:

IS 1343 2012
[Link] Seismic Waves -Must be capable of anchoring the structure against
Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel overturning and sliding forces.
through the Earth, typically generated by [Link] Behaviour of Infill Walls Under Seismic
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or artificial Excitation
explosions. They help scientists understand the
Earth's interior. Infill walls are non-structural walls (usually made of
brick or concrete blocks) built between columns and
Types of Seismic Waves: beams in a frame structure. Though not designed to
1. Body Waves – Travel through the interior carry load, they significantly influence a building's
of the Earth: seismic performance.

P-waves (Primary waves): 1. Contribution to Lateral Stiffness and Strength:

S-waves (Secondary waves): -Infill walls act like compression struts between
columns under lateral (seismic) loads.
2. Surface Waves – Travel along the Earth's
surface: -They temporarily increase the lateral stiffness and
strength of the frame.
Love waves:
2. Nonlinear Behaviour:
Rayleigh waves:
-Their contribution is nonlinear and brittle.
-Initially, they resist lateral loads effectively, but
[Link] Basic Criteria for Building Layout once cracked, they lose stiffness and strength
Against Lateral Loads rapidly.
To ensure structural stability and safety under lateral 3. Diagonal Cracking and Crushing:
loads, the following key criteria are considered
during building layout design: -Under earthquake shaking, diagonal tension cracks
form.
Symmetry:
-With severe motion, infill walls may crush or
A symmetrical plan reduces torsional effects under separate from the frame, leading to debris and
lateral loads. collapse risk.
Helps in even distribution of forces. 4. Interaction with Frame (Frame-Infill Interaction):
Regularity in Plan and Elevation: -Infill walls and frames interact, creating complex
-Avoid irregular shapes (like L or T shapes) that may stress patterns.
lead to uneven load paths. -If not accounted for in design, this interaction can
-Uniform height and mass distribution minimize cause unexpected failures, like shear failure of
stress concentrations. columns or soft storey mechanisms.

Stiffness and Strength Distribution: 5. Possible Negative Effects:

-Lateral load-resisting elements (like shear walls, -Torsional irregularity: If infills are unevenly
braced frames) should be well-distributed. distributed, it may cause twisting of the structure.

-Prevents soft-storey effects and sudden failure. -Pounding effect: Separation gaps between walls
and frames may close suddenly, causing impact
Center of Mass and Center of Rigidity Alignment: forces.
-The closer they are, the lesser the torsional effects 6. Retrofitting Role:
during earthquakes or wind.
-Properly designed infills (e.g., with ductile
Continuous Load Path: detailing or engineered masonry) can enhance
-Structural elements should be connected properly seismic resistance.
to transfer lateral forces to the foundation. -Use of seismic gaps or energy-dissipating infill
Redundancy: systems can help mitigate negative effects.

-Provide multiple load paths to increase reliability

in case some elements fail. [Link] Ground Motion Parameters Commonly
Avoidance of Re-entrant Corners: Used in Design of Structures Against Lateral
Loading
-Sharp corners or setbacks should be avoided or
specially designed to resist concentration of lateral In earthquake engineering, ground motion
forces. parameters are essential for analyzing and designing
structures to withstand lateral loads caused by
Strong Foundation System: seismic activity. These parameters define the
intensity, duration, and frequency content of
earthquake shaking and are used in seismic design -Important because resonance with the structure’s
codes. natural frequency can amplify damage.
1. Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA): 8. Damping Ratio:
-Definition: Maximum horizontal acceleration of -Represents the energy dissipation capacity of a
ground during an earthquake. structure during vibration.
-Unit: g (acceleration due to gravity) -Typical assumed value for buildings: 5%.
-Usage: Primary parameter in seismic zoning maps;
used to estimate base shear in structures.
[Link] Identification of Seismic Damages in RCC
-Limitation: Does not account for duration or Buildings
frequency of shaking.
Seismic damages in Reinforced Cement Concrete
2. Peak Ground Velocity (PGV): (RCC) buildings are the result of intense ground
-Definition: Maximum ground velocity recorded shaking during earthquakes. Identifying these
during seismic shaking. damages is crucial for assessing structural safety
and planning retrofitting.
-Usage: Better indicator of potential structural
damage than PGA in some cases. 1. Cracking Patterns
3. Peak Ground Displacement (PGD): a. Diagonal Cracks in Columns and Beams:
-Definition: Maximum relative displacement of the -Caused by shear forces during lateral shaking.
ground during the shaking. -Indicates high seismic stress and potential failure
-Usage: Important for analyzing flexible structures zones.
like bridges, pipelines. b. Flexural Cracks at Beam-Column Joints:
4. Response Spectrum Parameters: -Appear near supports due to bending moments.
These are the most widely used parameters in -Suggest inadequate reinforcement or ductility.
seismic design:
c. Cracks in Shear Walls:
a. Spectral Acceleration (Sa):
-Diagonal or X-shaped cracks signify shear
-Maximum acceleration experienced by a single- overload.
degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system at a given
natural period and damping. -Indicates excessive deformation under seismic
forces.
-Used in design response spectra for building codes.
2. Spalling of Concrete:
b. Spectral Velocity (Sv) and Spectral Displacement
(Sd): -Outer layer of concrete flakes off, exposing
reinforcement.
-Represent peak velocity and displacement response
of SDOF systems. -Occurs due to crushing or corrosion after cyclic
loading.
-Useful in time-history analysis and performance-
based design. 3. Buckling or Bending of Reinforcement Bars:
5. Design Basis Earthquake (DBE) and Maximum -Bars may bulge out of columns or beams.
Considered Earthquake (MCE): -Happens when concrete cover fails under
-DBE: Earthquake level used for designing ordinary tension/compression reversal.
structures; corresponds to a certain probability of 4. Joint Failures:
exceedance (e.g., 10% in 50 years).
-Beam-column joints may show cracks, crushing, or
-MCE: Strongest level of earthquake expected in a widening.
region; used for critical structures like hospitals.
-Weak joints can lead to progressive collapse.
6. Duration of Ground Motion:
5. Pounding Damage:
-Refers to the time interval during which the
significant energy is released (e.g., time between 5% -Adjacent buildings with insufficient separation
and 95% of total energy). collide during shaking.
-Affects cumulative damage in structures. -Causes edge crushing, cracks, and concrete spalling
at impact zones.
7. Frequency Content:
6. Column Damage or Short Column Effect:
-Describes the dominant frequencies present in the
ground motion. -Short columns suffer more seismic shear forces.
-Leads to brittle failure or collapse, often in parking
areas or half-filled walls.
 :
IS 1343 2012
7. Foundation Cracking or Settlement: -Enhances the ductility and toughness of beams,
-Differential settlement due to liquefaction or soil columns, and joints, reducing the risk of sudden
movement. collapse during earthquakes.

-Causes visible cracks and tilting of the structure. Ensures Structural Integrity:

8. Storey Displacement or Soft Storey Failure: -Maintains load paths and joint performance,
allowing the structure to remain stable and safe even
-Sudden drift in one floor (often the ground floor). under severe ground motion.
-Leads to collapse of that storey due to insufficient [Link] Reasons for Torsion in Buildings
stiffness.
Reasons for Torsion:
-Eccentricity between Center of Mass and Center of
[Link] Advantages of Response Spectrum Rigidity – Causes unequal force distribution during
Method over Equivalent Static Method earthquakes.
Considers Dynamic Behaviour: -Asymmetrical Plan Shapes – L, T, or U-shaped
-Response Spectrum Method accounts for the buildings twist more during shaking.
dynamic characteristics of the structure (natural -Uneven Stiffness or Mass Distribution – Leads to
frequency, damping), giving more realistic results rotational motion under lateral loads.
under seismic loading.
How to Reduce Torsion:
Suitable for Irregular Structures:
-Use symmetrical and regular building plans.
-It is effective for analysing tall, complex, or
irregular buildings, where the Equivalent Static -Ensure uniform mass and stiffness throughout the
Method may be too simplified. structure.

Multi-Mode Participation: -Place shear walls and braces symmetrically about

both axes.
-It considers multiple mode shapes of vibration,
capturing the effect of higher modes that are ignored 9.1.1 Different Failure Mechanisms of Infill
in the static method. Walls
Infill walls, typically made of brick or concrete
masonry, are non-structural components placed
[Link] Various Failures in Masonry Structures between columns and beams in a frame structure.
Diagonal Cracking (Shear Failure): During earthquakes, although not designed to resist
lateral loads, they interact with the frame and are
-Caused by lateral loads during earthquakes. susceptible to various types of failure.
-Cracks appear diagonally across walls, especially 1. Diagonal Cracking (Shear Failure):
near openings.
Cause: In-plane lateral loads during seismic events.
Out-of-Plane Wall Collapse:
Behavior: Wall behaves like a diagonal compression
-Walls bend or fall perpendicular to their plane due strut.
to lack of anchorage.
Appearance: X-shaped cracks forming diagonally
-Common in unreinforced masonry during ground across the wall.
shaking.
Consequence: Reduction in lateral load capacity and
stiffness.
Separation at Wall Junctions: 2. Corner Crushing:
-Poor connection between perpendicular walls leads Cause: High compressive stresses at wall corners
to separation and partial collapse. where it connects to the frame.
Behavior: Crushing and spalling of masonry at
[Link] Necessity of Ductile Detailing in RCC corners.
Frame Elements Consequence: Loss of wall integrity; may trigger
Energy Dissipation: collapse in extreme cases.

-Ductile detailing allows RCC elements to undergo 3. Sliding Failure:

large deformations without sudden failure, helping Cause: Overcoming of frictional resistance at the
them absorb and dissipate seismic energy base due to high lateral shear.
effectively.
Behavior: The wall slides horizontally along the
Prevention of Brittle Failure: mortar bed joints.
Consequence: Sudden loss of support from the wall,
risk of collapse.
12
4. Out-of-Plane Failure (Flexural Failure): The primary objective of Time History Analysis is
Cause: Seismic forces perpendicular to the wall to:
surface. 1. Accurately Evaluate Seismic Response:
Behavior: The wall bends and may topple away It provides a detailed and realistic prediction of a
from the frame. structure’s response (displacement, velocity,
Consequence: Highly dangerous as it causes falling acceleration, forces) to a specific ground motion
debris, endangering occupants. over time.
5. Separation from Frame (Debonding): 2. Capture Dynamic Effects:
Cause: Poor bond between infill and RCC frame or Unlike static methods, it captures the effects of
lack of ties. mode shapes, damping, and inertia, allowing
analysis of nonlinear and time-dependent behavior.
Behavior: Gaps appear between wall and frame;
wall may detach. 3. Design Critical Structures:
Consequence: Instability, reduced lateral resistance, Used in the design of important or irregular
falling hazards. structures (e.g., high-rises, bridges) where precise
assessment of performance under real earthquakes
6. Crushing Along the Diagonal Compression Strut: is essential.
Cause: Overloading of the equivalent diagonal strut [Link] Elastic Properties of Structural Masonry
under in-plane loads. in Earthquake-Resistant Design
Behavior: Localized crushing in the central zone of 1. Accurate Seismic Response Prediction:
the wall.
Elastic properties like modulus of elasticity and
Consequence: Permanent loss of strength and shear modulus help in assessing how masonry
stiffness. structures deform under seismic loads.
7. Toe or Heel Failure: 2. Proper Load Distribution and Stiffness
Cause: Bending action from out-of-plane seismic Estimation:
loads. Understanding stiffness ensures correct modeling of
Behavior: Wall rotates about the bottom or top edge. force distribution between masonry walls and
frames during earthquakes.
Consequence: Initiation of out-of-plane instability
and collapse. 3. Improved Safety and Design Efficiency:
8. Delamination and Crumbling: Knowledge of elastic behavior helps in designing
ductile and resilient structures, minimizing damage
Cause: Poor quality materials or weak mortar joints. and enhancing earthquake resistance.
Behavior: Layers of masonry come apart and [Link] lateral load resisting systems:
disintegrate.
Moment Resisting Frames (MRF), Shear Wall
Consequence: Reduces wall integrity and increases Systems, Braced Frames, Core Wall System,
vulnerability to lateral loads. Outrigger and Belt Truss Systems, Dual Systems
9. Combined In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Failure: (Frame + Shear Wall or Braced Frame), Tube
Systems, Diaphragm Action (Floor Slabs), Wall-
Cause: Simultaneous action of both directions of Frame Interaction Systems, Base Isolation Systems
seismic forces. (for special cases)
Behavior: Complex cracking, crushing, and possible Base Isolation Systems
collapse.
Base isolation is an advanced seismic protection
Consequence: Severe damage and unpredictable system that decouples the structure from ground
behavior.
motion using flexible bearings or isolators placed
10. Frame-Induced Damage (Short Column Effect): between the building and its foundation.
Cause: Partial height infill walls creating short Working Principle: The isolators allow the building
columns beside them. to move independently from the shaking ground,
reducing the force transmitted to the superstructure.
Behavior: Column adjacent to wall experiences high
shear forces. Common Types of Isolators:
Consequence: Shear cracking or failure in columns, a) Elastomeric Bearings:
not just the wall. Rubber layers with steel plates, provide flexibility
[Link] Primary Objective of Time History and damping.
Analysis b) Sliding Bearings:
 :
IS 1343 2012
Allow lateral movement through low-friction How It Captures Dynamic Behavior:
sliding surfaces.
-Natural Frequency and Damping:
Advantages: RSM considers the building’s natural period and
Significantly reduces seismic forces and damping, which are crucial in determining how the
displacements. structure will respond to different frequencies of
ground motion.
Enhances occupant safety and reduces structural
damage. -Mode Shape Contribution:
Multi-degree of freedom systems (like RCC
Protects contents and non-structural elements. buildings) respond in multiple vibration modes.
Disadvantages: RSM uses modal analysis to calculate response in
each mode, and combines modal responses using
Higher initial cost and maintenance. methods like:
Not suitable for all soil conditions or very tall A) Square Root of Sum of Squares
building (SRSS)
Braced Frames B) Complete Quadratic Combination
Braced frames are structural systems that use (CQC)
diagonal members (braces) to resist lateral loads Elastic Response Spectrum:
such as wind and earthquake forces. They provide Based on earthquake records or code-defined
stability and stiffness to the structure by forming a spectra (like IS 1893), showing peak spectral
triangulated system. acceleration vs. time period. This helps predict
Types of Braced Frames: maximum internal forces in structural members.

-Concentric Braced Frames (CBF): Example: For a 10-storey RCC frame building
located in seismic zone III:
Braces meet at a common joint.
-Perform modal analysis to extract the first few
Efficient in transferring loads but may lack ductility. natural modes.
-Eccentric Braced Frames (EBF): -Use the IS 1893 response spectrum for zone III and
Braces are deliberately offset from the joint. soil type.

Improve ductility and energy dissipation during -Calculate spectral accelerations for each mode.
earthquakes. -Apply combination rule (e.g., SRSS) to find design
-K-bracing, X-bracing, V-bracing, Chevron bracing: base shear and member forces.

Named based on geometry. This gives a realistic estimation of the maximum

seismic demand on the structure without using
Each has specific performance characteristics. complex time-history input.
-Advantages: Advantages:
High lateral stiffness and strength. -Efficient and less computationally intensive
Economical and easy to construct. compared to full time-history analysis.

Can be used in steel or RCC buildings. -Considers dynamic characteristics (natural periods,
mode shapes).
-Disadvantages:
-Code-supported and widely accepted method for
May obstruct openings like windows or doors. regular buildings.
Requires careful detailing to ensure ductile -Suitable for multi-storey RCC buildings in seismic
performance. zones.
[Link] Response Spectrum Method for Seismic Limitations:
Analysis in RCC Building Design
-Assumes linear elastic behavior; does not capture
Introduction: The Response Spectrum Method nonlinear effects like yielding.
(RSM) is a dynamic analysis technique used in
earthquake-resistant design of RCC buildings. It -Only provides peak responses, not time-dependent
evaluates the maximum response (displacement, variations.
velocity, or acceleration) of a Single Degree of -Not suitable for highly irregular or inelastic
Freedom (SDOF) system subjected to seismic structures.
ground motion.
-Depends on quality of the input response spectrum,
Instead of analyzing the full time-history, the which may not represent all ground motions.
response spectrum gives the peak responses for a
range of structures with different natural periods [Link] Influence of Soil-Structure Interaction
and damping ratios. (SSI) on Seismic Analysis of RCC Buildings

14
Introduction to SSI: Soil-Structure Interaction (SSI) along mortar joints, and even out-of-plane failure
refers to the mutual interaction between the where the wall may overturn or collapse. URM
structure, its foundation, and the supporting soil walls are also susceptible to separation at corners
during an earthquake. Unlike conventional analysis and between floors and walls due to the lack of
that assumes a fixed base, SSI considers the anchorage or confinement. Because they do not
flexibility of soil, which affects the overall seismic possess ductility, these walls are considered unsafe
response of the structure. in seismic zones unless they are retrofitted using
Components of SSI: techniques such as external bracing or jacketing.
-Structure: The RCC building, including mass, Reinforced Masonry Walls:
stiffness, and damping. In contrast, reinforced masonry walls incorporate
-Foundation System: Type (isolated footing, raft, steel reinforcement—both vertically and horizontally
pile, etc.) influences interaction. —either embedded in hollow units filled with grout
or placed within specially designed cavities. These
-Soil Medium: Properties like stiffness, damping, reinforcements significantly enhance the structural
and layering affect response. performance of the walls under both vertical and
Effects of SSI on Seismic Response: lateral loads.
a) Increase in Natural Period: Reinforced masonry behaves similarly to URM
under vertical loading but offers greater resistance
-Flexible soil reduces the stiffness of the overall to cracking and differential settlement due to the
system. presence of reinforcement. Under lateral loads, it
-Leads to lengthening of natural period, shifting the shows markedly improved strength, ductility, and
structure away from the peak of the response energy dissipation capacity. The vertical
spectrum. reinforcement helps resist bending moments and
prevents overturning, while horizontal
b) Reduction in Base Shear: reinforcement provides additional shear resistance
-Due to increased period, the spectral acceleration and helps control crack propagation. This results in
reduces. more ductile and predictable failure modes, such as
gradual yielding of steel rather than sudden brittle
-This lowers the design base shear, but may increase collapse.
displacements.
Reinforced masonry is especially important in
c) Amplification of Displacements and Rotations: multi-storey buildings and structures located in high
-Soft soils lead to larger lateral and rocking seismic risk areas. Although the construction costs
movements, affecting structural stability and may be higher compared to URM due to
serviceability. reinforcement and grouting, the improved safety
and performance often justify the investment.
d) Foundation Uplift or Settlement:
Box Type Masonry Wall System
-Uneven soil behavior can cause tilting or
settlement, leading to additional stresses and The box type masonry wall system is a structural
cracking. configuration commonly used in low- to mid-rise
buildings, especially in residential construction. In
e) Variation in Internal Forces: this system, all load-bearing walls (both
-SSI causes redistribution of forces in structural longitudinal and transverse) are interconnected in
elements, requiring different reinforcement such a way that the building behaves like a closed
compared to fixed-base analysis. box under external forces, especially seismic loads

[Link] Unreinforced Masonry (URM) Walls: Behavior and Features:

Unreinforced masonry walls are constructed using In a box type masonry wall system, walls are
materials like brick, stone, or concrete blocks arranged orthogonally—i.e., in both horizontal
bonded with mortar, but without any steel (longitudinal) and vertical (transverse) directions—
reinforcement. These walls primarily rely on the and interlocked monolithically at junctions. The
compressive strength of the masonry units and rigid connection of walls at corners and
mortar for their load-bearing capacity. Under intersections helps distribute the seismic forces
vertical (gravity) loads, URM walls generally throughout the entire structure, enabling it to
perform well, especially in low-rise construction. respond as a unitary whole instead of individual
However, their behavior changes significantly walls reacting independently.
under lateral loads such as those produced by This integrated layout provides enhanced stiffness
earthquakes or strong winds. and reduces the deformation of the structure during
When subjected to seismic forces, unreinforced earthquakes. The load path becomes more defined,
masonry exhibits brittle behavior due to its inability and lateral forces are more evenly shared between
to resist tension and shear. This leads to various walls. As a result, box type systems are less likely
forms of failure such as diagonal cracking, sliding
 :
IS 1343 2012
to experience torsional effects or sudden failure due 3. Definition of Material Properties and
to the redundancy in load paths. Damping
[Link] Definition and Importance of Bands in 4. Application of Ground Motion Data to the
Masonry Buildings Model
Definition: In masonry buildings, bands (also called 5. Numerical Integration of Equations of
seismic bands or horizontal bands) are continuous Motion
horizontal reinforcements provided at specific
levels to improve the structural integrity and seismic 6. Calculation of Structural Responses
performance of the structure. These bands are (displacements, forces, accelerations)
usually made of reinforced concrete (RC) or 7. Result Interpretation and Evaluation.
reinforced brickwork and are embedded within the
masonry at critical levels of the building. [Link] Pushover Curve

Purpose and Importance: A pushover curve is a plot that represents the

relationship between the base shear and the roof
Bands are provided to tie the structure together, displacement of a building when subjected to
enhance its ductility, and distribute seismic forces increasing lateral loads. It is obtained from pushover
more uniformly. Masonry walls are inherently analysis, which is a static nonlinear method used to
brittle and vulnerable to cracking, sliding, and assess the seismic performance of structures.
separation at corners and junctions during an
earthquake. Bands help to bind the walls together, The curve shows the building’s behavior from
prevent collapse, and improve the building’s ability elastic range to plastic deformation, and ultimately
to collapse. It helps identify:
to withstand seismic shaking.
They resist lateral forces, restrict out-of-plane -Yielding of structural elements
movement of the walls, and help maintain the box -Formation of plastic hinges
action of the structure, which is essential for seismic
-Overall capacity and ductility of the structure
resistance.
Types and Locations of Bands: This curve is widely used in performance-based
seismic design to evaluate how a building will
1. Plinth Band: perform under strong ground motion.
-Location: At plinth level (top of foundation).
-Purpose: Helps in reducing differential settlement The general environment to which the concrete will
and ties the base of the walls together. Especially be exposed during its working life is classified into
important in soft soil regions. five levels of severity, that is, mild, moderate,
2. Lintel Band: severe, very severe and extreme as described in
Table 2.
-Location: Above openings like doors and windows.
[Link] Abrasive
-Purpose: Prevents the formation of cracks around
openings during an earthquake. It also connects all Specialist literatures may be referred to for durability
walls at lintel level and provides continuity. requirements of concrete surfaces exposed to
abrasive action, for example, in case of machinery
3. Roof Band: and metal types.
-Location: At the level where the roof slab or trusses [Link] Freezing and thawing
rest. Purpose: Ensures that walls behave as a unit
under lateral loads and supports the diaphragm Where freezing and thawing actions under wet
action of the roof. conditions exist, enhanced durability can be obtained
by the use of suitable air entraining admixtures.
4. Floor Band: When concrete lower than grade M 50 is used under
-Location: At intermediate floor levels (in multi- these conditions, the mean total air content by
storey buildings). Purpose: Similar to the roof band, volume of the fresh concrete at the time of delivery
it ties walls at floor levels and transfers loads into the construction should be:
effectively. Nominal Maximum Size Entrained Air
5. Gable Band: Aggregate Percentage
mm
-Location: At the base of gable walls (triangular wall
portions below sloping roofs) Purpose: Prevents the
20
gable wall from toppling during shaking.
40
[Link] Steps involved in the Time History
Method of seismic analysis: Since air entrainment reduces the strength, suitable
adjustments may be made in the mix design for
1. Selection of Ground Motion Records achieving required strength.
2. Preparation of Structural Model [Link] Exposure to sulphate attack
16
Table 3 gives recommendations for the type of The total acid soluble chloride content should be
cement, maximum free water-cement ratio and calculated from the mix proportions and the measured
minimum cement content, which are required at chloride contents of each of the constituents. Wherever
different sulphate concentrations in near actual possible, the total chloride content of the concrete
ground water having pH of 6 to 9. should be determined.
For the very high sulphate concentrations in Class 5
[Link] Sulphates in concrete
conditions, some form of lining such as polyethylene
or polychloroprene sheet; or surface coating based on Sulphates are present in most cements and in some
asphalt, chlorinated rubber, epoxy, or polyurethane aggregates; excessive amounts of water-soluble
materials should also be used to prevent access by the [Link] Transmission length
sulphate solution.
8.2.3 Requirement of Concrete Cover List the factor affecting it. Transmission
[Link] The protection of the steel in concrete against
Length (Lt) is the distance required for a
prestressing tendon to develop its full effective
8 prestress force within the concrete. In other
corrosion depends upon an adequate thickness of good words, it's the length over which the stress in
quality concrete. the tendon gradually increases from zero at the
[Link] The nominal cover to the reinforcement shall be anchorage zone to its design value.
provided as per 26.4 of IS 456.
a) Linear Prestressing:
8.2.4 Concrete Mix Proportions Applied to straight structural members such as
[Link] General beams, slabs, piles, and electric poles.
The free water-cement ratio is an important factor in
Prestressing tendons run linearly along the
governing the durability of concrete and should always length of the member, though they may be
be the lowest value. Appropriate value for minimum curved.
cement content and the maximum free water-cement Example: Prestressed concrete beams used in
ratio are given in Table 4 for different exposure bridges or buildings.
conditions. The minimum cement content and b) Circular Prestressing: Applied to circular
maximum water-cement ratio apply to 20 mm nominal structures like tanks, pipes, silos, and
maximum size aggregate. For other sizes of aggregate containment structures.
they should be changed as given in Table 5.
Prestressing tendons are wound in circles
[Link] Maximum cement content around the structure to resist hoop tension
Cement content in excess of 450 kg/m3 should not be caused by internal pressure.
used unless special consideration has been given in Example: Circumferential prestressing in a
design to the increased risk of cracking due to drying water tank to withstand the pressure of the
shrinkage in thin sections, or to thermal stresses in water inside.
thicker sections.
8.2.5 Mix Constituents Anchoring Devices
The essential devices in any post-tensioning
[Link] General systems are normally as follows:
For concrete to be durable, careful selection of the mix a). Casting bed.
and materials is necessary, so that deleterious b). Mould/Shuttering.
constituents do not exceed the limits. c). Ducts.
[Link] Chlorides in concrete d). Anchoring devices.
e). Jacks.
Whenever there is chloride in concrete there is an f). Couplers (optional)
increased risk of corrosion of embedded steel. The
higher the chloride content, or if subsequently exposed
g). Grouting equipment (optional)
to warm moist conditions, the greater the risk of
corrosion. All constituents may contain chlorides and [Link].1 Sloping Cable shear resistance The
concrete may be contaminated by chlorides from the statement "Prestressing by inclined or sloping
external environment. To minimize the chances of cables improves the shear resistance of
deterioration of concrete from harmful chemical salts, concrete" is true. Justification:
the levels of such harmful salts in concrete coming from Inclined or sloping cables apply a compressive
concrete materials, that is, cement, aggregates, water force in an inclined direction, which enhances
and admixtures, as well as by diffusion from the
environment should be limited. The total amount of
the shear resistance of the concrete member.
acid soluble chloride content (as Cl) in the concrete at This method, known as inclined prestressing,
the time of placing shall be not more than 0.4 kg/m 3 of is particularly useful in members with slanted
concrete. or curved geometries.
 :
IS 1343 2012
The pre-compression of concrete, achieved Concept of Prestressing: Prestressing is a technique
through prestressing, helps to resist shear used in construction to strengthen concrete structures
forces. Prestressing induces compression in by applying an initial compressive stress to counteract
the concrete section, which directly increases tensile stresses that will arise under load. This enhances
its shear capacity. Using curved tendons can the load-bearing capacity and durability of the
structure. samples are available, actual calculated
also help resist shear.
standard deviation shall be used and the mix designed
properly.
Long line of pre stressing:
Long-line prestressing, also known as the Hoyer 10PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE
system, is a method commonly used in pre-
tensioning for largescale production of prestressed 10.1 Quality Assurance Measures
concrete elements. It involves stretching high-
tensile wires between two anchored bulkheads over 10.1.1 In order that the properties of the completed
a long distance, typically around 100 meters. Molds structure be consistent with the requirements and the
are then placed around the tensioned wires, and assumptions made during the planning and the design,
concrete is poured. After the concrete hardens, the adequate quality assurance measures shall be taken.
wires are released, transferring the The construction should result in satisfactory strength,
serviceability and long-term durability so as to lower
8 the overall life-cycle cost. Quality assurance in
prestress to the concrete through bond. This method construction activity relates to proper design, use of
allows for the simultaneous production of multiple adequate materials and components to be supplied by
concrete members in one line, making it economical for the producers, proper workmanship in the execution of
pretension Ing factories. works by the contractor and ultimately proper care
during the use of structure including timely
maintenance and repair by the owner.
Shear Resistance of PSC Member
10.1.2 Quality assurance measures are both technical
Shear resistance of PSC Member Improving the shear and organizational. Some common cases should be
resistance of Prestressed Concrete (PSC) members can specified in a general Quality Assurance Plan which
be achieved through several methods related to shall identify the key elements necessary to provide
prestressing techniques: Horizontal or axial fitness of the structure and the means by which they are
prestressing: Applying prestressing force along the to be provided and measured with the overall purpose
member's length improves shear resistance. Inclined or to provide confidence that the realized project will work
sloping cables: satisfactorily in service fulfilling intended needs. The
Using inclined tendons creates a vertical component of job of quality control and quality assurance would
force that counteracts the shear forces. This is involve quality audit of both the inputs as well as the
particularly useful in beams with curved or slanted outputs. Inputs are in the form of materials for concrete;
geometries. workmanship in all stages of batching, mixing,
Vertical or transverse prestressing: transportation, placing, compaction and curing; and the
Applying prestressing force perpendicular to the related plant, machinery and equipments; resulting in
member's length can enhance shear strength. the output in the form of concrete in place. To ensure
Increasing the cross-sectional area: A larger proper performance, it is necessary that each step in
crosssectional area provides more concrete to resist concreting which will be covered by the next step is
shear forces. inspected as the work proceeds (see also 18).

Advantages of prestressed concrete flat slab 10.1.3 Each party involved in the realization of a
project should establish and implement a Quality
panels:
Assurance Plan, for its participation in the project.
The advantages of using prestressed concrete flat slab Supplier' s and sub-contractor' s activities shall be
panels include: covered in the plan. The individual Quality Assurance
High Strength and Durability: Prestressing fully utilizes Plans shall fit into the general Quality Assurance Plan.
the compressive strength of concrete and the high A Quality Assurance Plan shall define the tasks and
strength of the steel tendons, leading to enhanced responsibilities of all persons involved, adequate
resistance against stress and cracking. control and checking procedures, and the organization
Deflection Control: It allows for longer spans due to the and maintaining adequate documentation of the
increased strength and controlled deflection. building process and its results. Such documentation
Crack Control and Water-tightness: Eliminates tension should generally include,
cracks, which reduces the risk of steel corrosion and a) test reports and manufacturer's certificate for
improves water-tightness. Reduced Floor-to-Floor materials, concrete mix design details;
Height: Enables thinner slabs, reducing the overall
height of the building.
b) pour cards for site organization and clearance
for concrete placement;
Lighter Structure: Results in a lighter structure, which
reduces the load on the lateral load resisting system, c) record of site inspection of workmanship, field
columns, and footings. tests;
d) non-conformance reports, change orders;
18
 e) quality control charts; and Concrete is poured into the form and allowed to
f) statistical analysis. harden.
NOTE — Quality control charts are recommended wherever 3. Transferring Stress:
the concrete is in continuous production over considerable Once the concrete has gained sufficient strength, the
period. tension in the tendons is gradually released.

10.2 Batching
Freyssinet System of Post Tensioning:
To avoid confusion and error in batching, consideration
should be given to using the smallest practical number The Freyssinet system is a post-tensioning (PT)
of different concrete mixes on any site or in any one method that uses high-strength steel tendons to
plant. In batching concrete, the quantity of both cement reinforce concrete. It's used in civil engineering and
and aggregate shall be determined by mass; admixture, building applications.
if solid, by mass; liquid admixture may however be How it works
measured in volume or mass; water shall be weighed or Steel tendons are placed in ducts or sleeves before
measured by volume in a calibrated tank (see also IS concrete is poured.
4925). The tendons are stretched between bulkheads.
Concrete is poured around the tendons. Once the
For large and medium project sites the concrete shall be
concrete has gained strength, tension is applied. The
sourced from readymixed concrete plants or from on
tendons are anchored against the concrete's outer
site or off site batching and mixing plants (see IS 4926).
edges.
10.2.1 The grading of aggregate should be controlled
by obtaining the coarse aggregate in different sizes [Link].2 Short - Long Term deflection:
and blending them in the right proportions, the different Short-term deflection means the immediate deflection
sizes being stocked in separate stock-piles. The material after casting and application of partial or full-service
should be stock-piled for several hours preferably a day loads, while the long-term deflection occurs over a
before use. The grading of coarse and fine aggregate long period of time largely due to shrinkage and creep
should be checked as frequently as possible, the of the materials.
frequency for a given job being determined by the The following factors influence the short-term
engineer-in-charge to ensure that the specified grading deflection of structures:
is maintained. (a) Magnitude and distribution of live loads,
10.2.2 The accuracy of the measuring equipment (b) Span and type of end supports,
shall be within ±2 percent of the quantity of cement (c) Cross-sectional area of the members, (d) Amount
being measured and within ±3 percent of the quantity of steel reinforcement and the stress developed in
of aggregate, admixtures and water being measured. the reinforcement,
(e) Characteristic strengths of concrete and steel, and
10.2.3 Proportion/type and grading of aggregates (f) Amount and extent of cracking.
shall be made by trial in such a way so as to obtain
densest possible concrete. The long-term deflection is almost two to three times
10.2.4 It is important to maintain the water-cement of the short-term deflection.
The following are the major factors influencing the
ratio constant at its correct value. To this end,
long-term deflection of the structures:
determination of moisture content in both fine and
coarse aggregates shall be made as frequently as (a) Humidity and temperature ranges during curing,
possible, the frequency for a given job being (b) Age of concrete at the time of loading, and
determined by the engineer-incharge according to (c) Type and size of aggregates, water-cement ratio,
weather conditions. The amount of the added water amount of compression reinforcement, size of
shall be adjusted to compensate for any observed members etc., which influence the creep and
variations in the moisture contents. For the shrinkage of concrete.
determination of moisture content in the aggregates, IS
2386 (Part 3) may be referred to. To allow for the End Anchorage Zone:
variation in mass of aggregate due to variation in their An end anchorage zone, in the context of prestressed
moisture content, suitable adjustments in the masses of concrete, is the region at the end of a beam where the
aggregates shall also be made. prestressing force is transferred from the tendons to
Example of Prestressing: the concrete. This zone, typically extending a
A common example is prestressed concrete beams distance equal to the depth of the beam from the
used in bridges. loaded face, experiences complex stress
1. Tensioning: distributions. The anchorage zone is also referred to
High-strength steel tendons or cables are placed as the end block zone.
within the beam form before the concrete is Key aspects of an end anchorage zone:
poured. These tendons are then tensioned or Stress Distribution:
stretched to a predetermined force. The end anchorage zone is subject to high
2. Pouring Concrete: concentrated stresses from the bearing plate and
 :
IS 1343 2012
anchorage device, which transitions into a linear 12.1.5 Protection ofPrestressing Steel, Sheathing and
stress distribution along the beam's length. Anchorages
Bursting Forces:
In all constructions of the post-tensioned type whether
The transfer of prestress induces tensile forces
prestressing is subsequently bonded or not bonded with
perpendicular to the beam axis, known as bursting
concrete, the anchorages, prestressing steel sheathing
forces. These forces can cause cracking if not
material forming ducts in concrete and anchorages shall
properly addressed.
be given adequate protection against corrosion at all
stages of construction and during service life.
Advantages of PSC piles:
The advantages of using Prestressed Concrete (PSC) [Link] Construction with unbonded steel embeddedin
piles are: concrete
High load-bearing capacity: PSC piles can For protection of sheathing material forming ducts, the
withstand high-pressure vertical loads and durability requirements shall be followed. Furthermore,
tension loads. the internal surface of duct, prestressing steel and
Durability: They are resistant to biological and anchorage shall be protected by following methods in
chemical actions from the subsoil. Quality suitable combination depending upon severity of
control: Manufacturing in a controlled environment and extent of layers of protection
environment ensures consistent and controlled considered desirable:
quality. Defects can be easily identified and a) Coating of steel and duct by reactive metals like
repaired before installation. Time efficiency: zinc (Zn) or zinc plus aluminium (Zn + Al)
Installation is quick, and they can be preferably applied by hot dipping method. b) Use
immediately driven or placed after delivery, with of non-corroding sheath material like high density
faster foundation time. polyethylene and fibre reinforced plastic.
Cost-effectiveness: They are a cost-effective
c) Coating of steel by non-reactive materials like
solution for deep foundations.
epoxy (factory applied).
Minimal site disturbance: Reduced on-site
casting minimizes disruption and noise during d) Covering individual uncoated steel or coated
construction. steel strands/wires in sheaths formed by
extrusion process in factory using
noncorroding material like HDPE or similar.
Creep Coefficient and Estimation Methods:
The space between sheathing and duct can be
The creep coefficient is the ratio of creep strain to
filled with corrosion inhibiting materials like
elastic strain in a material under sustained stress. It
grease and wax.
helps quantify the time-dependent deformation of
concrete under load. To estimate the loss due to creep, e) In case of large size prestressing units use of
the following methods are used: protective and replaceable corrosion
inhibition material for grouting the ducts such
Ultimate Creep Strain Method: as grease, wax polyurethane foam, wherein
Loss of stress in steel = ecc * fc * Es, where ecc is the any corrosive trace elements are controlled to
ultimate creep strain for a sustained unit stress, fc is remain within acceptable limits. Systems for
the compressive stress in concrete at the level of steel, checking the efficacy of the method during
and Es is the modulus of elasticity of steel. service life and provisions for replacing/
Creep Coefficient Method: making up loss of filler material shall be
incorporated.
Loss of stress in steel = * fc * ae, where is the creep
coefficient, fc is the stress in concrete, and ae is the f) External parts of anchorages and projecting
modular ratio. The creep coefficient at any time t can cables should be covered by suitable casing
be defined as = / ee(to) where is the creep strain at and protected by suitable material and method.
time t due to loading at time to and ee(to) is the
instantaneous elastic strain at the time of loading to. For selection of appropriate method, material
specifications, installation process, etc, specialist
Effect of Torsion in Prestressed concrete: Torsion in literature should be referred to.
prestressed concrete sections can have several effects: [Link] Construction with unbonded steel and
Changes failure mechanism: Torsion can alter the anchorages not embedded in concrete (external
failure load of the beam and change the type of failure prestressing elements)
mechanism. Induces tensile stresses:
The methods given in [Link] shall be applicable for
this type of construction also. In addition, the material,
8 strength and environmental resistance of the ducts
forming external enclosure shall provide adequate
[Link] Bars shall preferably be ordered to the exact
mechanical strength and stability against environmental
length required. Any trimming required shall be done
attack, including solar radiation. The ducts should be
only after the bar has been tensioned and the grout has
strong enough to resist pressure from the grouting
set; it shall then be carried out in accordance with
operations.
[Link].

20
[Link] Construction with post-tensioned and must be considered in addition to the primary
bonded prestressing steel moments caused by tendon eccentricity.
Internal prestressing sheathing material as well as Load balancing:
prestressing steel is protected by dense alkaline Prestressing can balance external loads, reducing
concrete cover, which shall be of quality and thickness deflection and ensuring the concrete is primaril•
as specified. The steel inside ducts is best protected in compression.
long terms by cement grouts which are properly Redistribution of moments: In continuous members,
executed following recommendations given in 13. The prestressing helps moments, leading to a more
protection by grouting can be further augmented by use even distribution between the center of the span and
of methods given below: supports.

a) Use of coated steel using Zn, Zn + Al or epoxy.

b) Use of non-corroding impervious sheathing Circumferential Wire Winding:
material like HDPE is beneficial. However, bond Circumferential wire winding, also known as hoop
between sheathing and concrete and sheathing and winding, primarily affects the circumferential or hoop
grout shall be adequate as needed by design. This stress in a cylindrical structure. However, it also has
method is particularly suitable in presence of an indirect effect on longitudinal stress. Here's how:
migrating water or variable drying/wetting Direct effect on hoop stress:
condition of concrete of severe external penetration Circumferential winding directly counteracts the
of corrosive agents. hoop stress caused by internal pressure. By applying
External parts of anchorages and projecting cables a compressive force in the circumferential direction,
should be covered by suitable casing and protected by it reduces the tensile stress in the cylinder wall,
suitable material and method. preventing it from bursting. Indirect effect on
longitudinal stress:
[Link] Protection during construction period Since the ends of a closed cylinder are connected to
the cylindrical body, the circumferential winding also
a) The prestressing steel, sheathing and
influences the longitudinal stress. The relationship
anchorages shall be manufactured, transported
between these stresses is such that the circumferential
and stored at site in such a way as to provide
stress is twice the longitudinal stress. Therefore, by
them with adequate corrosion protection. Use
reducing the hoop stress, the circumferential winding
of proper packaging and provision of
indirectly contributes to reducing the longitudinal
externally applied passivating agents, oil
stress as well.
films, etc, which is carried over in factory
itself is recommended.
Pressure Line:
b) If prestressing steel/metallic sheathing The pressure line, also known as the thrust line
material is left unprotected at site or embedded orcline, represents the line of action of the resultant
in concrete during construction period longer compressive force within a structural member, such
than two weeks, it shall be protected by as a prestressed concrete beam. It illustrates the
flushing with oil-water mixture (for example, path along which internal forces flow within the
cutting oil) with periodic reflushing at not structure.
more than three months interval. Significance of the Pressure Line
c) After stressing, the sheaths/steel shall be Stability Analysis:
In torsion, concrete experiences lower and more For a structure to be stable, the pressure line must
uniform tensile stresses across the section compared lie entirely within the structure's boundaries. If the
to bending. Affects bending: pressure line falls outside the structure, it indicates
that tensile stresses may develop, potentially
Torsion can influence bending, causing a skewed
leading to cracking or failure.
failure plane, although the compression and tension
zones remain similar to conventional flexure. Stress Distribution:
Increases torsional strength: The location of the pressure line provides insights
Prestressing can significantly increase the ultimate into the distribution of compressive stresses within
torsional strength of concrete beams, potentially by the structure. By analyzing the pressure line's
position, engineers can determine the magnitude and
around 70% compared to plain concrete beams.
location of maximum compressive stresses.
[Link].2 Effect of Prestress in Indeterminate
Factor of Deflection of Prestress Concrete: The
Structure:
factors influencing the deflections of a prestressed
Prestressing in indeterminate structures can have
concrete beam include:
significant effects, including:
a) Loads:
Secondary moments: Self-weight and superimposed load.
Prestressing can induce secondary moments due to b) Prestressing Force: Magnitude of
the restraints imposed by the supports, influencing the prestressing force.
stress distribution. These moments can be significant c) Cable profile.
d) Material Properties:
IS 1343 : 2012
e) Modulus of elasticity of concrete. prestress or the sudden application of stress to the
f) Shrinkage, creep, and relaxation of steel stress. concrete.
g) Geometric Properties:
Second moment of area of cross-section. 13.1.4 Anchorage Device
Span of the member. [Link] The anchorage device may be
Support Conditions: Fixity patented or otherwise, which complies with the
conditions requirements laid down under [Link] to [Link].
[Link] The anchoring device shall be strong
enough to resist in all respects a force equal to at least
the breaking strength of the prestressing tendon it
Span and Support: anchors.
One-way slabs: Span in one direction and are supported
on two opposite sides by beams or walls. The ratio of [Link] The anchorage shall transfer
the longer span to the shorter span is typically greater effectively and distribute, as evenly as possible, the
than or equal to 2. entire force from the prestressing tendon to the concrete
Two-way slabs: Span in two directions without inducing undesirable secondary or local
and are supported on all four sides. The stresses.
ratio of the longer span to the shorter [Link] The anchorage shall be safe and
span is less than 2. secure against both dynamic and static loads as well as
Load Transfer: against impact (see Annex C).
One-way slabs: Transfer loads primarily to the two
supporting beams or walls. [Link] The anchorage shall have provision
Two-way slabs: Transfer loads in both directions to the for the introduction of a suitable protective medium,
supporting columns or walls. such as cement grout, for the protection of the
Reinforcement: prestressing steel unless alternative arrangements are
One-way slabs: Main reinforcement is provided in the made.
direction of the span.
13.2 Procedure for Tensioning and Transfer
Two-way slabs: Reinforcement is provided in both
directions to handle bending in both directions. 13.2.1 Stressing
Thickness: [Link] The tensioning of prestressing tendons shall be
One-way slabs: Generally thicker due to less steel carried out in a manner that will induce a smooth and
reinforcement. Two-way slabs: Comparatively thinner even rate of increase of stress in the tendons. The
as the depth of the slab is low. prestressing shall be controlled by measuring both the
Deflection: force applied to the tendon and the elongation of the
One-way slabs: Deflect into a cylindrical surface. tendon.
Two-way slabs: Deflect in a dish shape. Stressing schedule shall be incorporated in the design,
Prestressing: which may include the following:
Prestressing tendons can be bonded or unbonded.
Tendons can be arranged in a way that allows for a) Details of equipment and procedure for
efficient design. applying prestress, specification of one end or
Applications: One-way slabs: simultaneous stressing from both ends of
Commonly used in residential structures tendons, stressing in single stage or multiple
like balconies. stages, re-stressing for adjustment of force or
for monitoring of force, if required, etc.
Two-way slabs: Commonly used in large, open spaces
like buildings or parking garages. s. b) Calculated amount of tensile force and
13.1.2 Temporary Gripping Device corresponding expected elongation of each
tendon when methods described in (a) are
Prestressing tendons may be gripped by wedges, yokes, followed.
double cones or any other approved type of gripping
devices. The prestressing wires may be gripped singly c) Minimum requirements of strength of concrete
or in groups. Gripping devices shall be such that in a at transfer (see also 16.2), stressing sequence
tensile test, the wire or wires fixed by them would break with respect to age of concrete or stage of
before failure of the grip itself. construction, requirements with respect to
grouting operations of neighbouring tendons.
13.1.3 Releasing Device d) Method(s) of measuring force and elongation.
The releasing device shall be so designed that during e) Tolerances/limits of variation from design
the period between the tensioning and release, the requirements stated in (a) and (b) beyond
tension in the prestressing elements is fully maintained which reference should be made to the
by positive means, such as external anchorages. The designer (In the absence of any specified
device shall enable the transfer of prestress to be carried provision provided by the designer, method
out gradually so as to avoid large difference of tension described in [Link] may be adopted for
between wires in a tendon, severe eccentricities of acceptance).

22
 f) Assumptions made in calculation of Efficient load transfer: Grid floors effectively distribute
forceelongation relationship should be given. concentrated loads as the entire structure participates in
These include effective 'E' value of tendon, the load transfer process.
crosssectional area of tendon, co-efficient of
Reduced depth-to-span ratio: Pre-stressing reduces the
friction and wobble factor between tendon and
depth-to-span ratio of rectangular grids.
duct, assumed slip in anchoring devices, if any,
Material reduction: It leads to a reduction in the weight
efficiency of prestressing jacks where force is
of the structure and the quantity of materials needed.
measured indirectly by pressure gauges on
Large span widths: Pre-stressed grid floors allow for
jacks, corrections to elongation due to changes
large span widths.
in gripping length beyond anchorages during
stressing and any other relevant information.
Need HYSD Materials in prestressed concrete: The
[Link] Any slack in the prestressing tendon shall first need for providing high-strength materials in
be taken up by applying a small initial tension. The prestressed concrete stems from several factors:
initial tension required to remove slackness shall be High bearing stresses:
taken as the starting point for measuring elongation. Large prestressing forces applied by tendons create
Further increase of tension shall be carried out in significant bearing stresses at the concrete ends,
suitable steps and corresponding elongations noted. The necessitating high-strength concrete to withstand them.
'force-elongation' relationship shall be recorded in Resistance to bursting stresses:
tabular and/or graphical form. The magnitude of initial High-strength concrete is better equipped to resist
effective elongation corresponding to initial tension bursting stresses that occur at the ends of the concrete
applied to remove slackness shall be obtained from the member.
recorded and linearized portion of measured Reduced shrinkage cracks:
tensionelongation relationship and added to the Using high-strength concrete minimizes shrinkage
measured elongation to give the total elongation. cracks.
Alternatively, the same correction can be carried out High modulus of elasticity: High-strength concrete
graphically as shown in Fig. l. exhibits a higher modulus of elasticity, resulting in
[Link] In practice, the force and elongation of tendon lower elastic and creep strains, which reduces the loss
may not exactly match with the expected values given of prestressing force.
in stressing schedule. In such cases either the force (or
the elongation) will be achieved first and the other value Tendon, Cable and Anchorage:
lag behind. In such cases the force (or elongation) shall Definitions for tendon, cable, and anchorage are as
be further increased, but not exceeding 5 percent of the follows: Tendon:
design value till the elongation (or force), which In the context of prestressed concrete, a tendon is a
[Link].4 Stress Distribution in End Block: stretched element, such as a wire or strand, used to
The idealized stress distribution in an end block with a impart prestress to the concrete. It may be bonded or
single anchorage involves a transition from unbonded to the concrete. When multiple wires or
concentrated prestressing forces to a more linear stress strands are grouped together, they form a cable, which
distribution within the concrete member. This transition is also considered a tendon.
creates complex stress patterns, including compressive Cable:
and tensile stresses. A cable is one or more wires or strands that are
Key Aspects of Stress Distribution: assembled together. In prestressed concrete, cables
Compressive Stresses: are used as tendons to apply tension and reinforce the
High compressive stresses occur directly behind the concrete structure.
anchorage device, where the prestressing force is Anchorage:
applied. Tensile Stresses (Bursting Forces): An anchorage is a device or component used to secure
As the compressive force spreads into the concrete, the tendon and transfer the prestressing force from the
tensile stresses develop in the transverse direction. tendon to the concrete. It maintains the prestress in
These are known as bursting forces and can cause the concrete and can be found at the ends of the
cracking if not properly addressed with reinforcement. tendon. Anchorages can be used for both single-
Stress Dispersion: strand and multi-strand tendons.
The stress distribution gradually becomes more
Analysis of prestressed concrete continuous
uniform as the distance from the anchorage increases.
The end block acts as a transition zone, ensuring the beams: Primary moment:
prestressing force is effectively transferred to the entire This is the bending moment developed at a section
cross section of the beam. due to the eccentricity of the prestressing force from
the centroidal axis of the beam. It is calculated by
Grid Floor and Advantages: multiplying the prestressing force by the eccentricity
Grid floor, also known as a waffle floor, is a structural (M = P * e) and is also known as the first-order
system featuring beams spaced at regular intervals, moment. Secondary moment:
interconnected with a slab, often used in large, This is an additional moment induced in continuous
columnfree spaces such as auditoriums and theaters. beams due to the support reactions caused by the
Prestressing a grid floor offers several advantages: prestressing force. Unlike primary moments,
secondary moments are considered external forces.
 :
IS 1343 2012
They arise from the structure's attempt to restrain the ducts exceeds 150 mm, use of sand may be considered.
deformation caused by prestressing. The secondary Sand, if used, shall conform to IS 383 and shall pass
moment is also known as the hyperstatic or parasitic through IS Sieve No. 150. The mass of sand in the grout
moment. shall not be more than 10 percent of the mass of cement,
unless proper workability can be ensured by addition of
[Link].5 Types of Prestress Method: suitable plasticizers.
systems and methods used in prestressing concrete
include: [Link] Chemical admixtures
Freyssinet system: Utilizes a multi-strand system
Chemical admixtures conforming to IS 9103 may be
with a concrete anchorage device. Hoyer
used if tests have shown that their use improves the
system: Employs long casting beds to pre-tension
multiple elements simultaneously. properties of grout that is, increasing fluidity, reducing
Magnel-Blaton system: Stresses wires in pairs using bleeding, entraining air or expanding the grout.
Admixtures shall not contain chlorides, nitrates,
flat sandwich plate anchorages.
sulphides, sulphites or any other products which are
Gifford-Udall system: Stresses and anchors wires
likely to damage the steel or grout. When an expanding
individually using separate cylinders. Lee-
agent is used, the total unrestrained expansion shall not
McCall system: Uses steel bars with threaded
exceed 10 percent. Aluminium powder as an expanding
ends as tendons.
agent is not recommended for grouting because its
long-term effects are not free from doubt.
Transmission length and Factors:
[Link] Sheathing
Transmission length (L_t) is defined as
the length of a prestressing strand required to develop For requirements of sheathing, 12.2 shall be referred.
the effective prestress [Link] Grout openings or vents
(f_pe) in the concrete member. It
represents the distance from the end of the member
a) All ducts should have grout opening at both
ends. For this purpose special openings should
necessary to transmit the fully effective prestressing
be provided where such openings are not
force to the surrounding concrete.
available at end anchorages. For draped
- Factors influencing the transmission length of a PSC
(curved) cables, crown points should have a
(Prestressed Concrete) member:
grout vent. For draped cables longer than 50 m
Type of tendon: Whether it is a wire, strand, or bar.
Size of tendon: The diameter or cross-sectional area grout vents or drain holes may be provided at
of the tendon. or near the lowest points. It is a good practice
Stress in tendon: The level of prestress applied to the to provide additional air vents at suitable
tendon. intervals. All grout openings or vents should
[Link] In the long line and similar methods of include provisions for preventing grout
prestressing, when the transfer is made on several leakage.
moulds at a time, care shall be taken to ensure that the b) Standard details of fixing couplers, inlets,
prestressing force is evenly applied on all the moulds, outlets and air vents to the duct/anchorage
and that the transfer of prestress to the concrete is shall be followed as recommended by the
uniform along the entire length of the tension line. supplier of the system of prestressing.
13.3 Grouting Ducts should be securely fastened at close intervals. All
unintended holes or openings in the duct shall be
The purpose of grouting is to provide permanent repaired prior to concrete placing. The joints of the
protection to the post-tensioned steel against corrosion couplers and the sheathing should be made water proof
and to develop bond between the prestressing steel and by use of tape or similar suitable system capable of
the surrounding structural concrete. The grout ensures giving leak proofjoints. Grout openings and vents shall
encasement of steel in an alkaline environment for
be securely anchored to the duct and to either the forms
corrosion protection and by filling the duct space, it
or to reinforcing steel to prevent displacement during
prevents water collection and freezing.
concreting operations due to weight, buoyancy and
13.3.1 Materials vibrations.

[Link] Water Ducts require very careful handling as, being of thin
metal, they are susceptible to leakage due to corrosion
Only clean potable water free from impurities in transit or storage, or due to tearing/ripping in
conforming to 5.4 shall be permitted. No sea or creek handling particularly when placed adjoining to
water is to be permitted. reinforcing steel, by pulling apart of joints while
[Link] Cement inserting tendons prior to concreting, or by accidental
puncturing while drilling for form ties/inserts or by
Cement used for preparation of grout shall be in sparks from welding being done close by. Care shall be
accordance with 5.1. taken to avoid any damage by rough use of internal
[Link] Sand vibrator. Such local damage shall be repaired using tape
to make it water tight to prevent ingress of slurry from
It is not recommended to use sand for grouting of the fresh concrete.
prestressing tendons. In case the internal diameter of the
24
13.3.2 Equipment creates both compressive and tensile stresses within
[Link] Grout colloidal mixer the end block. 3. Bursting Forces:
Transverse tensile stresses, known as bursting forces,
It is essential that the grout is maintained in a
develop due to the dispersion of the concentrated load.
homogenous state and of uniform consistency by use of
These forces can cause cracking in the concrete if not
suitable agitator so that there is no separation of cement
properly addressed.
during entire grouting process. It is, therefore necessary
4. Reinforcement:
that the grout be continuously mixed in a colloidal
To counteract bursting forces, reinforcement in the
mixer with a minimum speed of 1 000 rpm and travel
form of closed stirrups is provided around the
of discharge not exceeding 15 m/s.
anchorage zone. This reinforcement helps to contain
[Link] Grout pump the tensile stresses and prevent cracking.
b) Double Anchorage
The pump should be positive displacement type and
l. Force Transfer:
should be capable of injecting the grout in a continuous
With double anchorage, prestressing forces are applied
operation and not by way of pulses. The grout pump
simultaneously from both ends of the beam. This
shall be fitted with a pressure gauge to enable pressure
results in a more symmetrical distribution of forces
of injection to be controlled. The minimum pressure at
within the end block.
which grout should be pumped shall be 0.3 MPa
Surface deformations of the tendon: The texture and
2. Stress Distribution:
roughness of the tendon surface, which affects bond Similar to single anchorage, the forces disperse into the
concrete, creating compressive and tensile stresses.
strength.
Concrete strength: Higher concrete strength generally However, the distribution is generally more uniform
due to the balanced application of forces.
leads to shorter transmission lengths. Bond strength:
The quality of the bond between the tendon and 3. Reduced Bursting Forces: The symmetrical force
concrete. application in double anchorage typically leads to
lower bursting forces compared to single
In the context of post-tensioned prestressed members: anchorage. This is because the forces are
End Block: counteracting each other to some extent.
The end block is the zone at the end of a prestressed 4. Reinforcement:
concrete member where the prestressing force is While reinforcement is still necessary, the amount
transferred from the tendons to the concrete. It is a required may be less than in a single anchorage
flared region subjected to high stress from the bearing scenario due to the reduced bursting forces. The
plate next to the anchorage block. reinforcement design will still focus on managing
Anchorage Zone: tensile stresses and preventing cracking.
The anchorage zone is the region within the structure
where the prestressing force is transferred from the
prestressing steel to the concrete and distributed more
widely. It is located between the end of the beam and
the section where only longitudinal stress exists. In
post-tensioned structures, the anchorage zone is
subdivided into the local zone and general zone.
Bursting Tension: Continuous Beam Definitions:
Bursting tension refers to the transverse tensile stresses In continuous prestressed concrete beams, the
that arise due to the dispersion of high local stresses following terms are defined as:
under the anchorage. These stresses can cause cracking Primary Moment:
in the concrete. Reinforcement is arranged to resist It is calculated by multiplying the prestress force by
these bursting tensile forces. the eccentricity of the tendon at a specific section. It
represents the bending moment induced in the beam
Transmission of Forces in End Block: due to the direct effect of the prestressing force.
The transmission of forces in an end block of a Secondary Moment:
posttensioned beam involves transferring concentrated This arises in statically indeterminate structures,
prestressing forces from the tendons to the concrete like continuous beams, due to the support restraints
when the beam deforms under prestressing. These
section. This process differs slightly depending on
moments are generally in the opposite
whether the beam has a single or double anchorage. direction to the primary moments, reducing the effect
a) Single Anchorage of prestressing. They are considered as external forces
1. Force Transfer: acting on the member.
The prestressing force is applied through a single Resultant Moment:
anchorage device at one end of the beam. This force is It is the algebraic sum of the primary and secondary
initially concentrated around the anchorage. moments. It represents the total bending moment in
2. Stress Distribution: the beam due to the combined effects of prestressing
As the force moves away from the anchorage, it and external loads.
disperses into the concrete section. This dispersion Concordant Cable:
 :
IS 1343 2012
A tendon profile is considered concordant if it
produces no support reactions due to prestressing in
a continuous beam. In such cases, the secondary
moment is zero. While concordant cables simplify
analysis, they may not always be the most
economical design choice.

Brief Freyssinet System:

Post-tensioning is a method of reinforcing concrete
where high-strength steel tendons are tensioned after
the concrete is poured and hardened. This technique
applies compression to the concrete, increasing its
strength and allowing for longer spans and more
complex designs.
One Post-Tensioning Concept: The Freyssinet
System The Freyssinet system, is a widely used
posttensioning method. It involves the following
steps:
Duct Placement: Before pouring concrete, ducts or
sleeves are positioned within the formwork, following
the intended path ofthe tendons. Concrete Pouring:
Concrete is poured around the ducts and allowed to
harden.

26
 19.6.2 End Zone in Post-tensioned Members
Type ofHigh Type of Duct or Values
Tensile Steel Sheath Recommended [Link] Bearing stress
0.48%

Bright metals b) During ten siAonb ring, the allowable

Galvanized 0.009 1 0.25
0.004 6 0.20 bearing
stress specifieAdpuinn (a) may be increased by 25
Wire c1a9bl. e6s ConsLiedaedrac toiaotneds percent, provided that this temporary value
Affecti0n.g00D4 e6sig0n.1D8 etails
0.004 6 0.25
19.6.1 Transmission Zone in Pre-tensioned Me mbers not exceed Il.
Bright metals
Galvanized 0.003 0 0.20 c)
The effective punching area shall generally
Uncoated stress
TraLnesamd ics osiaotnedlength be the contact area of the anchorage devices
[Link] 0.003 0
0.18
ength which, if circular in shape, shall be replaced
Tdhestbecra C o r r u g at efdfeHctDinP
onfollowing:
relieveshall the dside r at i o nto sbeaUsed in by a square of equivalent area. The bearing
area shall be the maximum area of that
Design a) On the arpeaosrti monmediately behind external
a nchorages, th e p e r i s si l e
a) The transmission length depends on a numbe r o f t h e m e m be r
u n i t b e a r i n g st re s s
w h i c h i s g e o m e t r i c a l l y similar k per on the concrete, after accounting
for losses
of variables, the most important being the
metre due to relaxaantdiocnonocfesntetreilc, teolatshteicefsfheocrttievneipnugnching area.
strength of concrete at transfer, the size and
(1) (2) (3) (4) and seadti)ng Wofhaenrechaonraugmebs,esrhoafllan ocht
oexracgeesdare used, the
type of tendon, the surface deformations of bearing area Abr shall not overlap. Where
there
the tendon. The transmission length of the is already a compressive stress prevailing
over
tendon towards the top of a unit is usually
the bearing area, as in the case of anchorage
greater than that at the bottom. placed in the body of a structure, the total

b) The following values may be used, provided stress shall not exceed the limiting values

the concrete is well-compacted and detailing specified in (a), (b) and (e). For stage
stressing
is as per the relevant provisions of this of cables, the adjacent unstressed anchorages
standard, and its strength at transfer is not less
shall be neglected when determining the
than 35 N/mm2 and the tendon is released
bearing area.
gradually:
e) The bearing stress specified in (a) and (b) for
1) For plain and indented wire 100 x permanent and temporary bearing stress may

2) For crimped wires 65 x + be increased suitably if adequate hoop

3) Strands 30 x + reinforcement complying with manufacturer'
s
c) The development of stress in the tendon may recommendations is provided at the
be assumed to vary parabolically along the anchorages.

length of the member. f) When the anchorages are embedded in

d) For general guidance, it is recommended that concrete, the bearing stress shall be
IS 1343 : 2012

one-half of the transmission length shall investigated after accounting for the surface
 or overhang the support in a simply supported friction between the anchorage and the
0.81k
beam. Where there is end-fixing, the whole concrete. The reinforcement details, concrete
of the transmission length shall overhang. strength, cover and other dimensions shall

conform to manufacturer's
NOTES
specifications/ specialist literature.
whichever is smaller, wherefci is the cube strength at transfer, Abr is the bearing area and Apun is the
punching area.

1 is the diameter of the tendon.

2 The transmission length may vary depending on the
[Link] Bursting tensile forces
site conditions and therefore should be determined from tests carried out under the most unfavourable
a) The bursting tensile forces in the end blocks, conditions. or regions of bonded post -tensioned
members,
should be assessed on the basis of the tendon

26
Tendon Insertion: High-strength steel tendons are
Tensioning: Hydraulic jacks are used to tension the
inserted into the ducts.
tendons, stretching them and applying a compressive
force to the concrete.
 IS 1343 : 2012

Anchoring: Once the desired tension is achieved, the any bond formation with the concrete. This non-bonded
tendons are anchored against the ends of the concrete arrangement allows for the prestressing strand to move
member using specialized anchorages. independently of the concrete, reducing the risk of
Grouting (Optional): In some cases, grout is injected into cracking and providing flexibility to withstand different
the ducts to protect the tendons. load conditions.

Torsion Reinforcement Distribution in Prestressed One of the key advantages of unbonded prestressed
concrete: concrete is its versatility. The lack of bond between the
prestressing strand and the concrete allows for easy
Torsion reinforcement in a prestressed concrete member installation and post-tensioning adjustments. This makes
is distributed as follows: Longitudinal Reinforcement: unbonded prestressed concrete suitable for applications
Longitudinal bars are placed along the length of the where flexibility is required, such as in post-tensioned
member to resist the longitudinal component of the slabs and beams, parking structures, and industrial
torsional stress. Transverse Reinforcement: buildings.
Stirrups, or spirals, are used as transverse reinforcement
to resist the shear component of torsional stress. These Design Criteria of Two-way Slab:
are placed perpendicular to the longitudinal The criteria for designing prestressed concrete (PSC)
reinforcement and are spaced at intervals along the two-way slabs include: - Slab Type and Thickness:
member's length. Selection of the appropriate slab type (e.g., flat slab,
The combination of longitudinal and transverse waffle slab) and determination of adequate thickness,
reinforcement creates a "space truss" action, where the considering factors like span length and loading
concrete acts as compression struts, and the steel conditions. - Design Method:
reinforcement resists tension, effectively resisting the Choosing a suitable design method such as the Direct
torsional forces. Design Method (DDM) or the Equivalent Frame Method
(EFM), or designing based on structural analysis
Non-distortional prestressing: principles. - Load Calculation:
Non-distortional prestressing is a method in prestressed Determining the total factored load on the slab,
concrete design aimed at minimizing structural including dead loads and live loads.
distortion or deflection caused by applied loads. This Moment Calculation:
involves applying prestressing forces to counteract the Calculating bending moments at mid-span using
deflections caused by the member's self-weight, formulas provided in standards like IS 456-2000.
ensuring the member is primarily subjected to axial - Reinforcement Determination:
force and bending moments from external loads. In this Determining the required area of steel reinforcement and
method, moments due to prestress and dead weight spacing of bars along both shorter and longer spans. The
balance each other. diameter of bars typically ranges from 8mm to 14mm,
not exceeding 1/8th of the slab's overall depth.
Bounded and Unbounded Prestress Concrete: - Deflection and Cracking Checks:
Bonded Prestressed Concrete: Performing checks for deflection, cracking, and
Bonded prestressed concrete refers to a construction development length to ensure serviceability.
method where the prestressing strand is permanently
bonded to the concrete. In this method, the prestressing
- Shear Strength Check:
Verifying the shear strength of the slab.
strand is initially tensioned and then placed into the
concrete formwork before the concrete is poured. As the - Minimum Reinforcement:
concrete cures and hardens, it bonds to the prestressing Ensuring the minimum reinforcement percentage, which
strand, creating a strong bond between the two materials. is 0.12% of the gross cross-sectional area for HYSD bars
(Fe 415) or 0.15% for mild steel bars.
One of the primary benefits of bonded prestressed - Minimum Slab Thickness:
concrete is its enhanced structural performance. The For slabs without interior beams and with a long span to
bond between the prestressing strand and the concrete short span ratio less than 2, the minimum thickness must
allows for efficient transfer of forces, resulting in meet certain requirements.
reduced deflections and increased load-carrying - Concrete Cover:
capacity. This makes bonded prestressed concrete Providing adequate concrete cover to reinforcement, not
suitable for a wide range of applications, including less than 15mm or the diameter of the bar.
bridges, high-rise buildings, and precast concrete -Analysis of two-way slab systems:
elements.
EFM is the most detailed procedure for analysis and
design of two-way slab systems, where the structure is
Unbonded Prestressed Concrete: modelled by a series of equivalent frames.
Unbonded prestressed concrete, on the other hand,
involves a construction method where the prestressing
strand is not bonded to the concrete. Instead, a protective
coating is applied to the prestressing strand to prevent
[Link].6 Design Silent Features for Slabs: The salient
design features of prestressed concrete oneway and two-
way slab panels are: