Black Body Radiation

Radiations describes the process in which energy emitted by one body,

simultaneously absorbed by another body.

A black body is one which absorbs all the heat radiations incident on it. The
electromagnetic radiations emitted by a black body is called black body
radiations. Actually, when the radiations fall on the matter, it may be partly
reflected, partly absorb and partly transmitted. Thus we can write following
relations;

R + A + T = 1. Where R- Fraction of total energy reflected, A- Fraction of total

energy absorbed, T- Fraction of total energy transmitted.

Hence perfectly black body is that which shows R = 0, T = 0 and A = 1. These

bodies neither reflects nor transmits the light fall on it, but all the incoming
radiations absorbs and hence appears black. In practice there exist no perfectly
black body. Although, a black body is a theoretical object. A source of infrared
radiations less than 0.99 is referred to as a grey body. Recently, Japanese
scientists discovered a material very much closer to black body, it is based on
single wall nanotube (SWNT); which absorbs approximately 97- 99% of the
wavelengths of light falls on it.

At room temperature, black bodies emit mostly infrared wavelengths, but as

the temperature increases, black body starts to emit visible spectrum. In
classical physics, each different Fourier mode in thermal equilibrium should
have the same energy, leading to the theory of ultraviolet catastrophe that
there would be an infinite amount of energy in any continuous field.

Some of the characteristics of black body radiations, have been very useful in
understanding various aspects of heat and thermodynamics and have been
widely used in solving related problems. These can be summarised in the form
of following laws: 1- Kirchhoff’s Law 2-Stefan’s Law 3-Wiens’s law.

Later, Rayleigh-Jeans law and Planks law of radiations provide the basics of
quantum mechanics.

Kirchhoff’s Law

1- In 1859, Kirchhoff deduced an important law, according to this law;

The radiation inside a hollow enclosure is independent of the nature or the

geometrical shape of the walls of the enclosure or a body placed inside it.

2- At any temperature, the ratio of the emissive power of a substance to its

absorptive power is constant and equal to the emissive power of a
perfect black body.

Let us consider an enclosure filled with radiation having wavelengths between

λ and λ + dλ, and let a body be place in it. Then one can say as,

Energy emitted by the body = Energy absorbed by the body

e λ dλ=a λ dQ (1)

Where e λ is emissive power of body, a λ is absorptive power of the body, and dQ

is the energy of the incident radiation,

e λ dQ
= (2)
a λ dλ

In case of perfect black body with emissivity Eλ (dλ = 1), we get the relation as

Eλ dλ = 1. dQ

dQ
Or Eλ = dλ (3)
Equating equations (1) and (3), we get

eλ
E λ= (4)
aλ

Thus, emissivity of perfectly black body is the ratio of the emissive power of
the body to its absorptive power.

Hence it has seen that, the Kirchhoff’s law embodies two distinct relations-
qualitative and quantitative. Qualitatively, if a body is capable of emitting
certain radiations, it will absorb when they will fall on it. Quantitatively, it
signifies that the ratio is the same for all the bodies.

The most important conclusion given by Kirchhoff’s law is about the solar
spectrum. He explained that the Sunlight has a continuous spectrum. Thus, for
the first time it was asserted that every different type of atom, when it is
properly excited, emits a wavelength that is characteristic of that atom.

Stefan’s Law or Stefan- Boltzmann Law

Stefan- Boltzmann Law is a mathematical representation of heat transfer by

radiation. According to this law, total rate at which a black body emits heat
radiations is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. If
E is the heat energy radiated per unit area of the black body and T is its
temperature, then according to this law,

E ∝T
4
or E = σ T4

Where σ is proportionality constant known as Stefan’s Constant and its value is

5.672 ×102 W/m2K4.

If the body is not perfectly black and has emissivity e, the above law becomes

E = σe T 4
The value of e varies from 0 to 1. This law is not only true for emission but also
true for absorption of radiant energy.

Suppose a black body having temperature T 1 surrounded by other body at a

temperature T2 , then

Rate of loss (or gain) by first body = σ T 41

Rate of loss (or gain) by first body = σ T 42

Therefore, net rate of loss or gain of heat energy per unit area of the surface is
given by

Enet =σ ( T 14−T 42 )

If the body has an emissivity e, then

Enet =e σ ( T 41 −T 24 )

Wien’s law

The amount of energy radiated by a black body is not uniformly distributed

over all the wavelengths emitted by the body but is maximum for a particular
wavelength.

If λm is the wavelength of the most intense radiation and T is the temperature

of the black body,

1
λm ∝ T or λm T = Constant

This is known as Wien’s law and can be stated as the wavelength

corresponding to the maximum energy is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature. Wein has also shown that the maximum energy is
directly proportional to the fifth power of the temperature i.e.,
Em ∝T 5 or Em = constant λ5

The constant value was determined by Wein and given as

−5
E λ =C1 λ exp ( )
−C2
λT

C1 and C2 are constants. This equation gives the Wein’s law of distribution of
energy.

The distribution of energy amongst the different wavelengths of thermal

spectrum of a black body radiation was studied by Lummer and Pringsheim.
The energy distribution of black body spectrum for the range 3500 0 K to 55000K
are shown by the curve below;

Following descriptions have been observed by the above curve:

 1- As the temperature rises, the emissive power in each band of
wavelengths increases i.e., the body becomes brighter.
2- At each temperature the energy radiated is maximum for a certain
wavelength λmax which decreases with increasing temperature.
3- Area under different curve represents the total energy emitted for the
complete spectrum at a particular temperature. This area becomes more
and more with increase in temperature of the body. The area under
these curves i.e., total energy emitted is found to be directly
proportional to the fourth power of the temperature, E ∝T 4 , which is
Stefan’s law.

Rayleigh-Jean’s Law

The energy distribution in the thermal spectrum, according to Rayleigh is given

by the relation

8 πkT
E λ= 4 , where k is Boltzmann Constant.
λ

According to Rayleigh-Jean’s law almost all energy should be confined to

vibrations of very small wavelengths. It is known as Ultraviolet Catastrophe.
Following figure shows the
ultraviolet catastrophe in classical
physics. The experimental
observations by Lummer and
Pringsheim in the infrared region
show that Wein’s law holds good
only for the region of shorter
wavelengths and fails for longer
wavelengths. However, Rayleigh-
Jeans’s law holds good for longer wavelengths and fails for shorter
wavelengths. Wein’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans’s law do not precisely agree with
the experimental results.

Plank’s Law of Black Body Radiations:

On the basis of quantum theory of heat radiations Plank (1901) was able to
derive theoretical expression for the energy distributions. Radiant energy is
regarded as atomic in structure consisting of discreet particles called ‘photons’
that retains their total stock of energy unimpaired throughout their flight in
space and may be broken up during their encounter with matter.

Each photon has energy equal to the product of h and ν, i.e. hν; where h is
Plank’s constant and ν is frequency of radiations. Plank’s law of black body
radiation describes the following three specific properties of photons.

1- Photons behaves in many ways, like particles of spin, hence photons

obey the Bose-Einstein statistics.
2- Photons do not interact with each other, i.e., a photon gas is perfect
gas.
3- The process that produces thermal equilibrium between the radiation
in a cavity and the enclosure consists of continual emission and
absorption of photons by the atoms of the surrounding wall
maintained at temperature T. This implies that the number of photons
in a cavity is not a constant.

Using the density states and the Bose-Einstein distribution function for
photons, we find the number of photons dnv, with frequencies between ν and
v+dν to be
 1 8 πV 3
d n v= E 3
ν dν (1)
c
e −1
kT

Where V is total volume.

Each photon has energy E = hν, so the amount of energy, d Ev carried by the d n v
photons is
3
8 πVh v
d uv =hvd n v = 3 E (2)
c kT
e −1

The energy density becomes,

d E v 8 πh v 3 1
u v dv= = 3
. E
dv (3)
V c kT
e −1

c
This is called Plank’s radiation rule. In terms of wavelength; using v= λ and

|dv|=
| |
−c
λ2
dλ

8 πhc dλ
u λ dλ= .
Therefore λ
5 E
hc (4)
e λkT
−1

With the help of Plank’s law Wein’s and Rayleigh-Jean’s law can be derived as

Wein’s formula: for small temperature λT is small, so

( )
−hc
8 πhc λkT
E λ dλ= 5
e dλ (5)
λ

Rayleigh-Jean’s law: for large temperature λT is large, therefore

8 πkT
E λ dλ= 4
dλ (6).
λ
Wave and Particle Duality or Dual Nature of Particle

To understand the wave and particle duality, it is necessary to understand

what is particle and what is wave.

The particle is specified by mass, velocity, momentum, energy and most

important it has definite position. Whereas, the concept of wave is a bit more
difficult than that of a particle. Actually a wave is nothing but rather a spread
out disturbances. Wave is specified by its frequency, wavelength, velocity,
amplitude etc. it is hard to think mass being associated with a wave. It can not
be said to be located just here and there.

Considering the above facts, it is accepted that the radiation some time behave
as a wave and other times as a particle. This is called wave particle duality.
Here it should be remembered that radiation cannot exhibit its particle and
wave properties simultaneously. On the basis of phenomena like, interference,
diffraction and polarisation, it was established that light is a kind of wave
motion. But the phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect explain
the light have particle character. Thus, light has dual character. It is worthy to
note that wave and particle never expected to appear together.

de-Broglie’s Concept of Matter Waves

Louis de-Broglie in 1924 extended the wave particle parallelism. de- Broglie put
a bold suggestion that like radiation, matter has also a dual characteristic.
According to de- Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a
wave which is known as de- Broglie wave. The wavelength of matter waves is
given by

h h
λ= =
mv p

Where m is mass of the particle, v is velocity and p is momentum.

In 1926, Schrodinger gave the idea of de- Broglie a mathematical form, in 1927,
Davisson and Germer and independently in 1928, G.P. Thompson discovered
electron diffraction by crystal which finally proved the wave nature of
electrons.

Matter waves

Louis de- Broglie proposed that matter also possess dual character like light. It
was based on following facts:

1- Matter and light, both are forms of energy and each of them can be
transformed into the other.
2- Both are governed by the space time symmetries of the theory of
relativity.

According to de- Broglie, a moving matter particle is surrounded by a wave

whose wavelength depends upon the mass of the particle and its velocity.
These waves associated with the matter particles are known as matter waves.

Wavelength of matter Wave

hc
We know that energy of photon E=hv= . (1)
λ

If mass of particle is converted into energy, the energy can be expressed by

Einstein’s mass- energy relation as
 E=m c
2
(2)

Equating equations (1) and (2), we can have

2 hc h h
mc = or λ= i.e., λ=
λ mc p

This is the wavelength of de-Broglie waves.

If on the place of photon, a material particle of mass m is moving with velocity

v, then momentum of particle p = mv. Therefore, the wavelength of wave
h
associated with this moving particle is given by λ = mv .

This wavelength is called de-Broglie wavelength of matter wave. The greater

the particle momentum the shorter its wavelength.

Some important relation for de-Broglie wavelengths;

1- We know that the kinetic energy of the material particle of mass m

moving with velocity v is given by
1 2
E= m v
2
Or 2
2 mE=m v = p
2 2
or p= √2 mE
h
Then the de-Broglie wavelength λ= .
√2 mE
2- As per expression of kinetic theory of gases,
3 1 2
E= kT = m v
2 2
h
Or wavelength λ= .
√3 mkT
3- If an electron is accelerated through a potential difference V volt, then
1 2
E=eV = m v
2

h
Then wavelength λ= .
√2 meV
 4- For electron m= 9.1×10-31kg and e = 1.6×10-19 c.
6.62× 10−34 12, 27 0
Then λ= = A.
√2 × 9.1×10−31 ×1.6 ×10−19 √V

For Neutron m= 1.67×10-27kg and e = 1.6×10-19 c.

−34
6.62 ×10 0.286 0
Then λ= = A.
√2 ×1.67 × 10−27 × 1.6 ×10−19 √V

Properties of Matter Waves

de-Broglie’s wave or matter wave possesses following properties;

1- Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2- Smaller is the velocity of the particle greater is the wavelength
associated with it.
3- For particle at rest, v = 0, then, λ becomes infinite, i.e., wave becomes
indeterminate. This indicates that, the matter waves are generated only
when the material particles are in motion.
h
4- The expression λ= mv is independent of charge of the particle, hence the

matter waves are generated by moving charged particles as well as by

moving neutral particles.
5- The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of
2
c
electromagnetic wave i.e., the velocity of light, v p= . As the particle
v

velocity v is always less than the velocity of light, it follows that the
velocity of propagation of the associated matter wave is greater than c.
6- The velocity of matter wave is not constant like the radiations which
move with constant velocity equal to velocity of light. The velocity of
matter wave depends upon the velocity of material particle.
 7- The wave and particle aspects of matter never appear simultaneously in
some experiments.
8- de- Broglie wave are not electromagnetic waves. Following observations
confirms this fact;
(a) The de-Broglie wave are associated with the moving particle
irrespective of whether the particles are charged or not,
electromagnetic waves are produced only by accelerating charged
particles.
(b) The velocity of de-Broglie wave is depending upon the velocity of
material particles. However, velocity of electromagnetic wave is
constant in a given medium.
(c) de-Broglie waves travel faster as compared to electromagnetic wave.

Bohr’s Quantisation Rule:

h
According to the de-Broglie hypothesis, λ= mv , de- Broglie proposed an

atomic model in which stationary orbits of the Bohr’s model were retained, but
with the difference that electron in various orbits behaves as wave.

He suggested that stationary orbits are those in which orbital circumference

(2𝜋) is an integral multiple of de-Broglie wavelength λ ,

Wave behaviour of electrons as Bohr’s model is as,

2 πr =nλ (n = 1, 2, 3,….)

h
But, λ=
mv

h
So , 2πr ¿ n . mv

h
Or mvr=n
2π
mvr is angular momentum of the electron as particle, hence above equation is
nothing but, the Bohr’s postulates i.e., the total angular momentum of the
h
moving electron is an integral multiple of 2 π .

Wave Functions and its Physical Significance

As we know that, the height of water surface varies periodically in water

waves, the pressure of gas varies periodically in sound waves and the electric
and magnetic fields vary periodically in light waves, but what is the quantity
which varies periodical in case of matter waves? Answer is the wave function;
the quantity whose variations make up the matter wave. So the amplitude of
matter wave is described by the wave function, represented by a Greek letter
𝛗, consists of real and imaginary part. It was considered to be merely an
auxiliary mathematical quantity employed to facilitate computations relative to
experimental results. Max Born suggested an interpretation for wave
functions. Schrodinger based his interpretation of 𝛗 on charge density,
where the square of the absolute value of wave function 𝛗 is a
measure of the particle density at a given point in space at a
given instant.

𝛗=A+iB

Conjugate of 𝛗 is 𝛗* i.e., 𝛗* = A – iB

So 𝛗 𝛗* = |φ| = A2 + B2
2

|φ| at a particular place at a particular time is proportional to

2

the probability of finding the particle there at that time.

The restrictions put on the value of 𝛗 are as follows;

1- The wave function should be physically acceptable.

2- It should be such that 𝛗⟶0 as the particle coordinates
tend to infinity, i.e., the wave function should be
normalizable.

3- The wave function 𝛗 and its first derivatives, i.e., ∂ t and

∂φ

so on, should be single valued and continuous.

4- ∑ 𝛗2 dV must be unity i.e., ∫ φ2 dV =1, where dV is any point
in space at any given instant of time.
The probability density |φ| =φ φ¿.
2

The normalized wave function ensures that the particle or

body is definitely present or definitely exists in the region
defined, which can be mathematically expressed as
+∞

∫ |φ| dV =1
2

−∞

Thus, a wave function that is physically acceptable in

normalised. The expectation value of a wave function 𝛗 (x, t)
is the value of (x) that one would obtain if one measured the
positions of many particles described by the same wave
function at same instant t and then averaged these results.

To correlate experiment and theory we define the

expectation value of any parameter
+∞ +∞

∫ x |φ| dx ∫ φ¿ xφ dx
2

⟨ x ⟩= −∞+∞ = −∞
+∞

∫ |φ| dx ∫ φ¿ φ dx
2

−∞ −∞
If 𝛗 is a normalised wave function, then
+∞

∫ φ¿ φ dx=1
−∞

Hence ⟨ x ⟩= ∫ x|φ| dx .
+∞
2

−∞

Schrodinger’s Wave Equations

If a particle has wave properties, de-Broglie proposed, it is

expected that there should be a wave equation that describes
the behaviour of the wave function.

The Schrodinger wave equation was introduced as a concept,

which was consequently able to explain the new thoughts of
de-Broglie and Heisenberg. The wave equation could reduce to
the classical mechanics, where the values of the Plank’s
constant become insignificant or negligible.

In 1926, Schrodinger presented a famous wave equation,

which is the fundamental equation of wave mechanics in same
sense as the Newton’s second law of motion in classical
mechanics. It is the differential equation of the de-Broglie
waves associated with particles and describes the motion of
particles.

Let us suppose that, the wave function of a wave is 𝛗,

which is moving by velocity v, then the equation of wave can
be written as

(1)
2
2 1 ∂ φ
∇ φ− 2 2
=0
v ∂t

Here 𝛗 is function of position and time 𝛗 (r, t),

The solution of equation (1) will be written as,

𝛗 (r, t) = 𝛗0 (r, t) e−iωt

(2)

Where 𝛗0 is amplitude of the wave.

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to t, then

∂φ −iωt
=−iω φ0 e
∂t

Again differentiation above we can

=ω 2 φ (since 𝛗 = 𝛗0 e−iωt ) (3)

2
∂ φ 2 −iωt
2
=−ω φ 0 e
∂t

Putting the value of 2 from equation (3) to (1), it yields as

2
∂ φ
∂t

(4)
2
2 ω
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
v

But we know that, λ or v 2 2 ; then equation (4) will

2 2
v ω 4π
ω=2 πn=2 π =
λ

get the form as

2
2 4π
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
λ

Or (5)
2 2 2
2 4π m v
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
h

Again the total energy E = Kinetic energy + Potential energy

E = 2 m v +V or 2m (E -V)= m2 v 2
1 2

Therefore, equation (5) will get the form as

2
2 4 π .2m(E−V )
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
h
But 2 π or 2 , therefore above equation may be written
2
h 2 h
ħ= ħ =
4π

as

(6)
2m(E−V )
∇ 2 φ+ φ=0
ħ2

It is Schrodinger’s time-independent wave equation.

When particle is moving in free space, then its potential

energy V = 0, so the Schrodinger’s time-independent wave
equation for free space will be,

(7)
2 2m E
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
ħ

Schrodinger’s time-dependent wave equation

The wave equation of a wave having wave function 𝛗,

travelling with velocity v,

(1)
2
2 1 ∂ φ
∇ φ− 2 2
=0
v ∂t

The solution of equation (1) will be written as,

𝛗 = 𝛗0 e−iωt (2)

Differentiating equation (2) with respect to t, then

= - iω 𝛗
∂φ −iωt
=−iω φ0 e
∂t

Or = −i 2 π h φ
( ) (since E = hv)
∂φ E
=−i ( 2 πν ) φ
∂t

Hence (we know that ħ= 2 π )

∂φ Eφ h
=−i
∂t ħ

Now i ħ ∂ t =Eφ (3)

∂φ
According to Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation
we know that

(4)
2m(Eφ−Vφ)
∇ 2 φ+ =0
ħ2

Putting the value of Eφ from equation (3) in Equation (4) we

can write

(5)
∂φ
2m(i ħ −Vφ)
∂t
∇ 2 φ+ 2
=0
ħ

It is called Schrodinger’s time-dependent wave equation.

Again, when particle is moving in free space, then

Schrodinger’s time-dependent wave equation for free space
will be as

=0 or (6).
∂φ
2m(i ħ ) 2 2m ∂ φ
∂t ∇ φ+ i =0
∇ 2 φ+ 2 ħ ∂t
ħ

The Schrodinger’s equations deduced above equation justifies

the belief that the equations are valid for matter waves
associated with a particle of mass m as long as the relativistic
effects can be neglected. The equation resembles some other
mechanical equations except for the factor of the imaginary
“iota” which distinctly differentiates it from all the other
equations established so far.

Energy of a Particle in One Dimensional Rectangular

Potential Well
Stationary state of particle is that state, when a particle is
restricted within the boundaries of a given potential. Wave
mechanics predict that the particle then picks up a certain
definite energy states that are governed by the bound potential
states of particle. These definite energy states are the discrete
value of the energy states. The concept of discrete energy
states are quantum energy states becomes significant.

Let us consider the case of a particle of mass m moving

along x-axis between two rigid walls A
and B at x = 0 and x = L. The
potential is free to move between the
walls A and B. the [potential of the
particle between the walls is constant
because no force is acting on the
particle. The constant potential energy
is taken as zero for simplicity. When
particle strikes any of one of the wall, it is reflected back
immediately. The potential energy of the particle becomes
infinite at the walls. Thus the potential function is defined in
the following way;

V ( x )=∞ for x <0∧x > L

And V ( x )=0 for 0< x < L

The Schrodinger’s wave equation for time independent is

(1)
2m(Eφ−Vφ)
∇ 2 φ+ =0
ħ2
As V = 0, between the walls, hence the equation (1) will get
the form as

(2)
2 2m E
∇ φ+ 2
φ=0
ħ

Let
2m E 2
2
=k
ħ

Therefore, equation (2) can be written as

2 2
∇ φ+k φ=0 (3)

The solution of equation (3) is of the form as

φ ( x )= A sinkx+ B cos kx (4)

Here A and B are two arbitrary constants.

Since particle cannot penetrate the box hence φ=0 at x = 0;

also φ=0 at x = L. These are boundary conditions. Applying
these conditions, we have

0 = A Sin 0 + B Cos 0

i.e. B = 0; so φ ( x )= A sinkx

again, φ=0 at x = L.

therefore 0 = A Sin kL which indicates Sin kL = 0 or kL = n𝜋

or (5)
nπ
k=
L

From the expression , then

2 2
2m E 2 n π 2 mE
2
=k 2
= 2
ħ L ħ

Or 2 =
2
2 2 2 2 2 h
n π ħ n π 2
E= 4π
2m L 2
2m L
Or (n = 1, 2, 3,…..)
2 2
nh
En = 2
8m L

(6)

It is clear from equation (6) that inside a infinitely deep

potential well, the particle can have only discrete set of values
of energy i.e., the energy of the particle is quantised.

The constant A in the expression φ ( x )= A sin L can be obtained

nπx

by applying the normalisation condition i.e.,

∫|φ( x )| dx = 1
L
2

Or dx = 1
L

∫ A 2 sin2 nπx
L
0

Or dx = 1 or [ ] dx = 1
L L
nπx
A ∫ sin
2
L
2
A
2
∫ 12 1−cos
2 nπx
L
0 0

Or [ ] or
L
A2 L 2 nπx 2
A L
x− sin =1 =1
2 2 πn L 0 2

Hence A=
√ 2
L

Therefore,

(7)
φ ( x )=
√ 2
L
sin
nπx
L

This equation gives the wave function of the particle enclosed

in infinity deep potential well. It is also known as the Eigen
value of energy.

Compton Effect
American scientist, A.H. Compton (1923) confirms about particle nature of
light. He discovered that, ‘when a beam of monochromatic radiation (X-rays) of
sharply defined frequency (lower wavelength) were incident on a material of
low atomic number (the carbon atom), the rays suffered a change of frequency
(higher wavelength) on scattering. The change of wavelength is due to loss of
energy of incident x-rays.’ Also, the electron of light atom is displaced with
change energy and momentum. This phenomenon is called Compton effect, and
the change in wavelength of scattered to incident X-rays is called Compton
shifts. If λ is the wavelength of incident X-ray and λ ’ is the wavelength of
scattered X-ray, then change in wavelength Δ λ is called Compton shift.

Refer to diagram,

There are ten terms which are important for deriving the expression for
Compton shift. These are;

1. Energy of incident X-ray ⟶ E = hv

2. Energy of scattered X-ray ⟶ E’ = hv’
3. Energy of light atom’s electron ⟶ E1 = m0c2
4. Energy of recoil electron ⟶ E2 = mc2
 5. Momentum of incident X-ray ⟶ p = hv/c
6. Momentum of scattered X-ray ⟶ p’ = hv’/c
7. Momentum of light atom’s electron ⟶p1 = 0
8. Momentum of recoil electron ⟶ p2 = mv
9. Direction of scattered X-ray ⟶ ϕ
[Link] of recoil electron ⟶ θ

X-ray photon strike with an electron (assumed it was at rest) and is scattered
away from the original direction of motion. The strike of photon to electron is
total elastic collision. Therefore, this collision follows two fundamental
conservation principle as (i) Conservation principle of energy and (ii)
Conservation principle of momentum.

Now, as per conservation principle of energy,

Energy before collision = Energy after collision

'
E+ E 1=E + E2

2 ' 2
Or hv +m0 c =h v +m c

By rearranging terms m c 2=h ( v −v ' ) +m0 c 2 (1)

As per conservation principle of momentum,

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

But momentum is vector quantity, so

Horizontal component of momentum before collision = Horizontal component

of momentum after collision
'
p cos 0+ p1 cos 0= p cos ∅ + p 2 Cosθ

'
hv hv
+ 0= cos ∅ +m v cos θ
c c

So, m v c cos θ=hv−h v cos ∅

'
(2)
Similarly, vertical component of momentum before collision = Vertical
component of momentum after collision
'
p sin 0+ p1 sin 0= p sin ∅ + p2 sin θ→

'
hv
0+ 0= sin ∅ −m v sin θ
c

So, m v c sin θ=h v sin ∅

'
(3)

Squaring and adding equations (2) and (3) we can write,

2 2
m v c ( cos θ+ sin θ )=( hv −h v cos ∅ ) + ( h v sin ∅ )
2 2 2 2 2 ' '

2 2 2 2 2 2 '2 2 2 ' 2 '2 2

m v c =h v + h v cos ∅ −2 h v v cos ∅ +h v sin ∅

2 2 2 2 2
m v c =h v + h v −2 h v v cos ∅
2 '2 2 '
(4)

According to relativistic mechanics, the expression for relativistic mass

⟶m=
m0 2 2
m= m0 c

√
2 2
v
1− ( c 2−v 2)
c2

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4
or m c −m v =m0 c → m c −m v c =m0 c (5)

Now squaring equation (1), it yields

m c =[ h ( v−v ) +m 0 c ]
2
2 4 ' 2

2
=h2 ( v−v ' ) +m20 c 4 +2 h ( v −v ' ) m0 c 2

m2 c 4=h 2 v 2+ h2 v '2−2h 2 v v ' +m20 c 4 +2 h ( v−v ' ) m0 c2 (6)

Putting the value of m2 c 4 from equation (6) and the value of m2 v 2 c2 from
equation (4) in equation (5), we get

h2 v 2 +h 2 v' 2−2 h2 v v ' +m20 c 4 +2 h ( v −v ' ) m0 c 2−h2 v 2−h2 v '2 +2 h2 v v ' cos ∅ =m20 c 4

Or −2 h2 v v ' +2 h ( v−v ' ) m0 c 2 +2 h2 v v ' cos ∅ =0

 −h v v ' + ( v−v ' ) m0 c 2+ hv v ' cos ∅ =0

( v−v ' ) m0 c 2=h v v ' ( 1−cos ∅ )

( v −v ' ) h
'
= 2
( 1−cos ∅ )
vv m0 c

( 1−cos ∅ )⟶
'
1 1 h λ −λ h (
Or − = = 1−cos ∅ )
v v m0 c
' 2 2
c m0 c

' h
Hence, λ −λ= Δλ= ( 1−cos ∅ ) (7)
m0 c

Δλ=0.0242 ( 1−cos ∅ )

Which is required expression for Compton shift. From above equation (7) some
important facts can be noted:

i. The wavelength of scattered X-ray is greater than the wavelength of

incident X-ray.
ii. The Compton shift Δλ in independent on the incident wavelength.
iii. When ϕ = 0, Cos ϕ = 1, since λ ' −λ= Δλ=0∨λ' =λ , which shows that no
scattering occurs along the direction of incidence.
iv. Similarly, when ϕ = 𝜋/2, so Cos ϕ = 0; Δλ = 0.0242A0.
v. Δλ has the maximum value at ϕ = 𝜋, which confirms Δλ = 0.0484A0.

Direction of recoil electron

We have the above equations (2) and (3) as

'
hv−h v cos ∅
'
m v c cos θ=hv−h v cos ∅ or cos θ=
mvc

'
h v sin ∅
'
m v c sin θ=h v sin ∅ or sin θ=
mvc

' '
h v sin ∅ v sin∅
Therefore, tanθ= '
= ' (8)
hv−h v cos ∅ v−v cos ∅
 1 1 h
We know that (as per above equations) − = ( 1−cos ∅ )
v v m0 c
' 2

1 1 h 1 h 2∅
Or = + ( 1−cos ∅ ) = v + m c 2 .2 sin 2
v v m0 c
' 2
0

( )
h 2∅ ' v
1+ . 2 sin v=

( )
2
Or 1 m0 c 2 or hv 2∅
= 1+ 2
. 2 sin
v' v m0 c 2

(9)

Putting the value of v’ from equation (9) to equation (8) we can get,

vSin ∅

tanθ=
1+
hv
(
m0 c 2
. 2 sin2
∅
2 ) or
vCos ∅
v−
1+
hv
m0 c (
2
. 2sin 2
∅
2 )
sin ∅
tanθ=
1+
( hv
m0 c
2
.2 sin
2∅
2 )
−cos ∅

∅ ∅ ∅ ∅
cos 2sin 2 sin
cos
2 2 2 2
Or tanθ= =
1+
hv
m0 c2
( ∅
.2 sin2 −1+ 2sin 2
2
∅
2 ) 2sin 2
∅ hv
2 m0 c 2[+1
]
∅ ∅
cos cot
2 2
Hence tanθ= = . (10)
sin
∅ hv
2 m0 c 2
+1
[hv
m0 c 2
+1
][ ]
Kinetic energy of Recoil electron (maximum)

The energy of recoil electron may be calculated by finding the difference

between the energies of incident X-ray and scattered energy,

Kinetic energy of recoil electron = Energy of incident photon - Energy of

scattered photon
 ( )
'
λ −λ
'
KE=hv−h v =hc (11)
λλ '

h 2h
Also, ( λ −λ ) = m c ( 1−cos ∅ )= m c ( For maximum KE)
'

0 0

Hence by equation (11), one can write,

2
' hc 2 h 2h
KE=hv−h v = '
. = '
λλ m 0 c λ λ m0

2h
2 2
2h v
2
2h v m0 cv
KE= = = .
( ) ( )
Or 2h c 2h m0 c ( m0 c 2+ 2hv )
m0 λ λ + m0 c +
m0 c λ m0 c

2 2
2h v
2
m0 c
Thus KE= (12).
2 hv
1+ 2
m0 c