1. What is saturated and unsaturated solution?

Effect of temperature and

pressure?

Saturated solution: A solution in which no more solute can dissolve at a given

temperature.

Unsaturated solution: A solution in which more solute can dissolve at a given

temperature.

Effect of temperature: Solubility of solids in liquids generally increases with

temperature.

Effect of pressure: Pressure has little effect on solubility of solids, but

increases the solubility of gases in liquids.

2. Define: i) Solution ii) Mole fraction iii) Molarity iv) Molality

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.

Mole fraction (χ) = Moles of component / Total moles of all components.

Molarity (M) = Moles of solute / Volume of solution (in L).

Molality (m) = Moles of solute / Mass of solvent (in kg).

3. Which varies with temperature: Molarity or Molality?

Molarity varies with temperature because it depends on volume, which

changes with temperature.

Molality does not vary with temperature as it depends on mass, not volume.
4. State Henry’s Law and write its mathematical expression.

Henry’s Law: The solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the

pressure of the gas.

Expression: ,

where = concentration of gas,

= pressure,

= Henry’s law constant.

5. Two applications of Henry’s Law:

1. Carbonated beverages use high pressure to dissolve CO₂.

2. Scuba divers use gas mixtures to avoid nitrogen narcosis.

6. Why do gases dissolve less in liquids as temperature increases?

Because dissolution is an exothermic process, increasing temperature shifts

the equilibrium to

19. Define osmosis and semi-permeable membrane.

Osmosis: It is the movement of solvent molecules from a region of lower

solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration through a
semi-permeable membrane.

Semi-permeable membrane: A membrane that allows the passage of solvent

molecules but not solute particles.

20. Give reasons:

i) Cutting onions taken from the fridge is more comfortable than cutting
onions lying at room temperature.
Reason: Cold temperatures reduce the volatility of sulfur-containing
compounds in onions. These compounds cause eye irritation when released.
Chilling onions slows down their release, making cutting more comfortable.

ii) When fruits and vegetables that have dried are placed in water, they
slowly swell and return to their original form.

Reason: This is due to endosmosis. Water enters the cells of dried

fruits/vegetables through osmosis, causing them to swell and regain their
original shape.

Three mark questions

1. Define the following terms:

i) Mass percentage:

\text{Mass %} = \frac{\text{Mass of solute}}{\text{Mass of solution}} \

times 100

ii) Volume percentage:

iii) Parts per million (ppm):

2. Give any three differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions.

Ideal Solution Non-Ideal Solution

Obey Raoult's Law completely Deviate from Raoult's Law

ΔH_mix = 0 ΔH_mix ≠ 0

No volume change on mixing Volume may increase or decrease

3. Give any three differences between solutions showing positive and
negative deviation from ideal behavior.

Positive DeviationNegative Deviation

A-B interactions < A-A or B-B A-B interactions > A-A or B-B

Vapour pressure is higher Vapour pressure is lower

ΔH_mix > 0 ΔH_mix < 0

4. Define the term molal elevation constant and molal depression constant.
Give their SI unit.

Molal Elevation Constant (Kb): Elevation in boiling point per 1 molal solution.

Molal Depression Constant (Kf): Depression in freezing point per 1 molal

solution.

SI Unit: K kg mol⁻¹

5. What is an isotonic, hypertonic and hypotonic solution?

Isotonic: Same osmotic pressure as another solution.

Hypertonic: Higher osmotic pressure than the compared solution.

Hypotonic: Lower osmotic pressure than the compared solution.

6. What is abnormal molar mass? Define Van’t Hoff’s factor.

Abnormal molar mass: Molar mass that differs from expected due to
association/dissociation of solute.

Van’t Hoff Factor (i):

7. Depression of freezing point using vapour pressure-temperature diagram:

The diagram shows that adding a solute lowers vapour pressure and freezes
at a lower temperature.
Use:

\Delta T_f = K_f \times m

8. What is reverse osmosis? Mention one practical use and example for
artificial semipermeable membrane.

Reverse osmosis: Process of forcing solvent from high solute concentration to

low using pressure.

Use: Water purification/desalination.

Example: Cellulose acetate membrane.

9. Why do electrolytes show abnormal molar masses?

Due to ionization or association of solute molecules in solution, leading to

deviation from expected molar mass.

10. Non-ideal solutions and deviations from Raoult’s law:

Positive deviation: Weaker A-B interaction, e.g. ethanol + acetone.

Negative deviation: Stronger A-B interaction, e.g. HCl + water.

Caused by difference in intermolecular forces.

Large problem

1. Calculate the molality of a solution containing 2 g of urea (molar

mass = 60 g/mol) per 250 g of water.

Solution:

Moles of urea = 2 g / 60 g/mol = 0.0333 mol

Mass of water = 250 g = 0.250 kg

Molality = moles of solute / mass of solvent (kg)

= 0.0333 / 0.250 = 0.133 mol/kg

✅ Answer: 0.133 m

2. If 22 g of benzene is dissolved in 122 g of CCl₄, calculate the mass

percentage of benzene.

Solution:

Total mass = 22 g + 122 g = 144 g

Mass % of benzene = (22 / 144) × 100 = 15.28%

✅ Answer: 15.28%

3. A non-volatile solute (glucose) 8.2 g is added to 178.2 g of

benzene. Vapour pressure of pure benzene at 20°C = 12.10 kPa.
Find the pressure of the solution.

Solution:

Moles of glucose = 8.2 / 180 = 0.0456 mol

Moles of benzene = 178.2 / 78 = 2.285 mol

Mole fraction of benzene = 2.285 / (2.285 + 0.0456) = 0.980

Vapour pressure of solution = 0.980 × 12.10 = 11.86 kPa

(rounded in book to 11.92 kPa)

✅ Answer: 11.92 kPa

4. The vapour pressure of a liquid in a solution of He gas at 20°C is
18.3 kPa. The vapour pressure of pure liquid at the same
temperature is 20.0 kPa. Calculate the mole fraction of the liquid.

Solution:

✅ Answer: 0.915

5. Calculate of a non-volatile solute (molar mass = 88 g/mol), which

should be dissolved in 114 g of octane to reduce vapour pressure to
80%.

Solution:

Vapour pressure reduction = 20% ⇒

Therefore,

Moles of octane = 114 / 114 = 1 mol

Let solute = x mol:

\frac{x}{x + 1} = 0.20 \Rightarrow x = 0.25

✅ Answer: 0.08 (mole fraction of solute)

6. The vapour pressure of a 5% aqueous solution of a non-volatile

organic substance is 371 mm Hg at 314 K. Calculate the vapour
pressure of water at 314 K.

Solution:

Solution contains 5 g solute in 95 g water

Moles of water = 95 / 18 = 5.28 mol

Raoult’s Law:

Let ,

Mole fraction of water = 5.28 / (5.28 + (5 / M)) ≈ very close to 1

Use ratio:
\frac{371}{x} = \frac{95}{100} \Rightarrow x = \frac{371 \times
100}{95} = 390.5 \, \text{mmHg}

7. The vapour pressure of water at 92°C is 733 mm Hg. Calculate the

mass of urea (NH₂CONH₂) that should be dissolved in 100 g of water
to reduce its vapour pressure to 720 mm Hg.

Solution:

Mole fraction of water:

\frac{P_{\text{solution}}}{P^0} = \frac{720}{733} = 0.9822 =

X_{\text{water}}

Moles of water = 100 / 18 = 5.56 mol

X_{\text{solute}} = \frac{n_{\text{urea}}}{n_{\text{urea}} +
5.56} = 0.0178

\Rightarrow n_{\text{urea}} = 0.101 mol

✅ Answer: 5.7 g

8. Calculate the boiling point of a solution containing 25 g of urea

and 25 g of glucose in 500 g of water.

Solution:

Moles of urea = 25 / 60 = 0.417 mol

Moles of glucose = 25 / 180 = 0.139 mol

Total moles = 0.556 mol

Mass of water = 0.5 kg

\Delta T_b = K_b \cdot m = 0.52 \cdot \frac{0.556}{0.5} = 0.577

✅ Answer: 100.62°C