generator
Yoke or the outer frame of DC generator serves two purposes,

1. It holds the magnetic pole cores of the generator and acts as cover of the generator.
2. It carries the magnetic field flux.
In small generator, yoke are made of cast iron. Cast iron is cheaper in cost but heavier than steel. But for
large construction of DC generator, where weight of the machine is concerned, lighter cast steel or rolled

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steel is preferable for constructing yoke of DC generator. Normally larger yokes are formed by rounding a
rectangular steel slab and the edges are welded together at the bottom. Then feet, terminal box and hangers
are welded to the outer periphery of the yoke frame.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
Let's first discuss about pole core of DC generator. There are mainly two types of construction available.
One: Solid pole core, where it is made of a solid single piece of cast iron or cast steel.
Two: Laminated pole core, where it made of numbers of thin, limitations of annealed steel which are riveted
together. The thickness of the lamination is in the range of 0.04" to 0.01". The pole core is fixed to the inner
periphery of the yoke by means of bolts through the yoke and into the pole body. Since the poles project
inwards they are called salient poles. The pole shoes are so typically shaped, that, they spread out the
magnetic flux in the air gap and reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. Due to their larger cross-section
they hold the pole coil at its position.
Pole Coils: The field coils or pole coils are wound around the pole core. These are a simple coil of insulated
copper wire or strip, which placed on the pole which placed between yoke and pole shoes as shown.
Armature Core
The purpose of armature core is to hold the armature winding and provide low reluctance
path for the flux through the armature from N pole to S pole. Although a DC generator provides direct
current but induced current in the armature is alternating in nature. That is why, cylindrical or drum shaped
armature core is build up of circular laminated sheet. In every circular lamination, slots are either die - cut or
punched on the outer periphery and the key way is located on the inner periphery as shown. Air ducts are
also punched of cut on each lamination for circulation of air through the core for providing better cooling.
Up to diameter of 40", the circular stampings are cut out in one piece of lamination sheet. But above 40",
diameter, number of suitable sections of a circle is cut. A complete circle of lamination is formed by four or
six or even eight such segment.
Armature Winding

Armature winding are generally formed wound. These are first wound in the form of flat
rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various conductors of the coils
are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature slots, which are lined with tough
insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the armature conductors placed in it and
secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber wedges. Two types of armature windings are used Lap
winding and Wave winding.

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Commutator
The commentator plays a vital role in DC generator. It collects current from armature and
sends it to the load as direct current. It actually takes alternating current from armature and converts it to
direct current and then send it to external load. It is cylindrical structured and is build up of wedge-shaped
segments of high conductivity, hard drawn or drop forged copper. Each segment is insulated from the shaft
by means of insulated commutator segment shown below. Each commentator segment is connected with
corresponding armature conductor through segment riser or lug.
Brushes
The brushes are made of carbon. These are rectangular block shaped. The only function of
these carbon brushes of DC generator is to collect current from commutator segments. The brushes are
housed in the rectangular box shaped brush holder or brush box. As shown in figure, the brush face is placed
on the commutator segment which is attached to the brush holder.
Bearing

For small machine, ball bearing is used and for heavy duty DC generator, roller bearing is used. The bearing
must always be lubricated properly for smooth operation and long life of generator.
Armature winding
Basically armature winding of a DC machine is wound by one of the two methods, lap
winding or wave winding. The difference between these two is merely due to the end connections and
commutator connections of the conductor. To know how armature winding is done, it is essential to know
the following terminologies -

1. Pole pitch: It is defined as number of armature slots per pole. For example, if there are 36 conductors
and 4 poles, then the pole pitch is 36/4=9.
2. Coil span or coil pitch (Ys): It is the distance between the two sides of a coil measured in terms of
armature slots.
3. Front pitch (Yf): It is the distance, in terms of armature conductors, between the second conductor
of one coil and the first conductor of the next coil. OR it is the distance between two coil sides that
are connected to the same commutator segment.
4. Back pitch (Yb): The distance by which a coil advances on the back of the armature is called as back
pitch of the coil. It is measured in terms of armature conductors.
5. Resultant pitch (Yr): The distance, in terms of armature conductor, between the beginning of one coil
and the beginning of the next coil is called as resultant pitch of the coil.

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Armature winding can be done as single layer or double layer. It may be simplex, duplex or multiplex, and
this multiplicity increases the number of parallel paths.

Lap Winding and Wave Winding

In lap winding, the successive coils overlap each other. In a simplex lap winding, the two
ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. The winding may be progressive or
retrogressive. A progressive winding progresses in the direction in which the coil is wound. The opposite
way is retrogressive. The following image shows progressive simplex lap winding.

In wave winding, a conductor under one pole is connected at the back to a conductor which occupies an
almost corresponding position under the next pole which is of opposite polarity. In other words, all the coils
which carry e.m.f in the same direction are connected in series. The following diagram shows a part of
simplex wave winding.

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Basis For Lap Winding Wave Winding

Comparison
Definition The coil is lap back to the The coil of the winding form
succeeding coil. the wave shape.
Connection The end of the armature coil is The end of the armature coil
connected to an adjacent segment is connected to commutator
on the commutators. segments some distance
apart.
Parallel Path The numbers of parallel path are The number of parallel paths
equal to the total of number poles. is equal to two.
Other Name Parallel Winding or Multiple Two-circuit or Series
Winding Winding.
EMF Less More
Number of Brushes Equal to the number of parallel Two
paths.
Types Simplex and Duplex lap winding. Progressive and
Retrogressive wave winding
Efficiency Less High
Additional Coil Equalizer Ring Dummy coil
Winding Cost High (because more conductor is Low
required)
Uses In low voltage, high current In high voltage, low current
machines. machines.

EMF Equation of a DC Generator

Consider a DC generator with the following parameters,
P = number of field poles
Ø = flux produced per pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)

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Now,
Average emf generated per conductor is given by (Volts) ... eq. 1
Flux cut by one conductor in one revolution =
Number of revolutions per second (speed in RPS) = N/60
Therefore, time for one revolution = dt = 60/N (Seconds)
From eq. 1, emf generated per conductor (Volts) 2)

Above equation-2 gives the emf generated in one conductor of the generator. The conductors are connected
in series per parallel path, and the emf across the generator terminals is equal to the generated emf across
any parallel path.
Therefore, Eg / 60A
For simplex lap winding, number of parallel paths is equal to the number of poles (i.e. A=P),
Therefore, for simplex lap wound dc generator, Eg = / 60P
For simplex wave winding, number of parallel paths is equal to 2 (i.e P=2),
Therefore, for simplex wave wound dc generator, / 120

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DC MOTOR
Working or Operating Principle of DC Motor:
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts electrical energy (direct current
system) into mechanical energy. It is of vital importance for the industry today, and is equally important for
engineers to look into the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in this article. In
order to understand the operating principle of DC motor we need to first look into its constructional feature.
The very basic construction of a DC motor contains a current carrying armature which is connected to the
supply end through commutator segments and brushes. The armature is placed in between north south poles
of a permanent or an electromagnet as shown in the diagram above.

As soon as we supply direct current in the armature, a mechanical force acts on it due to
electromagnetic effect of the magnet. Now to go into the details of the operating principle of DC motor its
important that we have a clear understanding of to determine the direction of force
acting on the armature conductors of DC motor.

If a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicularly, then the conductor
experiences a force in the direction mutually perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current

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hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and
thumb of our left hand perpendicular to each other, in such a way that the middle finger is along the
direction of current in the conductor, and index finger is along the direction of magnetic field i.e. north to
south pole, then thumb indicates the direction of created mechanical force. For clear understanding the
principle of DC motor we have to determine the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram below.

We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a velocity under the influence of an
electric field E, and a magnetic field B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-
dF=dq(E+vB)
For the operation of DC motor, considering E=0
dF=dq v B
I.e. cross product of dq,v and magnetic field B
dF= [V= ]

Where, dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q

dF=

or, dF=IdL [since, current I= ]

or, F=I L =IL

F=
From the 1 st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is such that the
direction of current through the armature conductor at all instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the
force acts on the armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform field and current is
constant.
i.e

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So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to be I, and current at right hand
side of the armature conductor to be -I, because they are flowing in the opposite direction with respect to
each other.
Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,
Fi= =BIL
Similarly force on the right hand side conductor
Fr= =-BIL
Therefore, we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. And since the two conductors are separated by some distance w = width of the armature turn, the
two opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the rotation of the armature
conductor.
Now let's examine the expressi
position.
The torque produced is given by,
Torque= (Force, tangential to the direction of armature rotation) (distance)
Or,
Or,
(alpha) is the angle between the plane of the armature turn and the plane of reference or the initial
position of the armature which is here along the direction of magnetic field.
that unlike force the torque at all

torque and the principle behind rotation of the motor let us do a step wise analysis.

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Step 1:
Initially considering the armature is in its starting point or reference position where the angle = 0.
=BILw
Since, hence torque at this position is maximum
initial inertia of rest of the armature
and sets it into rotation.

Step 2:

initial position goes on increasing in the path of its rotation until it becomes 90o from its initial position.
Consequently the term decreases and also the value of torque.
The torque in this case is given by BIL cos which is less than BIL w when is greater than 0o.

Step 3:

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In the path of the rotation of the armature a point is reached where the actual position of the rotor is exactly
o
perpendicular to its initial position, i.e. , and as a result the term 0.
The torque acting on the conductor at this position is given by,

i.e. virtually no rotating torque acts on the armature at this instance. But still the armature does not come to a
standstill, this is because of the fact that the operation of DC motor has been engineered in such a way that
the inertia of motion at this point is just enough to overcome this point of null torque. Once the rotor crosses
over this position the angle between the actual position of the armature and the initial plane again decreases
and torque starts acting on it again.
Torque Equation of DC Motor
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator, the rotor conductors carry
current. These conductors lie in the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus each conductor experiences a force.
The conductors lie near the surface of the rotor at a common radius from its center. Hence torque is
produced at the circumference of the rotor and rotor starts rotating. The term torque as best explained by Dr.
Huge d Young is the quantitative measure of the tendency of a force to cause a rotational motion, or to bring
about a change in rotational motion. It is in fact the moment of a force that produces or changes a rotational
motion.
The equation of torque is given by,

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The DC motor as we all know is a rotational machine, and torque of DC motor is a very important
uation of DC motor for
establishing its running characteristics.
To establish the torque equation, let us first consider the basic circuit diagram of a DC motor, and its
voltage equation.

Referring to the diagram beside, we can see, that if E is the supply voltage, Eb is the back emf produced and
Ia, Ra are the armature current and armature resistance respectively then the voltage equation is given by,
E=Eb+IaRa ...................................................... (2)
But keeping in mind that our purpose is to derive the torque equation of DC motor we multiply both sides of
equation (2) by Ia.
Therefore, EIa=Eb+Ia2Ra................................. (3)
Now [Link] is the power loss due to heating of the armature coil, and the true effective mechanical power that
is required to produce the desired torque of DC machine is given by,
Pm=EbIa ................................. (4)

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The mechanical power Pm is related to the electromagnetic torque Tg as,

Pm=Tg ................................ (5)
Where is speed in rad/sec.
Now equating equation (4) and (5) we get,
EbIa= Tg
Now for simplifying the torque equation of DC motor we substitute.
(6)

Where, P is no of poles,
is flux per pole,
Z is no. of conductors,
A is no. of parallel paths,
and N is the speed of the DC motor.
................................
Hence, = (7)

Substituting equation (6) and (7) in equation (4), we get:

=

The torque we so obtain, is known as the electromagnetic torque of DC motor, and subtracting the
mechanical and rotational losses from it we get the mechanical torque.
Therefore,
Tm=Tg-mechanical losses
\This is the torque equation of DC motor. It can be further simplified as:
=ka Ia
Where, ka=

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only flux and
armature current Ia.
The Torque equation of a DC motor can also be explained considering the figure below.

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Here we can see Area per pole Ar =

B=

B=

Current /conductor Ic= IaA

Therefore, force per conductor=Fc= BLIa/A
Now Torque Tc=Fc.r = BLIa.r/A
=

Hence, Total torque developed by DC machine is

=

=ka Ia
Where, ka=

Which is constant for a particular machine and therefore the torque of DC motor varies with only
flux and armature current Ia.

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SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Introduction:
The transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to
another electrical circuit. The two circuits may be operating at different voltage levels but always work at
the same frequency. Basically transformer is an electro-magnetic energy conversion device. It is commonly
used in electrical power system and distribution systems. It can change the magnitude of alternating voltage
or current from one value to another. This useful property of transformer is mainly responsible for the
widespread use of alternating currents rather than direct currents i.e., electric power is generated,
transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. Transformers have no moving parts, rugged
and durable in construction, thus requiring very little attention. They also have a very high efficiency as
high as 99%.

Single Phase Transformer

A transformer is a static device of equipment used either for raising or lowering the voltage
of an a.c. supply with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It essentially consists of two
windings, the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core as shown in Fig 1. The
winding connected to the a.c. source is called primary winding (or primary) and the one connected to load is
called secondary winding (or secondary). The alternating voltage V1 whose magnitude is to be changed is
applied to the primary.

Depending upon the number of turns of the primary (N1) and secondary (N2), an alternating e.m.f. E2 is
induced in the secondary. This induced e.m.f. E2 in the secondary causes a secondary current I2.
Consequently, terminal voltage V2 will appear across the load.

If V2 > V1, it is called a step up-transformer.

If V2 < V1, it is called a step-down transformer.

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Constructional Details

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are placed on the
core, and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called

(a) Core type

(b) Shell type.

Core-type and Shell-type Construction

In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric cylindrical coils
placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as the high- voltage (HV)
winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The LV winding is placed next to the
core for economy in insulation cost. Figure 2.1(a) shows the cross- section of the arrangement. In the shell
type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound over the central limb of a three-limb core
as shown in Figure 2.1(b). The HV and LV windings are split into a number of sections, and the sections are
interleaved or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the HV and LV windings are placed alternately.

Core
The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other. This helps in reducing
the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in construction of the transformer. The steel used for core
is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low hysteresis loss. The
material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled Grain Oriented) steel. Conductor material used for
windings is mostly copper. However, for small distribution transformer aluminum is also sometimes used.
The conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using various insulating materials depending upon
the voltage.
Insulating Oil

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In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is immersed in insulating oil. The
insulating oil provides better insulation, protects insulation from moisture and transfers the heat produced in
core and windings to the atmosphere.
The transformer oil should possess the following qualities:
(a) High dielectric strength,
(b)Low viscosity and high purity,
(c)High flash point, and
(d)Free from sludge.
Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude oil.
Tank and Conservator
The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the insulating oil. In large transformers small
expansion tank is also connected with main tank is known as conservator. Conservator provides space when
insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is provided with tubes on the outside, to permits
circulation of oil, which aides in cooling. Some additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are
connected with main tank. Buchholz relay is placed between main tank and conservator. It protect the
transformer under extreme heating of transformer winding. Breather protects the insulating oil from
moisture when the cool transformer sucks air inside. The silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air
enters the tank. Some other necessary parts are connected with main tank like, Bushings, Cable Boxes,
Temperature gauge, Oil gauge, Tapings, etc.
Principle of Operation

alternating flux links both the windings and induces e.

of electromagnetic induction. The e.m.f. E1 is termed as primary e.m.f. and E2 is termed as secondary e.m.f.
Clearly E1=-N 1

And E2=-N2

Note that magnitudes of E2 and E1 depend upon the number of turns on the secondary and primary
respectively.
If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1) and we get a step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1(or V2< V1) and we get a step-down transformer.

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If load is connected across the secondary winding, the secondary e.m.f. E2 will cause a current I2 to flow
through the load. Thus, a transformer enables us to transfer a.c. power from one circuit to another with a
change in voltage level.
The following points may be noted carefully
(a)The transformer action is based on the laws of electromagnetic induction.
(b)There is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary.
(c) The a.c. power is transferred from primary to secondary through magnetic flux.
(d) There is no change in frequency i.e., output power has the same frequency as the input power.
(e)The losses that occur in a transformer are:
(a) core losses eddy current and hysteresis losses
(b) copper losses in the resistance of the windings
In practice, these losses are very small so that output power is nearly equal to the input primary power. In
other words, a transformer has very high efficiency
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Consider that an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f is applied to the primary as shown in Fig.2.3. The
sinusoidal flux by the primary can be represented as:

When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V1, it is circulating alternating current,
producing an alternating flux
- Flux
- maximum value of flux ,
N1 - Number of primary turns ,
N2 - Number of secondary turns
f - Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 - R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f ,E2 - R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f
The instantaneous e.m.f. e1 induced in the primary is

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The flux increases from zero value to maximum value in 1/4f of the time period that is in 1/4f seconds.
The change of flux that takes place in 1/4f seconds = -0 webers
Voltage Ratio

Since flux varies sinusoidally,the R.M.S value of the induced e.m.f obtained by multiplying the average
value with the form factor
Form factor of sin wave=

R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in one turn=4

=4.44
R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in primary winding=4.44
R.M.S value of e.m.f induced in Secondary winding=4.44
The expression of are called e.m.f equation of a transformer

V1=E1=4.44
V2=E2=4.44

Voltage transformation ratio is the ratio of e.m.f induced in the secondary winding to the
e.m.f induced in the primary winding.
This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f to primary induced e.m.f is known as voltage transformation ratio

1. If N2>N1 i.e. K>1 we get E2>E1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.
2. If N2< N1 i.e. K<1 we get E2< E2 then the transformer is called step down transformer.
3. If N2= N1 i.e. K=1 we get E2= E2 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1 Transformer.
E2=KE1

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Current Ratio
Current ratio is the ratio of current flow through the primary winding (I1) to the current
flowing through the secondary winding (I2). In an ideal transformer -
Apparent input power = Apparent output power.
V1I1 = V2I2

Volt-Ampere Rating
i) The transformer rating is specified as the products of voltage and current (VA rating).
ii) On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally expressed in KVA
(Kilo Volts Amperes rating)

V1I1 = V2I2
KVA rating of a transformer= (1000 is to convert KVA toVA)

V1 and V2 are the primary and secondary voltages, by using KVA rating we can calculate I 1 and I2
full load current and it is safe maximum current
I1 Full load current=

I2 Full load current=

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UNIT IV
DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

P-N Junction Diode

Symbol
V-I Characteristics
Diode Applications
Zener Diode: Characteristics
Rectifiers Half Wave Rectifier
Full Wave Rectifier
Bridge Rectifier
Simple Problems

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PN JUNCTION DIODE
INTRODUCTON
Based on the electrical conductivity all the materials in nature are classified as insulators, semiconductors,
and conductors.

Insulator: An insulator is a material that offers a very low level (or negligible) of conductivity when
voltage is applied. Eg: Paper, Mica, glass, quartz. Typical resistivity level of an insulator is of the order of
1010 to 1012 -cm. The energy band structure of an insulator is shown in the fig.1.1. Band structure of a
material defines the band of energy levels that an electron can occupy. Valance band is the range of electron
energy where the electron remain bended too the atom and do not contribute to the electric current.
Conduction bend is the range of electron energies higher than valance band where electrons are free to
accelerate under the influence of external voltage source resulting in the flow of charge.
The energy band between the valance band and conduction band is called as forbidden band gap. It is
the energy required by an electron to move from balance band to conduction band i.e. the energy required
for a valance electron to become a free electron.
1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
For an insulator, as shown in the fig.1.1 there is a large forbidden band gap of greater than 5Ev. Because of
this large gap there a very few electrons in the CB and hence the conductivity of insulator is poor. Even an
increase in temperature or applied electric field is insufficient to transfer electrons from VB to CB.

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C
C
CB

o
Forbidden band Eo
gap Eo

VB
VB
VB

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Fig: 1.1 Energy band diagrams insulator, semiconductor and conductor
Conductors: A conductor is a material which supports a generous flow of charge when a voltage is applied
across its terminals. i.e. it has very high conductivity. Eg: Copper, Aluminum, Silver, Gold. The resistivity
of a conductor is in the order of 10-4 and 10-6 -cm. The Valance and conduction bands overlap (fig1.1) and
there is no energy gap for the electrons to move from valance band to conduction band. This implies that
there are free electrons in CB even at absolute zero temperature (0K). Therefore at room temperature when
electric field is applied large current flows through the conductor.
Semiconductor: A semiconductor is a material that has its conductivity somewhere between the insulator
and conductor. The resistivity level is in the range of 10 and 10 4 -cm. Two of the most commonly used are
Silicon (Si=14 atomic no.) and germanium (Ge=32 atomic no.). Both have 4 valance electrons. The
forbidden band gap is in the order of 1eV. For eg., the band gap energy for Si, Ge and GaAs is 1.21, 0.785
and 1.42 eV, respectively at absolute zero temperature (0K). At 0K and at low temperatures, the valance
band electrons do not have sufficient energy to move from V to CB. Thus semiconductors act a insulators at
0K. as the temperature increases, a large number of valance electrons acquire sufficient energy to leave the
VB, cross the forbidden bandgap and reach CB. These are now free electrons as they can move freely under
the influence of electric field. At room temperature there are sufficient electrons in the CB and hence the
semiconductor is capable of conducting some current at room temperature.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of charge or current.
Typical resistivity values for various are given as follows.

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Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

10-6 -cm (Cu) -cm (Ge) 1012 -cm
(mica)
50x103 -cm (Si)
Typical resistivity values
SEMICONDUCTOR TYPES

A pure form of semiconductors is called as intrinsic semiconductor. Conduction in intrinsic sc is

either due to thermal excitation or crystal defects. Si and Ge are the two most important semiconductors
used. Other examples include Gallium arsenide GaAs, Indium Antimonide (InSb) etc.
Let us consider the structure of Si.A Si atomic no. is 14 and it has 4 valance electrons. These 4
electrons are shared by four neighboring atoms in the crystal structure by means of covalent bond. Fig. 1.2a
shows the crystal structure of Si at absolute zero temperature (0K). Hence a pure SC acts has poor
conductivity (due to lack of free electrons) at low or absolute zero temperature.

Covalent bond

Valence electron

Fig. 1.2a crystal structure of Si at 0K

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At room temperature some of the covalent bonds break up to thermal energy as shown in fig 1.2b.
The valance electrons that jump into conduction band are called as free electrons that are available for
conduction.

Free electron

Valance electron
Hole

Fig. 1.2b crystal structure of Si at room

temperature0K

The absence of electrons in covalent bond is represented by a small circle usually referred to as hole which
is of positive charge. Even a hole serves as carrier of electricity in a manner similar to that of free electron.
The mechanism by which a hole contributes to conductivity is explained as follows:
When a bond is in complete so that a hole exists, it is relatively easy for a valance electron in the
neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond to fill this hole. An electron moving from a bond to fill a hole
moves in a direction opposite to that of the electron. This hole, in its new position may now be filled by an
electron from another covalent bond and the hole will correspondingly move one more step in the direction
opposite to the motion of electron. Here we have a mechanism for conduction of electricity which does not
involve free electrons. This phenomenon is illustrated in fig1.3

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Electron movement
Hole movement
Fig. 1.3a

Fig. 1.3b

Fig.1.3c

Fig 1.3a show that there is a hole at ion [Link] that an electron from ion 5 moves into the hole at ion 6
so that the configuration of 1.3b results. If we compare both fig1.3a &fig 1.3b, it appears as if the hole has
moved towards the left from ion6 to ion 5. Further if we compare fig 1.3b and fig 1.3c, the hole moves from

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ion5 to ion 4. This discussion indicates the motion of hole is in a direction opposite to that of motion of
electron. Hence we consider holes as physical entities whose movement constitutes flow of current.
In a pure semiconductor, the number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR:
Intrinsic semiconductor has very limited applications as they conduct very small amounts of current
at room temperature. The current conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased
significantly by adding a small amounts impurity to the intrinsic semiconductor. By adding impurities it
becomes impure or extrinsic semiconductor. This process of adding impurities is called as doping. The
amount of impurity added is 1 part in 106 atoms.
N type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a pentavalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is
called N-type semiconductor. Examples of pentavalent impurities are Phosphorus, Arsenic, Bismuth,
Antimony etc.
A pentavalent impurity has five valance electrons. Fig 1.3a shows the crystal structure of N-type
semiconductor material where four out of five valance electrons of the impurity atom(antimony) forms
covalent bond with the four intrinsic semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron is loosely bound to the
impurity atom. This loosely bound electron can be easily

Fifth valance electron

of SB Ec C

Ed

Donor energy V
Ev

Fig. 1.3b Energy band diagram of N

Fig. 1.3a crystal structure of N type

excited from the valance band to the conduction band by the application of electric field or increasing the
thermal energy. The energy required to detach the fifth electron form the impurity atom is very small of the
order of 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si.
The effect of doping creates a discrete energy level called donor energy level in the forbidden band gap
with energy level Ed slightly less than the conduction band (fig 1.3b). The difference between the energy

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levels of the conducting band and the donor energy level is the energy required to free the fifth valance
electron (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si). At room temperature almost all the fifth electrons from the
donor impurity atom are raised to conduction band and hence the number of electrons in the conduction
band increases significantly. Thus every antimony atom contributes to one conduction electron without
creating a hole.
In the N-type sc the no. of electrons increases and the no. of holes decreases compared to those available
in an intrinsic sc. The reason for decrease in the no. of holes is that the larger no. of electrons present
increases the recombination of electrons with holes. Thus current in N type sc is dominated by electrons
which are referred to as majority carriers. Holes are the minority carriers in N type sc
P type semiconductor: If the added impurity is a trivalent atom then the resultant semiconductor is called
P-type semiconductor. Examples of trivalent impurities are Boron, Gallium , indium etc.
The crystal structure of p type sc is shown in the fig1.3c. The three valance electrons of the impurity
(boon) forms three covalent bonds with the neighboring atoms and a vacancy exists in the fourth bond
giving rise to the holes. The hole is ready to accept an electron from the neighboring atoms. Each trivalent
atom contributes to one hole generation and thus introduces a large no. of holes in the valance band. At the
same time the no. electrons are decreased compared to those available in intrinsic sc because of increased
recombination due to creation of additional holes.

Hole

Fig. 1.3c crystal structure of P type

Thus in P type sc , holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since each trivalent
impurity atoms are capable accepting an electron, these are called as acceptor atoms. The following fig 1.3d
shows the pictorial representation of P type sc

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Hole (majority carrier)

Electron (minority
Acceptor atoms

Fig. 1.3d crystal structure of P type

The conductivity of N type sc is greater than that of P type sc as the mobility of electron is
greater than that of hole.
For the same level of doping in N type sc and P type sc, the conductivity of an Ntype sc is around
twice that of a P type sc
THEORY OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:
A p n junction is formed by joining P-type and N-type semiconductors together in very close contact. The
term junction refers to the boundary interface where the two regions of the semiconductor meet. Diode is a
two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The crystal conducts
conventional current in a direction from the p-type side (called the anode) to the n-type side (called the
cathode), but not in the opposite direction.
Symbol of PN junction diode

Biasing
Biasing is providing minimum external voltage and current to activate the device to study its
characteristics.
There are two operating regions and two "biasing" conditions for the standard Junction Diode and they are:

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Zero Bias:

When a diode is Zero Biased no external energy source is applied and a natural Potential
Barrier is developed across a depletion layer.

When the positive terminal of a battery is connected to P-type semiconductor and negative terminal to N-
type is known as forward bias of PN junction.
The applied forward potential establishes an electric field opposite to the potential barrier Therefore the
potential barrier is reduced at the junction. As the potential barrier is very small (0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for
Si),a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier potential, thus the junction
resistance becomes zero.

towards the junction and applied negative potential repels the

junction results in depletion region starts decreasing. When the applied potential is more than the internal
barrier potential then the depletion region completely disappears, thus the junction resistance becomes zero.

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Once the potential barrier is eliminated by a forward voltage, j unction establishes the low resistance path
for the entire circuit, thus a current flows in the circuit, it is called as forward current.

For reverse bias, the negative terminal is connected to P-type semiconductor and positive terminal to N type
semiconductor.
When reverse bias voltage is applied to the junction, all the majority carriers of region are
attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery and the majority carriers of the N region
attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery, hence the depletion region increases.
The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction of the
potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier width is
increased. This increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the
junction, results in a high resistance path.
This process cannot continue indefinitely because after certain extent the junction break down
occurs. As a result a small amount of current flows through it due to minority carriers. This
current is known as
V-I characteristics of PN junction diode
Forward Bias:
The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction diode results in the depletion layer becoming
very thin and narrow which represents a low impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high
currents to flow.
The point at which this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V
characteristics curve above as the "knee" point.

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Reverse Bias:
In Reverse biasing voltage a high resistance value to the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias voltage.
However, a very small leakage current does flow through the junction which can be measured in
microamperes,
One final point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the PN junction to overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect around the
junction.
This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of maximum circuit current, and
this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static characteristics curve below.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE:
Diode terminal characteristics equation for diode junction current:

Where VT = kT/q;
VD_ diode terminal voltage, Volts
Io _ temperature-dependent saturation current, µA
T _ absolute temperature of p-n junction, K
-23J/K)
q _ electron charge 1.6x10-19 C
= empirical constant, 1 for Ge and 2 for Si

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DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE AND SPACE CHARGE CAPACITANCE

Diffusion capacitance
As a p-n diode is forward biased, the minority carrier distribution in the quasi-neutral region
increases dramatically.
In addition, to preserve quasi-neutrality, the majority carrier density increases by the same amount.
This effect leads to an additional capacitance called the diffusion capacitance.
The diffusion capacitance is calculated from the change in charge with voltage:

Where the charge, DQ, is due to the excess carriers.

Unlike a parallel plate capacitor, the positive and negative charge is not spatially separated. Instead,
the electrons and holes are separated by the energy band gap.
Nevertheless, this voltage dependent charges yield a capacitance just as the one associated with a
parallel plate capacitor.
The excess minority-carrier charge is obtained by integrating the charge density over the quasi-
neutral region:

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Space Charge capacitance:

After joining p-type and n-type semiconductors, electrons near the p n interface tend to diffuse into
the p region.
As electrons diffuse, they leave positively charged ions (donors) in the n region.
Similarly, holes near the p n interface begin to diffuse into the n-type region leaving fixed ions
(acceptors) with negative charge.
The regions nearby the p n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming the space
charge capacitance.
CLASSIFICATION OF RECTIFIERS:
Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1) Half - Wave Rectifier
2) Full Wave Rectifier
3) Bridge Rectifier
HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
A Half wave rectifier as shown in fig 2 is one, which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using
only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer-rectifying element i.e., p-n
junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series. The a.c. voltage is applied to the
rectifier circuit using step-down transformer

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V=Vm sin (wt)

The input to the rectifier circuit, Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.
Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it conducts. Now a
current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL. The waveform of the diode current (or)
load current is shown in fig 3.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not
Conduct. Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half- cycle no power
is delivered to the load.
Analysis:
In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.
1. DC output current
2. DC Output voltage
3. R.M.S. Current
4. R.M.S. voltage
5. Rectifier Efficiency )
6. Ripple factor )
7. Peak Factor
8. % Regulation
9. Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
10. form factor
11. o/p frequency
Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of the rectifier.
Then V=Vm sin (wt) Where Vm is the maximum value of the secondary voltage. Let the diode be idealized to
piece-wise linear approximation with resistance Rf in the forward direction i.e., in the ON state and Rr
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in the reverse direction i.e., in the OFF state. Now the current in the diode (or) in the load resistance RL is
given by V=Vm sin (wt)
i) AVERAGE VOLTAGE

T
1
Vdc T Vd (wt)
0

2
1
Vdc
T 0 V ( )d
1 2
Vdc V ( )d
2
1
Vdc V sin( wt)
m
2 0

Vm
Vdc

ii).AVERAGE CURRENT:
Im
I dc

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms V 2 d (wt)
T 0

2
1
Vrms (Vm sim(wt)) 2 d (wt)
2 0

Vm
Vrms
2

IV) RMS CURRENT

V) PEAK FACTOR
peakvalue Im
Peak factor = I rms
rmsvalue
Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)

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Peak Factor =2
vi) FORM FACTOR
Rmsvalue
Form factor=
averagevalue

(Vm / 2)
Form factor=
Vm /
Form Factor =1.57

vii) Ripple Factor:

Vac
Vdc

2
Vac Vrms Vdc2

V2 V2
rms dc
Vac

2
Vrms
1
Vdc2

1.21
viii) Efficiency ( ):
o / ppower
*100
i / ppower
pac
= *100
Pdc

=40.8
ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):
The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in
the circuit. Therefore, transformer utilization factor is defined as
pdc
TUF
Pac(rated)

TUF =0.286.
The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not fully utilized.
If the transformer rating is 1 KVA (1000VA) then the half-wave rectifier can deliver

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1000 X 0.287 = 287 watts to resistance load.

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half-wave rectifier, PIV is
Vm.
DISADVANTAGES OF HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER:
1. The ripple factor is high.
2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.
Because of all these disadvantages, the half-wave rectifier circuit is normally not used as a
power rectifier circuit.
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of the applied
ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in this circuit. The diodes
feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer. A center-tap transformer is the one, which
produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to the
ground in the secondary winding of the transformer. The full wave rectifier is shown in the fig 4 below

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Fig. 5 shows the input and output wave forms of the ckt.

During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the
same time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not
conduct. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input
voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of D2
becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the
voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage. It is noted that the load current flows in the both
the half cycles of ac voltage and in the same direction through the load resistance.

i) AVERAGEVOLTAGE
V =I .R = We know that Im=
dc dc L

Vdc=

If ( )
V =0.637Vm
dc =

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ii) AVERAGE CURRENT

Idc = =0.637Im

Idc=0.637Im

IDC FWR=2IDC HWR

iii) RMS VOLTAGE:

T
1
Vrms V 2 d (wt)
T 0

2
1
Vrms (Vm sim(wt)) 2 d (wt)
2 0

IV) RMS CURRENT

I rms Im

V) PEAK FACTOR
peakvalue
Peak factor =
rmsvalue
Vm
Peak Factor =
(Vm / 2)
Peak Factor =2

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vi) FORM FACTOR

Rms value
Form factor=
averagevalue

Form factor= (Vm / 2 )

2Vm /
Form Factor =1.11
vii) Ripple Factor:

For FWR,
IRMS= & IDC=

=0.483

viii) Efficiency ( ):
o / ppower
*100
i / ppower

2
For FWR, P =I .R =
DC DC L

PAC=

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If(
=0.812 =81.2

ix) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):

The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the transformer used in
the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
pdc
TUF
Pac(rated)

a) TUF(Secondary) =

b) Since both windings are used TUFFWR=2TUFHWR =2*0.287=81.2%

c) TUFprimary= Rated efficiency = =81.2%

d) Average = =0.693

x) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):

It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the junction. The
peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative half- cycle. For half- wave rectifier, PIV is
2Vm
xi) % Regulation

.Advantages
1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)
2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages
1) Requires center tapped transformer.

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BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit above, is
that of the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying
diodes connected in a closed loop "bridge" configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage
of this bridge circuit is that it does not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size
and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to
the other side as shown below.

The Diode Bridge Rectifier

The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting current
during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as shown below (fig 7).

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The Positive Half-cycle

The Negative Half-cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series (fig 8), but diodes D1 and
D2 switch "OFF" as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction
as before.

As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the load is also
unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage
across the load is 0.637Vmax. However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two diodes
instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the
input VMAX amplitude. The ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz
supply)
Therefore, following Expressions are same as that pf full wave rectifier

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a) Average current =

b) RMS current =

c) DC output voltage Vdc=

d) Ripple factor=0.482
e) Rectification Efficiency=0.812
f) DC output full load VDCFL=

TUF of both primary and secondary are 0.812 therefore TUF overall is 0.812(better than FWR with
0.693)

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UNIT V
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Construction
Principle of Operation
Amplifying Action
Common Emitter configuration
Common Base configuration
Common Collector configuration

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

INTRODUCTION
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device in which operation depends on the interaction
of both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogus to vacuum triode
and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in digital
circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern communication systems.

CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two PN-junctions producing three connecting
terminals with each terminal being given a name to identify it from the other two. These three terminals are
known and labeled as the Emitter (E ), the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively. There are two
basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which basically describes the physical
arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor materials from which they are made.

Transistors are three terminal active devices made from different semiconductor materials that can act as
either an insulator or a conductor by the application of a small signal voltage. The transistor's ability to
change between these two states enables it to have two basic functions: "switching" (digital electronics) or
"amplification" (analogue electronics). Then bipolar transistors have the ability to operate within three
different regions:

1. Active Region - the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic =

2. Saturation - the transistor is "fully-ON" operating as a switch and Ic = I(saturation)

3. Cut-off - the transistor is "fully-OFF" operating as a switch and Ic = 0

Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing through them in
proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled
switch. The principle of operation of the two transistor types PNP and NPN, is exactly the same the only
difference being in their biasing and the polarity of the power supply for each type.

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Bipolar Transistor Construction

The construction and circuit symbols for both the PNP and NPN bipolar transistor are given above with the
arrow in the circuit symbol always showing the direction of "conventional current flow" between the base
terminal and its emitter terminal. The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to
the negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the standard diode symbol.
TRANSISTOR CURRENT COMPONENTS:

The above fig 2 shows the various current components, which flow across the forward biased emitter
junction and reverse- biased collector junction. The emitter current I E consists of hole current IPE (holes
crossing from emitter into base) and electron current I nE (electrons crossing from base into emitter).The ratio
of hole to electron currents, IpE / InE , crossing the emitter junction is proportional to the ratio of the
conductivity of the p material to that of the n material. In a transistor, the doping of that of the emitter is
made much larger than the doping of the base. This feature ensures (in p-n-p transistor) that the emitter

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current consists an almost entirely of holes. Such a situation is desired since the current which results from
electrons crossing the emitter junction from base to emitter does not contribute carriers, which can reach the
collector.
Not all the holes crossing the emitter junction JE reach the the collector junction JC
Because some of them combine with the electrons in n-type base. If IpC is hole current at junction JC there
must be a bulk recombination current (IPE- IpC ) leaving the base.
Actually, electrons enter the base region through the base lead to supply those charges, which have been lost
by recombination with the holes injected in to the base across J E. If the emitter were open circuited so that
IE=0 then IpC would be zero. Under these circumstances, the base and collector current I C would equal the
reverse saturation current ICO. If IE then
IC= ICO- IpC
For a p-n-p transistor, ICO consists of holes moving across JC from left to right (base to collector) and electrons
crossing JC in opposite direction. Assumed referenced direction for I CO i.e. from right to left, then for a p-n-
p transistor, ICO is negative. For an n-p-n transistor, ICO is positive. The basic operation will be described
using the pnp transistor. The operation of the pnp transistor is exactly the same if the roles played by the
electron and hole are interchanged.
One p-n junction of a transistor is reverse-biased, whereas the other is forward-biased.

Forward-biased junction of a PNP transistor

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Reverse-biased junction of a PNP transistor

Both biasing potentials have been applied to a pnp transistor and resulting majority and minority carrier
flows indicated.
Majority carriers (+) will diffuse across the forward-biased p-n junction into the n-type material.
A very small number of carriers (+) will through n-type material to the base terminal. Resulting IB is
typically in order of microamperes.
The large number of majority carriers will diffuse across the reverse-biased junction into the p-type
material connected to the collector terminal
Applying KCL to the transistor:
IE = IC + IB
The comprises of two components the majority and minority carriers
IC = IC majority + ICO minority
ICO IC current with emitter terminal open and is called leakage current
Various parameters which relate the current components is given below

Emitter efficiency:
currentofinjectedcarriersatJ E
totalemittercurrent
I PE I pE
I pE InE I nE

Transport Factor:
* injectedcarriercurrentreachingJC
injectedcarrierncurrentatJE
*
I pC
I nE

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Large signal current gain:

The ratio of the negative of collector current increment to the emitter current change from zero (cut-off)to IE
the large signal current gain of a common base transistor.
(I C ICO )
IE
Since IC and IE have opposite signs, then as defined, is always positive. Typically numerical values of
lies in the range of 0.90 to 0.995
I pC I pC I pE
*
IE InE I E
*

The transistor alpha is the product of the transport factor and the emitter efficiency. This statement
* *
assumes that the collector multiplication ratio is unity. is the ratio of total current crossing JC to
hole arriving at the junction.
Bipolar Transistor Configurations

As the Bipolar Transistor is a three terminal device, there are basically three possible ways to connect it
within an electronic circuit with one terminal being common to both the input and output. Each method of
connection responding differently to its input signal within a circuit as the static characteristics of the
transistor vary with each circuit arrangement.

1. Common Base Configuration - has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.

2. Common Emitter Configuration - has both Current and Voltage Gain.

3. Common Collector Configuration - has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION
Common-base terminology is derived from the fact that the: base is common to both input and output of t
configuration. base is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential. Majority carriers can cross the
reverse-biased junction because the injected majority carriers will appear as minority carriers in the n-type
material. All current directions will refer to conventional (hole) flow and the arrows in all electronic
symbols have a direction defined by this convention.
Note that the applied biasing (voltage sources) are such as to establish current in the direction indicated for
each branch.

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To describe the behavior of common-base amplifiers requires two set of characteristics:

1. Input or driving point characteristics.
2. Output or collector characteristics
The output characteristics have 3 basic regions:
Active region defined by the biasing arrangements
Cutoff region region where the collector current is 0A
Saturation region- region of the characteristics to the left of VCB = 0V

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The curves (output characteristics) clearly indicate that a first approximation to the relationship between IE
and IC in the active region is given by
IC Once a transistor is in the state, the base-emitter voltage will be assumed to beVBE = 0.7V

In the dc mode the level of IC and IE due to the majority carriers are related by a quantity called alpha dc

IC = IE + ICBO
It can then be summarize to IC = IE (ignore ICBO due to small value)
ac

Alpha a common base current gain factor that shows the efficiency by calculating the current percent from
current flow from emitter to collector. The value of is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998.
Biasing: Proper biasing CB configuration in active region by approximation IC IE (IB 0 uA)

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TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER

Common-Emitter Configuration
It is called common-emitter configuration since : emitter is common or reference to both input and
output [Link] is usually the terminal closest to or at ground potential.
Almost amplifier design is using connection of CE due to the high gain for current and voltage.
Two set of characteristics are necessary to describe the behavior for CE ;input (base terminal) and output
(collector terminal) parameters.
Proper Biasing common-emitter configuration in active region

IB is microamperes compared to miliamperes of IC.

IB will flow when VBE > 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium
Before this value IB is very small and no IB.
Base-emitter junction is forward bias Increasing VCE will reduce IB for different values.

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Output characteristics for acommon-emitter npn transistor

For small VCE (VCE < VCESAT, IC increase linearly with increasing of VCE
VCE > VCESAT IC not totally depends on VCE constant IC
IB(uA) is very small compare to IC (mA). Small increase in IB cause big increase in IC
IB=0 A ICEO occur.
Noticing the value when IC=0A. There is still some value of current flows.

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Beta ( ) or amplification factor

The ratio of dc collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) is dc beta ( dc ) which is dc current gain
where IC and IB are determined at a particular operating point, Q-point (quiescent point).
the following equation:
30 < dc < 300 2N3904
On data sheet, dc=hfe with h is derived from ac hybrid equivalent cct. FE are derived from forward-
current amplification and common-emitter configuration respectively.

For ac conditions, an ac beta has been defined as the changes of collector current (I C) compared to the
changes of base current (IB) where IC and IB are determined at operating point. On data sheet, ac=hfe It
can defined by the following equation:

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From output characteristics of common emitter configuration, find ac and dc with an

Operating point at IB=25 A and VCE =7.5V

Relationship analysis between

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COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

Also called emitter-follower (EF). It is called common-emitter configuration since both the signal source
and the load share the collector terminal as a common connection point. The output voltage is obtained
at emitter terminal. The input characteristic of common-collector configuration is similar with common-
emitter. Configuration. Common-collector circuit configuration is provided with the load resistor
connected from emitter to ground. It is used primarily for impedance-matching purpose since it has high
input impedance and low output impedance.

For the common-collector configuration, the output characteristics are a plot of I E vs VCE for a range of
values of IB.

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Limits of operation
Many BJT transistor used as an amplifier. Thus it is important to notice the limits of operations. At least
3 maximum values are mentioned in data sheet.
There are:
a) Maximum power dissipation at collector: PCmax or PD
b) Maximum collector-emitter voltage: VCEmax sometimes named as VBR(CEO) or VCEO.
c) Maximum collector current: ICmax
There are few rules that need to be followed for BJT transistor used as an amplifier. The rules are:
transistors need to be operating in active region!
IC < ICmax
PC < PCmax

Note: VCE is at maximum and IC is at minimum (ICMAX=ICEO) in the cutoff region. IC is at maximum and
VCE is at minimum (VCE max = Vcesat = VCEO) in the saturation region. The transistor operates in the
active region between saturation and cutoff.

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