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Jain's Academy
Solution
Solution Student name:-

Syllabus:-
 Solution and its type.

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m
 Expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquid (in terms
of %age, ppm, molarity, molality, mole-fraction, normality)

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 Solubility of gases in liquid (Henry’s law and its application)
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 Solid solution.
 Raoult’s law for volatile and non-volatile solution.
 Ideal and non-ideal solution and types of non-ideal solution.
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 Azeotropic or constant boiling mixtures.
 Colligative properties (Relative lowering in vapour pressure, Elevation
in boiling point,
in's

depression in
freezing point, Colligative property Equation for colligative property
When When the solute
osmotic solute undergoes
pressure). remain association/
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normal dissociation
 Isotonic, 1. Relative lowering in V.P.
hypertonic and P°-Ps
= Xb
P°-Ps
= i Xb
2. Elevation in boiling point P° P°
hypotonic
3. Depression in frezzing
solution. point
ΔTb = Kb x m ΔTb = i Kb x
m
 Abnormal 4. Osmotic pressure ΔTf =Kf x m ΔTf = i Kf x m
molecular
masses (in
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case of association and dissociation).

 Van’t Hoff factor
SOLUTION
Question: What is solution?
Answer: A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting
substances whose composition can be varied within certain limit.
Homogenous mixture:

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The mixture in which the compositions and properties are uniform (same) throughout
the solution.

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SOLUTE AND SOLVENT: The component that is present in the largest quantity is
known as solvent. Solvent determines the physical state in which solution exists.

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One or more components present in the solution other than solvent are called
solutes. E.g. sugar+ water.
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Binary Solution: A solution in which contain only one solute and one solvent is
known as Binary solution.
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Aqueous Solution and Non Aqueous Solution: The solution in which water is as
the solvent is known as Aqueous Solution and the solution in which water is not as the
solvent is known as non-Aqueous Solution.

Define saturated solution:- The solution in which maximum amount of solute dissolved
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in the given quantity of solvent at particular condition. and no more quantity of solute
can dissolve at the same condition.

Types of solution
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S.n. Types of Solution Solute Solvent Example

1. Gaseous solution Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and
nitrogen gases

WB
Molality(m) = x 1000
MW

2. Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with

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3. Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas

4. Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water

5. Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
6. Liquid Solution Solid liquid Glucose dissolved in water

7. Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in

Palladium
8. Solid solution Liquid Solid Amalgum of mercury with

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sodium
9. Solid solid Copper dissolved in gold

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Solubility: The maximum mass of a substance in grams which can be dissolved in

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100g of the solvent at any specified temperature and pressure is called its solubility.
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Expressing concentration of solution: There are several ways by which we can
describe the concentration of the solution quantitatively….
(i) Mass percentage (w/w): The mass percentage of a component of a solution is
defined as:
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For example, if a solution is described by 10% glucose in water by mass, it means that
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10 g of glucose is dissolved in 90 g of water resulting in a 100 g solution.

Unit:- no unit

Volume percentage (v/v): The volume percentage is defined as:

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Unit:- No unit

For example, 10% ethanol solution in water means that 10 mL of ethanol is dissolved in
water such that the total volume of the solution is 100 ml.

Mass by volume percentage (w/v): It is the mass of solute dissolved in 100 mL

of the
solution.

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Unit:- gm/litre
Parts per million: When a solute is present in very small quantities then
concentration is expressed in parts per million (ppm)
and is defined as:

Unit: ppm
MOLE-FRACTION: Mole fraction of any component of a solution is defined as the
ratio of the number of moles of any component to the total no. of moles of all the

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components of the solution. It is represented by X.
Thus if a solution contained nA and nB moles of A and B respectively then …

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Note: mole fraction does not change with temperature.

Note: no. of moles of substances are calculated from its mass as
in's

follows:

[Link] mole =
mass of the substances in gram
molecular mass of the substances.
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units : no unit.

Molarity: Molarity (M) is defined as number of moles of solute dissolved in one litre
(or one cubic decimeter) of solution,
nb
molarity = x
Moles of solute moles of solute
Molarity = or x 1000
Volume of solution in litre volume of solution in ml)
wb
Unit:- Mol/L Molarity = x
Mb x V (in ml)

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–1
For example, 0.25 mol L (or 0.25 M) solution of NaOH means that 0.25 mol of
NaOH has been dissolved in one litre (or one cubic decimetre).

Formality: formality is defined as the no. of gram formula mass dissolved per litre
of solution
w
Formality:
mass of solute formality = b
Mb x V (in ml)
x

formula mass of solutex volume of solution in litre 1000

Note: formality of a solution has the same value as molarity of a solution. But the

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concept of formality is applied only to ionic solutes.

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Molality: Molality (m) is defined as the number of moles of the solute per kilogram
(kg) of the solvent and is expressed as:
Moles of solute moles of solute

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Molality (m) = or x 1000
Mass of solvent in kg mass of solvent in gram
nb
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For example, 1.00 mol kg–1 (or 1.00 m) solution of KCl means
that1 mol (74.5 g) of KCl is dissolved in 1 kg of water.
molality =
W (in gram)
x 1000

units: mol/kg
wb
molality = x 1000
M x W (in gram)
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Normality: Normality is defined as the no. of gram equivalent dissolved per
liter of solution.
Normality: no. of gram eq. of the solute/ volume of solution in litre
Units: g equiv/L g equiv
normality = x 1000
V (in ml)
in's

number of gram equivalents of solute are calculated as follows:

no. of gram equivalents = mass of solute in grams/Equivalent mass of the

solute

and the equivalent mass of acid, base and salts are calculated as follows :
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Eq. mass of an acid = Mol. Mass of the acid / Basicity

Eq. mass of a base = Mol. Mass of the base / Acidity

Eq. mass of a salt = mol. Mass of the salt/ total +ve valency of metal atoms
+
Basicity is the no. of displaceable H ions present in one molecule of the acid
-
Acidity is the no. of OH ions present in one molecule of the base.

Wb
Normality
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Note: molarity equation:

M1 X V 1 = M2 X V 2
Where M1 molarity of first reactant
V1 volume of first reactant
M2 molarity of 2nd reactant
V2 volume of 2nd reactant
If no. of moles of reactants 1st and 2nd are n1 and n2 respectively
M 1 V1 M 2 V2
Then =

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n1 n2

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similarly normality equation:

N1 X V1 = N2 X V2

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WHERE N1 and V1 are normality and volume respectively 1st of solution

N2 and V2 are normality and volume respectively 2nd of solution Relationship

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between normality and morality of the solution of an acid or a base.

Normality of solution of an acid = molarity x Basicity

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Normality of solution of a base = molarity x acidity

e.g 1M H2SO4 = 2N H2SO4

1M Ca(OH)2 = 2N Ca(OH)2

Calculation of molarity and normality of the solution obtained on mixing two or more
in's

solution: M1V1+M2V2 = M3 (V1 +V2)

Question:- Out of molarity and molality which will you prefer and why?

Assignment 01
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1. Calculate the mole fraction of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) in a solution

containing 20% of C2H6O2 by mass.
2. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL solution.
3. Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid(CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene.
4. Calculate the mass percentage of benzene (C6H6) and carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) if 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of carbon tetrachloride.
5. Calculate the mole fraction of benzene in solution containing 30% by mass in
carbon tetrachloride.
6. Calculate the molarity of each of the following solutions: (a) 30 g of Co(NO3)2.
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6H2O in 4.3 L of solution (b) 30 mL of 0.5 M H2SO4 diluted to 500 mL.

7. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25
molal aqueous solution.
8. Calculate (a) molality (b) molarity and (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of
-1
20% (mass/mass) aqueous KI is 1.202 g mL .
9. Find the molarity and molality of a 15% solution of H2SO4 (density of H2SO4
solution = 1.10 g/cm3; molar mass of H2SO4 is 98 g/mol.
10. The density of water at room temp is 0.997g/cm3. Calculate the molarity of
water.

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Solubility: Solubility of a substance is the maximum amount of the solute
that can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent. It depends upon

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the nature of solute and solvent as well as temperature and pressure.

SOLUBILITY OF SOLID IN LIQUID: The solubility of a solid in liquid

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as the maximum amount of the solid (solute) in grams which can be dissolved
in 100 gram of the liquid (solvent) to form the saturated solution at that
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particular temperature.
Factors affecting the solubility of solid in Liquid:
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1. Nature of the solute and solvent:-
2. Temperature
Nature of solute and the solvent: A solid dissolves in a liquid (solvent) if the
intermolecular interactions are similar in solute and solvent. This is in
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accordance with the rule that LIKE DISSOLVES IN LIKE i.e. polar dissolve in
polar solvent and non-polar dissolve in non-polar.
EFFECT OF TEMERATURE: the solubility of solid in liquid is significantly
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affected by temperature. i.e. if reaction is exothermic then with the increase in

temperature solubility decreases like NaOH more rapidly dissolve in cold
water as compare to hot water. And if reaction is endothermic then with the
increases in temp solubility increases like Sugar dissolve more rapidly in hot
water as compare to cold water.
EFFECT OF PRESSURE:- As solid and liquid has very less empty space
between the atoms and so cannot compress, that’s why pressure has
negligible effect on solubility of solid in liquid.

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Solubility of gas in liquid: the solubility of any gas in a particular

liquid is the volume of the gas in cm3 that can be dissolves in unit volume
(1cm3) of the liquid.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE SOLUBILTY OF GAS IN LIQUID:
1. Nature of gas.
2. Effect of temperature
3. Effect of pressure

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Nature of gas: Solubility of gas in liquid depends upon the fact that the gases
which can chemically react with solvent are more soluble example gases like

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H2, O2, N2 etc dissolve in water to a small extent, where as gases like CO2, HCl,
NH3 etc are highly soluble. Or the gas which can be easily liquefy are more
soluble than other.

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Effect of temperature: Generally the solubility of a gas decreases with the
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increases in temperature because on heating the solution some gas is usually
expelled out from the solution. However there are some gases which are more
soluble at higher temperature than at lower temperature for example solubility
of H2 and inert gases in non-aqueous solution (like Hydrocarbon, alcohols and
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acetone) increases with rise in temp.
Effect of pressure: The solubility of gases increases with increase in
pressure. This was explained by William Henry. He gave a law for this,known
as Henry’s Law.
in's

Henry’s Law: The mass of a gas dissolved in a given volume of the liquid at
constant temperature is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas.
i.e. m α p or m = KH.P where m= mass of the gas
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dissolved in a unit volume of the solvent, p = pressure of the gas in

equilibrium with the solvent. KH = constant called Henry’s constant.
LIMITATION OF HENRY’S LAW:-
Henry’s law is applicable only if the following conditions are satisfied:-
1. The pressure should be low and temperature should be high i.e. gas
behaves like as ideal gas.
2. The gas should not undergo compound formation with the solvent or

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association or dissociation in the solvent.

Application of Henry’s law:
1. In solubility of CO2 in soft drinks, soda water, beer etc.
2. Hemoglobin combines with oxygen in lungs to form oxy-hemoglobin
which release oxygen for utilization in cellular activities.
3. Oxygen diluted with less soluble helium gas is used as breathing gas to
minimize the painful effects which are experienced by deep sea divers

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Note

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: Henry’s law can also be explained as the partial (P) of the gas is directly
proportion to the mole fraction (X) of the gas in the solution.
i.e. P α X or P = KHX

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Numerical: If N2 gas is bubbled through water at 293 K, how many
millimoles of N2 gas would dissolve in 1 litre of water. Assume that N2
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exerts a partial pressure of 0.987 bar. Given that Henry’s law constant for
N2 at 293 K is 76.48 kbar.

Answer: note: one litre of water contains 55.5 mol

Ac
As we know that PN2 = KH.XN2
-5
So XN2 = P/KH = 0.987 bar/ 76480 = 1.29 x 10
If n is the no. of moles of N2 in solution and one litre of water contain 55.5
mol, then
in's

n n
xN = =
2
n+55.5 55.5
–5 n
1.29 x 10 =
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55.5
-5 -4 -1
n = 55.5 x1.29 x 10 = 7.16 x 10 = 7.16 x 10
n = 0.716 m mol.

ASSIGNMENT -2
1. Differentiate between molality and molarity of a solution. What is the
effect of change in temperature of a solution on its molality and

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molarity.
2. Define the term mole fraction with example.
3. State Henry’s law and mention its two applications.
4. Why is an increase in temp observed on mixing chloroform with
acetone?
5. Two liquids A and B boil at 145◦C and 190◦C respectively. Which of
them has higher vapour pressure at 80◦C?

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6. Why does the molality of a solution remain unchanged with

m
temperature?
7. Calculate the no. of moles of methanol in 5 litres of its 2m solution, if
the density of solution is 0.981 Kg/L (molar mass of methanol=32.0

e
g/mol).
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8. Calculate the mole fraction of ethyl alcohol and water in a solution in
which 46 g of ethyl alcohol and 180 g of water are mixed together.
9. A 6.90 M solution of KOH in water contains 30% by mass of KOH.
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Calculate the density of the KOH solution? (molar mass of KOH= 56
u).
10. Calculate the molartity and molality of a solution (by mass) of
sulphuric acid of density 1.020 g/cm3
in's

SOLID SOLUTION:
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The solution in which both components (solute and solvent) are

solids is known as solid solution. These are of two types:--
1. Substitutional solid solution: These are that solid solution in
which solute particles occupy the position of solvent particles at
some lattice site. In these solid solution both the components
have similar atomic radii e.g. Brass, copper- Bronze Copper gold
etc

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2. Interstitial solid solution: these are that solid solution in which

solute particles occupy the interstitial site or voids existing
between the solvent particles. In these solid solution one
components has smaller atomic radii than the other e.g.
Tungsten –carbide (W c)
Substitutional solid solution Interstitial solid solution

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Vapour pressure of a solution:
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Take a liquid in a closed vessel and allow to heat it then a
part of liquid evaporates and fills the available space with vapours.
Since the vapours do not leave the container, these get collected in the
vapour state above the surface of the liquid and thus due to
in's

evaporation level of liquid decreases and then some vapour get

condensed and again change into liquid and then at one stage level of
liquid do not change i.e. the change of liquid into vapours and vapours
into liquid with the same rate. This stage is called equilibrium stage.
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 The pressure exerted by the vapours at the equilibrium stage

is called vapour pressure.
Or the pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface in
equilibrium stage at the given temp. is called as Vapour pressure.

Vapour pressure depends upon following factors:

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1. Nature of the Liquid: The vapour pressure of a liquid depends upon

the magnitude of intermolecular forces. The liquid which have weaker
intermolecular forces can easily escape into vapour face and thus
have greater vapour pressure. E.g. diethyl ether has higher vapour
pressure than water.
2. Temperature: The vapour pressure of a liquid increases with the
increases in temp. This is due to increases in K.E. So large no. of
molecules will reach at surface and will have higher vapour pressure.

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Volatile substance: The substance which can evaporate are called

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volatile substance and the substance which can not evaporate are
known as non-volatile substance.

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RAOULTS’ LAW: According to this law at a given temperature the partial
V.P. of each component in solution is equal to the product of the V.P. of
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pure component and its mole-fraction.

i.e. p =X.P◦
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Raoult’s Law is a special case of Henry’s Law: According to Raoult’s
law, the vapour pressure of a volatile component in a given solution is given
by p =X.p◦ .
in's

In the solution of a gas in a liquid, one of the components is so volatile that

it exists as a gas and we have already seen that its solubility is given by
Henry’s law which states that p = KH x.
If we compare the equations for Raoult’s law and Henry’s law, it
Ja

can be seen that the partial pressure of the volatile component or gas
is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. Only the
proportionality constant KH differs from p◦. thus, Raoult’s law becomes
a special case of Henry’s law in which KH becomes equal to p◦.

RAOULT’S LAW FOR VOLATILE LIQUID:

As in volatile liquid both solute and solvent evaporate Let us consider a

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solution of two complete miscible liquid A and B having mole fraction are
XA & XB and partial vapour pressure are PA & PB and vapour pressure in pure
state are P◦A & P◦B then by Raoult’s law –

PA = XA P◦A & PB = XB P◦B

If P is the total pressure then

P = PA + PB = XA P◦A + XB P◦B
Or P = (1-XB) P◦A + XB P◦B

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P = ( P◦B - P◦A )XB + P◦A

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--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Vapour pressure of a solution containing non-volatile Liquid:
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When the solute is non-volatile then only the solvent molecules are present
in the vapour phase, therefore the vapour pressure is due to solvent only.

If PA is the partial V.P. of the solvent & XA is the mole fraction & P◦A is the
Ac
vapour pressure of solvent in pure state using Raoult’s law

Then PA = XA P◦A & PB = 0

If Ps is the total pressure then

in's

P s= PA + PB = XA P◦A + 0

Or Ps = (1-XB) P◦A
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XB = (P◦A – Ps)/P◦A

Effect of [Link] solute on vapour pressure:

When a small amount of non-volatile solute is added to solvent to form a

solution then it is observed that vapor pressure of the solution is less than
that of pure solvent.

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Question: Why vapour pressure decreses when non-volatile solute is

added to solvent?

IDEAL SOLUTION AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTION

IDEAL SOLUTION: The solution which obey Raoult’s law at all condition of
temperature and pressure

There is no change in volume and enthalpy

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i.e. ΔVmixing = 0 and ΔH mixing = 0

m
Reason: The force of attraction in the solution is of different magnitude
than the force of attraction of solute & solvent individually.

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Note: the compound having similar structure and polarity form ideal
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solutions. E.g. hexane + heptane, Benzene + toluene, chlorobenzene+
bromobenzene, ethyl chloride and ethyl bromide.
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NON-IDEAL SOLUTION: The solution which don’t obey Raoult’s law at all
condition of temperature and pressure
in's

There will be change in volume and enthalpy

i.e. ΔVmixing ≠ 0 and ΔH mixing ≠ 0.

Reason: The force of attraction in the solution is of different magnitude

Ja

than the force of attraction of solute & solvent individually.

Ex. Water + methyl alcohol, water +nitric acid, chloroform+ acetone. Etc.

Question: Write the difference between ideal and non-ideal solution.

Types of non-ideal solution:- Non-ideal solution divided into two types on

the basis of deviation.

(i) Non-ideal solution which show positive deviation.

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(ii) Non-ideal solution which show negative deviation.

Non-ideal solution showing Positive deviation: - the solution in which

A—B interaction is less than the A—A or B—B interaction forces, show
positive deviation from the Raoult’s law. E.g. Ethanol + cyclohexane.

Mathematically: PA > XA P◦A & PB > XB P◦B.

ΔVmixing > 0 and ΔH mixing > 0

Non-ideal solution showing Negative deviation: - the solution in which

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A—B interaction is more than the A—A or B—B interaction forces, show

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negative deviation from the Raoult’s law. [Link] +acetone.

Mathematically: PA < XA P◦A & PB < XB P◦B.

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ΔVmixing < 0 and ΔH mixing < 0
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Question: Why ethanol+ cyclohexane show positive deviation?
Question: Why Chlorofrom + acetone show negative deviation?
Ac
Question: Show graphical representation of ideal and non-ideal solution.
in's
Ja

Q: What are Azeotropic or constant boiling mixtures?

Ans: These are the mixture which has a definite composition and boils at
constant temperature are called as Azeotropic or constant boiling mixture.

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A minimum boiling Azeotrpe is a solution of some definite composition

which boils at a definite temperature which is lower than the boiling points
of both the components of the solution. As shown in figure.

A maximum boiling Azeotrpe is a solution of some definite composition

which boils at a definite temperature which is higher than the boiling points
of both the components of the solution. As shown in figure.

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e m
ad
Assignment
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1. Why is the vapour pressure of a solution of glucose in water lower
than that of pure water?
in's

2. State Raoult’s law for volatile and non-volatile solutions.

3. Non-ideal solutions exhibit either positive or negative deviatios from

raoult’s law. What are these deviations and why are they caused?
Explain with one example for each type.
Ja

4. Draw a labeled diagram to express the relationships at constant

temperature between vapour pressure and mole fractions in an ideal
solution.

5. What is meant by negative deviation explain with diagram.

6. Why some non-ideal solution shows positive deviation.

7. When two liquid A and B are mixed together then the solution
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becomes warmer. When pair of liquid Y and Z are mixed, the solution
becomes colder. Which of these solution show negative deviation
from Raoult’s law?

8. A 0.2% aqueous solution of a non-volatile solute exerts a vapour

pressure of 1.004 bar at 100*C. what is the molar mass of the solute?
(Given V.P. of pure water at 100*C is 1.013bar and molar mass of
water is 18 g/mol.)

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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES

m
What are colligative p,zroperties? What are its various types?

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Answer: The properties of the solution which depend only upon the no.
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of solute particles and do not depend on the nature of the solute are
called as colligative properties.

The four colligative properties are:

Ac
1. Relative lowering in vapour pressure.

2. Elevation in Boiling point.

in's

3. Depresion in freezing point.

4. Osmotic pressure.

Relative lowering in vapour pressure:-

Ja

As we know that when non-volatile solute is added to solution the vapour

pressure decreases.

When the solute is non-volatile then only the solvent molecules are present
in the vapour phase, therefore the vapour pressure is due to solvent only.

If PA is the partial V.P. of the solvent & XA is the mole fraction & P◦A is the
vapour pressure of solvent in pure state using Raoult’s law

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Then PA = XA P◦A & PB = 0

If Ps is the total pressure then

P s= PA + PB = XA P◦A + 0

Or Ps = (1-XB) P◦A

(P°A – Ps)
XB = (relative lowering in Vapour pressure.)
P°A

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Thus the relative lowering of Vapour of a solvent due to the dissolution of
a nonvolatile solute in it, and it is equal to the molefraction of the solute in

m
the solution.

Question: Determine the molecular mass of solute from relative lowering

e
in vapour pressure.
ad
Answer: As we know that XB =
(P°A – Ps)
(relative lowering in Vapour
P°A
pressure.)
Ac
Where XB mole fraction of solute, P◦A vapour pressure of pure solvent and
PA is the vapour pressure of solution.

nB
As XB =
in's

(nA+nB)

(P°A – Ps) nB
So XB = =
P°A (nA+nB)
Ja

Here nB and nA are the no. of moles of solute and solvent respectively
present in the solution. And nB << nA, so

nA + nB = nA

so above equation becomes

(P°A – Ps) n W M
= ≈ B = Bx A
P°A (nA) MB WA
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( Here WA and WB are the masses and MA and MB are the molar masses
of the solvent and solute respectively.

From this equation, knowing all other quantities, the molar mass of solute
(MB) can be calculated.

Test assignment

1. What is meant by I. colligative properties II. Molality

y
2. How is the relative lowering in vapour pressure related to the
concentration of the solute in solution?

m
3. Why is the vapour pressure of a solution of glucose is lower than
that of water?

e
4. Show that the relative lowering of vapour pressure for a solution is
ad
equal to the mole fraction of the solute when solvent alone is
volatile.
Ac
5. An antifreeze solution is prepared from 222.6 g of ethylene glycol
C2H4(OH)2 and 200 g of water. Calculate the molality of the
solution. If the density of the solution be 1.072 g m/L, what will be
the molarity of the solution.
in's

6. The vapour pressure of water at a certain temperature is 18.15 torr,

and that of a solution containing 9.47 g of a sugar in 100 g water,
at the same temperature, is 18.06 torr. Calculate the molar mass
of the sugar.
Ja

7. The vapour pressure of a dilute aqueous solution of a non-volatile

solute (molar mass = 180 g/mol) at 373 K is 750 mm Hg.
Calculate (1) molality, (II) molefraction of the solute.

2.. ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT:

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The increase in the boiling

point of solution by adding
non-volatile solute is called
elevation in boiling point.

We know that vapour pressure of

the solution containing non-
volatile solute is less than that of
the pure solvent. So the solution is

y
to be heated to a higher
temperature so that its vapour

m
pressure becomes equal to the
atmospheric pressure.

e
Thus the boiling point of the
ad
solution is always higher than that
of the pure solvent.
¬◦
Ac
Let T b =boiling point of pure
solvent, and Tb =boiling point of
solution

Then the difference between (Tb -- T◦b = ΔTb ) is known as elevation in

in's

boiling point.

Mathematically (Tb -- T◦b = ΔTb )

The elevation in boiling point is directly proportional to the molal

Ja

concentration of the solution i.e. ΔTb α m

Or ΔTb = Kb m

Where m is the molality of solution & Kb is constant called as molal

elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant.

If m=1 then ΔTb = Kb

Thus molal elevation constant may be defined as elevation in boiling point

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for one molal solution.

Question: .How will you determine molecular mass of solute from

elevation in boiling point property.

Answer: Let Wb gram of of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in Wa gram of

the solvent and Mb is the molecular mass of solute

nB
Then molality (m) = X 1000
WA

y
Where nb = no. of moles of solute and WA = weight of solvent in gram

m
WB
Molality(m) = x 1000
MBWA

e WB
ad
∆Tb = Kb x
MBWA
x 1000

Thus molecular mass of solute is:-

Ac
WB
MB = Kb x x 1000.
∆TbWA

Using this equation we can calculate molecular mass of solute.

in's

Derivation of the expression ∆Tb = Kb x m. It may be

derived in a simple manner as follows:
It is evident that greater the lowering in vapour pressure (∆p) higher is the
Ja

elevation in boiling point (∆Tb), i.e. ∆Tb ∝ ∆p.

But according to the Rault’s law, ∆p ∝ x2, the mole fraction of the solute in the
solution

Hence, ∆Tb ∝ x2 or ∆Tb = kx2

Where k is a constant of proportionality.

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n2 n2
But x2 = ≈ (if the solution is dilute i.e. n2 ≪ n1).
n1+ n2 n1

n2 n2
i.e. x2 = ∴ ∆Tb = k M1
W1/M1 W1

n2
If the mass of solvent, w1 = 1 Kg, then evidently = m, molality of the
W1
solution. Also, for a given solvent, its molecular mass M1 is constant so that

y
kM1 = Kb, another constant. Hence the above result reduces to ∆Tb = Kb m.

e m
Assignment
ad
1. What is the molal elevation constant. What are its unit?

2. Calculate the boiling point of a solution prepared by adding 15g of

Ac
NaCl to 250g of water.(kb for water=0.512Kkgmol-1. Molar mass of
NaCl=58.44g)

3. On dissolving 3.24g of sulphur in 40g of benzene, boiling point of

in's

solution was higher than that of benzene by 0.81K. kb value for

-1
benzene is 2.53K kgmol . What is the molecular formula of sulphur?

4. A solution of glycerol (C3H8O3) in water was prepared by dissolving

some glycerol in 500g of water. This solution has boiling of 100.420C
Ja

while pure water boils at 100◦C. whast mass of glycerol was

dissolved to make the solution? Kb = 0.512 K kg/mol.

5. A solution containing 8g of a substance in 100g of diethyl ether boils

at 36.86◦C, where as pure ethyl boils at 35.60◦C. determine the
molecular mass of the solute.(for ether kb=2.02K kgmol-1)

Question: What is depression in freezing point?

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Answer: The decrease in freezing point by adding non-volatile solute in the

solution is called Depression in freezing point.

It has been observed that when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent,

its freezing point decreases than that of pure solvent.
¬◦
Let T f =freezing point of pure solvent,
and Tf =freezing point of solution

Then the difference between (freezing

y
point of pure solvent and freezing point

m
of solution) is known as Depression in
freezing point.

e
Mathematically
ad ( T◦f -- Tf= ΔTf)

The depression in freezing point is

directly proportional to the molal
concentration of the solution i.e. ΔTf α m
Ac
Or ΔTf = Kf m

Where m is the molality of solution & Kf

is constant called as molal depression constant or cryoscopic constant.
in's

If m=1 then ΔTf = Kf

Thus molal depression constant may be defined as depression in freezing

point for one molal solution.
Ja

Question: .How will you determine molecular mass of solute from

depression in freezing point property.

Answer: Let Wb gram of of a non-volatile solute is dissolved in Wa gram of

the solvent and Mb is the molecular mass of solute

nB
molality (m) = X 1000
WA

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Where nb = no. of moles of solute and WA = weight of solvent in gram

WB
Where no. of moles of solute (nB) =
MB

WB
Molality(m) = x 1000
MBWA

∆Tf = Kf x m

WB

y
∆Tf= Kf x x 1000
MBWA

m
Thus molecular mass of solute is:-

e
WB
MB = Kf x x 1000.
∆TfWA
ad
Using this equation we can calculate molecular mass of solute.

Question: What are antifreezing substances? Where they are used?

Ac
Answer: The substances which decrease the freezing point of solution are
called antifreezing substances.

As we know that water is used in radiators of vehicles. If we have to use

in's

the vehicles in cold region where temperature is below 0◦C, so water will
freeze in radiators. So to avoid this we have to use Antifreezing solution
like ethylene glycol to lower the freezing point of water.
Ja

Assignment
1. Oceans do not freeze even at sub-zero temperature. Explain.

2. Name one substance which is used as an antifreeze for water.

3. Why does sodium chloride freeze at lower temperature than water,

but boils at higher temperature than water?

4. Find the molality of a water solution which freezes at 263.15 K. (Kf of

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water =1.86 K kg/mol).

5. The freezing point of a solution containing 0.3 g of acetic acid in

30.0g of benzene is lowered by 0.45◦C. Calculate the Van’t Hoff
factor.

( Kf for benzene = 5.12 K kg/mol).

6. 15.0 g of unknown molecular material was dissolved in 450 g of

water. The resulting solution was found to freeze at –0.34 ◦C. what is

y
the molar mass of this material? (Kf for water = 1.86 K kg/mol)

m
7. What mass of ethylene glycol (molar mass = 62.0 g /mol) must be
added to 5.50 kg of water to lower the freezing point of water from
0◦C to –10◦C? (Kf = 1.86 K Kg/mol)

e Diffusion in solution
ad
The mixing of the solute and solvent to form a homogenous solution is
called as diffusion.
Ac
Question: What do you understand by osmosis and osmotic pressure?

Answer: The phenomenon of passage of pure solvent into solution (or from
less concentrated to more concentrated solution) through a semi-
in's

permeable membrane is called as osmosis.

Osmotic pressure:- It is the minimum pressure which is applied on a

solution to just prevent the entry of pure solvent into solution through semi-
permeable membrane (SPM).
Ja

Question: What are semi-permeable membranes?

Answer: It is membrane which allows only the solvent particles to pass

through it but not allow solute. It may be natural (obtained from plants or
animals) e.g. pig’s bladder is used as most common Animal membrane.

Synthetic Membrane or Artificial membrane: like parachment paper,

cellophane, inorganic compounds like cupric/copper ferrocyanide, silicates
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of iron, cobalt, nickel etc.

Question: Write the difference between osmosis and diffusion.

OSMOSIS DIFFUSION
1. SPM is used 1. No SPM is required
2. It involves the movement of 2. both solute and solvent
the solvent molecules only. molecules can move.
3. Molecules of solvent move 3..Molecules move from high
from a region of low concentration to low
concentration to higher concentration.

y
concentration

m
4. Osmosis is limited to solution 4..Diffusion is common in liquid
only. as well as in gases.
5. It can be stopped or reversed 5..It cannot be stopped or

e
by applying pressure.
ad reversed.

Question: How can you say that osmotic pressure is a colligative property?

Answer: Van’t Hoff study the osmotic pressure of dilute or ideal solution.
Ac
And he concluded that a dilute or ideal solution behave like an ideal gas
and obey various gas laws.

Van’t Hoff observed that for dilute solutions osmotic pressure (π) is given
in's

as:- π =CRT

Where C is the molar concentration of the solution (molarity), T is the

temperature and R is the gas constant.
Ja

For a solution at a given temperature, Both R and T are constant

So π α C

Since osmotic pressure depends upon the molar concentration of solution

therefore it is colligative property.

Question: How can you determine molecular mass of solute from osmotic
pressure?

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Answer: According to Van’t Hoff equation,

n
Π = CRT but C =
V

Where n is the no. of moles of solute dissolved in V litre of the solution

nRT
So π=
V

Wb
Where no. of moles of solute (n) =

y
Mb

m
So above equation becomes:

e
ad
Limitation to calculate molecular mass using osmotic pressure:-
Ac
1. The solute must be non-volatile.

2. The solution must be dilute i.e. concentration of the solution should

not be more than 5 %.
in's

3. The solute should not undergo either dissociation or association in

the solution.

Question: What is biological significance of osmosis?

Ja

Answer: Osmosis plays an important role in the absorption of water by the

plants from the soil through the root and its movement to different parts of
plants is due to the process of osmosis.

The use of salt and sugar as preservatives in pickles in preventing growth

of fungi and bacteria by osmosis.

Question: What are isotonic solutions?

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Answer: Different solutions have different vapour pressure, similarly

different solutions also have different osmotic pressure. When two such
solutions are separated by a semi permeable membrane, then the solvent
molecules flow from the solution of low osmotic pressure towards solution
of higher osmotic pressure. This continues till both the solution attains the
same osmotic pressure.

Such solutions having same osmotic pressure are called as isotonic

solutions.

y
Question: What are Hypertonic and Hypotonic solutions

m
Answer: If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution then
it is called HYPERTONIC SOLUTION.

e
On the other hand a solution having less osmotic pressure than the other
ad
solution then it is called HYPOTONIC SOLUTION.

Example:
Ac
1. 0.91 % solution of sodium chloride is isotonic with human red blood
cell. The blood cell does not swell or shrink.

2. 5% solution of NaCl is Hypertonic solution with RBC, when RBC are

placed in it, water comes out and cells shrink.
in's

3. When we placed RBC in distilled water (Hypotonic solution) then

water goes inside the blood cell and cells swell up.

Question: What is reverse osmosis? What is its use?

Ja

Answer: If we apply more pressure to the solution, then the solvent from
the solution passes through semi permeable membrane goes towards the
pure solvent. This process is called reverse osmosis.

The process of movement of solvent from solution to pure solvent by the

application of external pressure is called as reverse osmosis e.g. it is used
to get water and salt separately from sea water.

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Assignment
1. Define the term osmotic pressure. Describe how the molecular mass
of a substance can be determined bya method based on osmotic
pressure.

2. At 300 K, 36 g of glucose (C6 H12 O6) present per litre in its aqueous
solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98 bar. If the osmotic pressure
of another solution of glucose is 1.52 bar at the same temp. then
what would be the concentration of the solution.

y
3. Osmotic pressure of a solution containing 7 g of a protein per 100mL

m
of a solution is 25 mm at 310 K. calculate the molecular mass of the
protein. (R = 0.0821 L atm /K/mol)

e
4. 100mg of a protein is dissolved in enough water to make 10.0 mL of
ad
a solution. If this solution has an osmotic pressure of 13.3 mm Hg at
25◦C, What is the molecular mass of protein? (760mm Hg = 1 atm,
R= 0.0821 L atm/K/mol).
Ac
5. A 5% solution of cane-sugar C12H22O11 is isotonic with 0.877 % of
solute A. calculate the relative molar mass of A. Assume density of
solution is 1 g/cm3.
in's

Explain the abnormal molecular mass of electrolytic solution?

Answer: When we calculate the molecular mass using the colligative
Ja

properties, the non- electrolytic substances does not undergoes

association or dissociation, but in some cases, the expected molecular
mass is not same to the calculated mass. This may be due to association
or dissociation of the solute molecules in the solution.

(I) ASSOCIATION OF solute particles:-

In some non-polar solvents, the solute molecules undergoes association

i.e. two, three or more molecules combine together.
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nA ⇋ (A)n

Therefore no. of molecules in solution become less than the no. of

molecules of the substance added. Therefore value of colligative
property will be lower.

So molecular mass will be greater than the theoretical value.

y
e.g. in benzene solvent both ethanoic acid and Benzoic acid exists as

m
dimmers as:-

2 CH3COOH ⇋ (CH3COOH)2

e
2 C6H5COOH ⇋ (C6H5COOH)2
ad
So the molecular mass of Acetic acid and Benzoic acid have been found
to be double.
Ac
in's
Ja

2. Dissociation of solute particles:-

Molecules of certain substances like acid and base and salts dissociate or
ionize in a solvent to give two or more particles.

For example, AB dissociates to give double no. of particles as:-

+ --
AB ⇋ A + B

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So total number of particles increases in solution and therefore the

colligative properties of such solution will be large. Since colligative
properties are inversely proportional to molar mass, the observed mass will
be less than the theoretical value. e.g. in kcl molar mass comes out to be
half of its normal value. i.e.(37.25) where as normal value is 74.5gm.

Ques:- What do you understand by Van’t Hoff factor?

Ans:- Van’t Hoff introduced a factor called as Van’t Hoff factor and it is
demoted by (i) which is used to express the extent of association or

y
dissociation of solute in solution.

m
It is the ratio of normal molecular mass to the observed molecular mass of
solute

e
ad
.

If i<1 then observed molecular mass is more than normal molecular mass.
Ac
i.e. it is the case of association.

If i>1 then observed molecular mass is less than normal molecular mass
i.e. it is the case of dissociation.
in's

Since molecular mass are inversally proportional to colligative properties,

so we have,
Ja

So modified equations for the colligative properties:-

Colligative property Equation for colligative property
When solute When the solute
remain undergoes
normal association/
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dissociation

1. Relative lowering in V.P. P°-Ps P°-Ps

= Xb = Xb
P° P°
2. Elevation in boiling point
ΔTb = Kb x m ΔTb = i Kb x m
3. Depression in frezzing point
ΔTf =Kf x m ΔTf = i Kf x m
4. Osmotic pressure
Π = CRT Π = i CRT

y
e m
ad
Ac
Assignment
1. Sometimes the molecular masses determined from colligative
properties of solution show abnormal values. Explain why.
in's

2. What is Van’t Hoff factor? What type of values can it have if in

solution, the solute molecules undergo, (I) association, (II)
dissociation.
Ja

3. Why is the Van’t Hoff factor introduced in the equations for colligative
properties of solutions?

4. Why is freezing point of depression of 0.1M sodium chloride solution

nearly twice that of 0.1M glucose solution?

5. 1.0g of KCl is dissolved in 200g of water. This solution freezes at -

0.24◦C. calculate the percentage dissociation of the salt.
Kf(water)=1.86Kkgmol-1

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6. What mass of NaCl (molar mass=58.5gmol-1) be dissolved in 65g of

water to lower the freezing point by 7.50C? the freezing point
depression constant Kf for water is 1.86K kg [Link] Van’t Hoff
factor for NaCl is 1.87?

7. A solution contains 0.8960 g K2SO4 in 500 ml solution. Its osmotic

pressure is found to be 0.690 atm at 27◦C. Calculate the value of
Van’t Hoff factor. (R= 0.0821 L atm /K/mol)

8. A 1.00 molal aqueous solution of trichloroacetic acid (CCl3COOH) is

y
heated to its boiling point. The solution has the boiling point of

m
100.18◦C. Determine the Van’t Hoff factor for trichloro-acetic acid.
(Kb = 0.512 K Kg/mol).

e
9. The freezing point of a solution containing 0.2 g of acetic acid in 20 g
of benzene is lowered by 0.45◦C. Calculate molar mass of acetic acid,
ad
van’t Hoff factor.

10. A solution containing 3.100 g of BaCl2 in 250 g of water boils at

100.083 ◦C. Calculate the value of Van’t Hoff factor and molality of
Ac
BaCl2 solution.

Kf = 0.52 K kg/mol, molar mass of BaCl2 = 208.3 g/mol.

in's
Ja

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