Unit Operations in Mineral Processing

Unit operations in mineral processing are the stages of an operation that reduce the size of
particles and separate valuable minerals from waste material.

 Comminution: This is the process of reducing particle size. It includes crushing, the
initial stage, and grinding, which grinds the crushed ore into a fine powder.
 Concentration: This operation aims to separate valuable minerals from the waste
material, known as gangue. Examples include:
o Gravity Separation: Separates minerals based on differences in density.
o Magnetic Separation: Uses magnets to separate minerals based on their
magnetic properties.
o Electrostatic Separation: Separates minerals based on differences in their
electrical conductivity.
o Froth Flotation: A process where mineral particles are selectively attached to
air bubbles and floated to the surface for collection.
 Leaching: This involves dissolving valuable minerals with a solvent to separate them
from the ore.

Thickener Control Equipment

Thickeners are used to separate valuable minerals from waste material. The following
equipment is used to control their operation:

 Underflow Density Sensor: Measures the density of the thickened slurry to control its
flow rate.
 Torque Meter: Measures the rotational resistance of the thickener's rake, indicating
solids loading. High torque may indicate a blockage.
 Slurry Level Sensor: Monitors the slurry height to prevent overflow or air from getting
into the system.
 Polymer Flocculent Dosing System: Controls the amount of flocculant added to the
slurry, which is essential for proper settling.
 Underflow Pump: Controls the discharge rate of the thickened slurry.

The Need for Classification in a Milling Plant

Classification is important in a milling plant for several reasons:

 Preventing Over-Grinding: It separates fine particles from coarse ones, allowing the
fine particles to exit the mill circuit. This prevents over-grinding, which wastes energy
and can negatively impact downstream processes like flotation.
  Increasing Grinding Efficiency: Coarse particles are sent back to the mill for more
grinding, which ensures the mill is always working on particles that need to be
reduced in size, thereby maximizing its efficiency.
 Controlling Product Size: Classification controls the final particle size of the ground
ore, which is essential because most downstream processes need a specific size
distribution for optimal performance.

Industrial Screens Used in Crushing Plants

Four industrial screens commonly used in crushing plants are:

 Grizzly Screen: A screen with widely spaced bars used for primary screening of
coarse ore to protect the crusher from oversized material.
 Vibrating Screen: The most common type of screen that uses a vibrating motion to
classify particles. They can have multiple decks to sort into different sizes.
 Trommel Screen: A rotating, cylindrical screen used for sizing and washing material.
 Static Sieve Bend Screen: A curved screen used for dewatering or sizing fine
particles that works on the principle of gravity and centrifugal force.

The Froth Flotation Process

Froth flotation is a key mineral separation process that separates

hydrophobic (water-repelling) minerals from hydrophilic (water-loving) gangue minerals.

The process takes place in a flotation cell containing a slurry of finely ground ore and water.

Specific chemical reagents are added to the slurry:

 Collectors coat the target mineral particles, making them hydrophobic so they can
attach to air bubbles.
 Frothers create a stable layer of bubbles.
 Activators or depressants can be used to enhance or inhibit the flotation of certain
minerals.

Air is then introduced into the cell. The hydrophobic mineral particles attach to the rising air
bubbles and are carried to the surface to form a froth, which is then collected. The
hydrophilic gangue particles remain in the slurry and are discharged as tailings.

Dense Medium Separation (DMS)

Dense Medium Separation (DMS) separates minerals based on their specific gravity. The
process uses a dense medium, which is a finely ground mixture of a heavy solid, such as
ferrosilicon or magnetite, and water. The suspension's density is carefully controlled to be
between the densities of the minerals being separated.
The mechanism of separation is as follows:

When the ore is introduced into the dense medium, particles with a specific gravity lower
than the medium's density will float on the surface. These floating particles are typically the
lighter, less valuable gangue minerals, and are called the "floats". Particles with a specific
gravity greater than the medium's density will sink. These sinking particles are the heavier,
valuable minerals, and are called the "sinks". The floats and sinks are then separated from the
medium.

Comminution Theories

There are three main theories that describe the energy required for comminution:

 Rittinger's Theory: States that the energy required for size reduction is proportional
to the new surface area created. The formula is

E=K(1/d2−1/d 1), where E is the energy, K is a constant, d1 is the initial particle size,
and d2 is the final particle size.

 Kick's Theory: States that the energy required is proportional to the reduction in
volume or mass of the particles. The formula is

E=K(log R/log 2), where E is the energy required and R is the reduction ratio (f/p),
with f being the diameter of the feed particles and p being the diameter of the product
particles.

 Bond's Theory (Bond's Law): States that the energy required is proportional to the
new crack length produced. The formula is

W=10Wi/p−10Wif, where W is the work input, Wi is the Bond Work Index, p is the
80% passing size of the product, and f is the 80% passing size of the feed.

Working Principle of a Shaking Table

A shaking table has a riffled deck that is slightly inclined in two directions. A slurry of ore
and water is fed onto the table. The table is subjected to a shaking motion that has a slow
forward stroke and a rapid return stroke.

The shaking motion causes particles to move along the table. Lighter particles are carried
over the riffles by the cross-flow of water and move toward the side of the table, where they
are discharged as tailings. Heavier particles settle between the riffles and are not easily
washed over. They are propelled forward by the shaking motion, moving down the length of
the table toward the concentrate discharge end.
Ball Mill Operation

The operating speed of a ball mill is calculated as a percentage of its critical speed. The
critical speed (

Nc) is the speed at which the grinding media (balls) would be held against the mill liner by
centrifugal force.

The effects of operating a ball mill at different speeds are as follows:

 Operating Below Critical Speed: The grinding media don't have enough kinetic
energy to be lifted high enough. They tumble in a low-energy motion, resulting in
inefficient grinding and low throughput.
 Operating Above Critical Speed: The mill operates in a "centrifuging" regime
where the grinding media are held against the liner by centrifugal force and form a
solid ring. This results in no significant grinding, as the media are not free to fall and
impact the ore.

Sorting Methods in Mineral Processing

Sorting methods separate individual particles from crushed ore based on a specific property.

 Color Sorting (Optical Sorting): Uses optical sensors to separate particles based on
their color or how they reflect light. An example is sorting diamond ores based on
their fluorescence under X-rays.
 Magnetic Sorting: Detects the magnetic susceptibility of particles. It is used to
separate magnetic minerals like magnetite from other non-magnetic minerals.
 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Sorting: Uses X-ray fluorescence to identify the
elemental composition of individual particles. An example is sorting copper ores by
detecting the presence of copper atoms.

Factors Affecting Screening Efficiency

Screening efficiency is influenced by several factors:

 Screen Media Type: The material of the screen and the shape of its openings.
 Particle Shape and Size Distribution: Irregularly shaped particles can clog the
screen openings, and a wide size distribution can lower efficiency.
 Screen Deck Angle and Motion: The angle of inclination and the type of motion
(vibrating, gyrating) affect the material's speed and how long particles have to pass
through.
 Open Area: A higher percentage of open area generally leads to better efficiency.
 Moisture Content: Wet or sticky material can clump together and "blind" the screen,
which significantly reduces efficiency.
 Feed Rate: A high feed rate can overload the screen, reducing the residence time of
particles and preventing effective separation.
a) Identify unit operations in mineral processing plants.

[6]

Comminution

Comminution refers to the reduction of particle size. Crushing: The initial stage of size

reduction, typically performed on run-of-mine (ROM) ore using crushers .Grinding is the
final

stage of comminution, where crushed ore is ground into a fine powder using mills.

Concentration

Concentration aims to separate valuable minerals from gangue (waste) material through the
use

of:

 Gravity Separation: Separating minerals based on differences in specific gravity

(density). Examples include dense medium separation, jigging, and tabling.

 Magnetic Separation: Separating minerals based on their magnetic properties using

magnets.

 Electrostatic Separation: Separating minerals based on differences in electrical

conductivity.

 Froth Flotation: A physio-chemical process where mineral particles are selectively

attached to air bubbles and floated to the surface

 Leaching: Dissolving valuable minerals using a solvent to separate them from the ore.

b) Identify thickener control equipment.

[5]

 Underflow Density Sensor: Measures the density of the thickened slurry (underflow) to

control the flow rate.

 Torque Meter: Measures the rotational resistance of the thickener rake, indicating the

solids loading. High torque can indicate a blockage.

 Slurry Level Sensor: Monitors the height of the slurry in the thickener tank to prevent

overflow or air entrainment.

 Polymer Flocculent Dosing System: Controls the amount of flocculant added to the

slurry, which is essential for proper settling.

 Underflow Pump: Controls the discharge rate of the thickened slurry

c) Explain the need for classification in the milling plant.

[5]

 Preventing Over-Grinding: Classification separates fine particles from the coarse ones,

allowing the fine particles to exit the mill circuit. This prevents over-grinding, which is

an inefficient use of energy and can negatively impact downstream processes like

flotation.

 Increasing Grinding Efficiency: Coarse particles are sent back to the mill for further

grinding. This continuous feedback loop ensures the mill is always working on particles

that need to be reduced in size, maximizing its efficiency and throughput.

 Controlling Product Size: The classifier controls the final particle size of the ground ore.

This is crucial as most downstream processes (like flotation or leaching) require a

specific size distribution for optimal performance.

d)Identify any four (4) industrial screens used in the crushing plant.

[4]

 Grizzly Screen: A screen with widely spaced bars, used for primary screening of coarse

ore to protect the crusher from oversized material.

Vibrating Screen: The most common type of screen, it uses a vibrating motion to

classify particles. They can have multiple decks for sorting into different sizes.

 Trommel Screen: A rotating, cylindrical screen used for sizing and washing material.
 Static Sieve Bend Screen: A curved screen used for dewatering or sizing fine particles.

It works on the principle of gravity and the centrifugal force of the slurry flowing over

the screen.

Question 2

Describe the froth floatation process.

[ 4]

Froth flotation is a key mineral separation process that selectively separates hydrophobic
(water

repelling) minerals from hydrophilic (water-loving) gangue [Link] process takes place
in a

flotation cell containing a slurry of finely ground ore and water. Specific chemical reagents
are

added to the slurry. Collectors coat the surfaces of the target mineral particles, making them

hydrophobic. Frothers are added to create a stable layer of bubbles. Activators or depressants
can

be used to enhance or inhibit the flotation of certain [Link] is then introduced into the
cell.

The hydrophobic mineral particles attach to the rising air bubbles and are carried to the
surface to

form a froth, which is then collected. The hydrophilic gangue particles remain in the slurry
and

are discharged as tailinngs

b)Outline the following, giving examples of each:

Collector

A reagent that adsorbs onto the surface of a mineral particle, rendering it hydrophobic and

enabling its attachment to air bubbles. Examples: Xanthates (for sulphide minerals like

chalcopyrite) and fatty acids (for oxide minerals).

Depressant

A reagent that selectively inhibits the flotation of certain minerals, preventing them from
attaching to air [Link]: Sodium cyanide (for depressing sphalerite and pyrite in

copper flotation) and lime (for depressing pyrite).

Activator

A reagent that modifies the surface of a mineral to promote its flotation. It essentially makes
the

mineral receptive to the [Link]: Copper sulphate (used to activate sphalerite for

flotation) and sodium sulphide (for activating oxidized minerals).

Frother

A surface-active chemical that produces a stable but not too rigid froth of bubbles to which

mineral particles can adhere

c)Explain the mechanism of separation in Dense Medium Separation (DMS). [4]

Dense Medium Separation (DMS) separates minerals based on differences in their specific

gravity. The process uses a dense medium, which is a finely ground mixture of a heavy solid

(like ferrosilicon or magnetite) and water. The suspension's density is carefully controlled to
be

intermediate to the densities of the minerals to be separated.

Mechanism

When the ore is introduced into the dense medium, particles with a specific gravity less than
the

medium's density will float on the surface, while those with a specific gravity greater than the

medium's density will sink. The floating particles (the "floats") are typically the lighter, less

valuable gangue minerals, and the sinking particles (the "sinks") are the heavier, valuable

minerals. The floats and sinks are then separated from the [Link]

d)What are the factors that affect design, construction, operation and management of tailings

dam.

[4]

 Geotechnical Factors: The geology and soil mechanics of the site, including seismic
activity, foundation stability, and permeability of the underlying ground.

 Hydrogeological and Hydrological Factors: The amount of water entering the dam from

rainfall and groundwater, as well as the need for water management to prevent dam

failure.

 Environmental Factors: Potential for acid mine drainage, contamination of surface and

groundwater, and impact on local ecosystems. This also includes rehabilitation and

closure plans.

 Safety and Regulatory Factors: Compliance with local and international safety standards,

and the need for regular inspections, monitoring, and emergency response plans.

e) Express the Rittinger, Kick and Bond's theories of comminution.

[5]

 Rittinger's Theory: States that the energy required for size reduction is proportional to

the new surface area created

o E=K(1/d2−1/d1) where

o d1 =initial particle size

o d2=final particle size

o K=constant

 Kick's Theory: States that the energy required is proportional to the reduction in

volume or mass of the particles.

o E=K(logR/log 2) where

o E= energy required

o R =reduction ratio(f/p)

o F=diameter of feed particles

o P =diameter of product particles

 Bond's Theory (Bond's Law): A It states that the energy required is proportional to the
new crack length produced.

o W=10Wi/√p -10Wi√f

o where W is the work input,

o Wi is the Bond Work Index, and

o P 80% passing sizes of product

o F are the 80% passing sizes of the feed

Describe the working principle of a shaking table.

[5]

Principle: The table has a riffled deck that is inclined slightly in two directions. A slurry of
ore

and water is fed onto the table. The table is subjected to a shaking motion, which has a slow

forward stroke and a rapid return stroke.

Mechanism

The shaking motion causes the particles to move along the table. The lighter particles are
carried

over the riffles by the cross-flow of water and move toward the side of the table, discharging
as

tailings. The heavier particles settle between the riffles and are not as easily washed over.
They

are propelled forward by the differential shaking motion, moving down the length of the table

toward the concentrate discharge end.

Calculate the operating speed of a ball mill of 2 metres diameter containing steel balls

(specific gravity of 7.6) of 0.1 metre diameter. The mill operates at 70% of the critical

speed.[5]

The operating speed of a ball mill is calculated as a percentage of its critical speed, which is
the

speed at which the grinding media (balls)

calculate the critical speed (Nc):

The critical speed is given by the formula: Nc= (42.3/√D-d) where:

D = internal diameter of the mill = 2 m

d = diameter of the balls = 0.1 m

Nc=42.3/√ (2−0.1) =30.69 rpm

1. Calculate the operating speed (No): The mill operates at 70% of the critical speed. No

=0.70×Nc

2. No=0.70×30.69=21.48 rpm

The operating speed of the ball mill is approximately 21.48 rpm.

c. Recovery of Pt Equivalent Minerals

Recovery is the percentage of a valuable mineral recovered in the concentrate product

relative to

the total amount of that mineral in the feed.

R=F(f−t) C(c−t) ×100% where:

R = Recovery (%)

C = Mass of concentrate

c = Grade of concentrate = 150 g/t

F = Mass of feed

f = Grade of feed = 4.0 g/t

T = Mass of tailings

t = Grade of tailings = 0.5 g/t

We also know that F=C+T. Using a mass balance on the mineral, F×f=C×c+T×t

R=f(c−t) c(f−t) ×100% R=4.0(150−0.5)150(4.0−0.5) ×100% =598525×100%≈87.79%

The recovery of Pt equivalent minerals is 87.79%

d. Sorting Methods in Mineral Processing �

Sorting methods separate individual particles from a stream of crushed ore based on a
specific
property.

Colour Sorting (Optical Sorting): Uses optical sensors to detect and separate particles based
on

colour or light [Link]: Sorting of diamond ores, where diamonds are sorted
from

host rock by their fluorescence under X-ray or specific light.

Magnetic Sorting: Detects the magnetic susceptibility of [Link]: Separation of

magnetite from hematite or other non-magnetic minerals.

X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Sorting: Uses X-ray fluorescence to identify the elemental

composition of individual [Link]: Sorting of copper ores by detecting the presence

of

copper atoms.

e. Process Flowsheet for Mineral Separation ⚙️

FEED

GRAVITY

SEPARATION

MAGNETIC

SEPARATION

ELECTROMAGNETIC

SEPARATION

GRAVITY SEPARATION

PRODUCT

Question 4

a. Screen Efficiency Calculation

Screening efficiency is a measure of how effectively the screen separates undersize material

from the feed.

(E) = (o(f-u)(o-f)(1-u)÷f(o-u)2(1-f)×100% )where

O is mass of oversize material in the product

U is the mass of undersize material in the product,

F is the mass of undersize material in the feed.f

F=1-0.46=0.54

O=1-0.075=0.925

U=1-0.9=0.1

(0.925(0.54-0.1)(0.925-0.54)(1-0.1)÷0.54(0.925-0.1)2 (1-0.54))*100%

=83.45%

d. Outline factors affecting screening efficiency.

[5]

The efficiency of a screen is influenced by several factors, including:

 Screen Media Type: The material of the screen (e.g., wire cloth, perforated plate,

rubber) and the shape of its openings.

 Particle Shape and Size Distribution: Irregularly shaped particles (e.g., flaky or

elongated) can blind the screen openings, while a wide size distribution can lead to a

lower efficiency.

 Screen Deck Angle and Motion: The angle of inclination and the type of motion

(vibrating, gyrating) influence the material's speed and the amount of time particles have

to pass through the openings.

 Open Area: The percentage of the total screen area that is open for material to pass

through. A higher open area generally leads to better efficiency.

 Moisture Content: Wet or sticky material can clump together and blind the screen,

significantly reducing efficiency.

 Feed Rate: A high feed rate can overload the screen, reducing the residence time of
particles and preventing effective separation.

e. . What factors affect the selection of equipment in a plant.

[5]

 Mineralogy: The physical and chemical properties of the ore (hardness, density,

abrasiveness, magnetic properties, etc.) dictate the type of equipment needed (e.g., a hard

ore requires a robust crusher)

 Plant Capacity and Throughput: The amount of ore to be processed per hour or day

determines the size and number of units needed.

 Energy Consumption and Operating Costs: The cost of power and maintenance for

each piece of equipment is a key factor in selection. More energy-efficient equipment is

often preferred.

 Capital Cost: The initial investment required for purchasing and installing the

equipment.

 Maintenance : The ease of maintenance, availability of spare parts, are critical for

minimizing downtime.

 Environmental and Safety Regulations: The equipment must comply with

environmental standards (e.g., dust control) and safety regulations.

a. Calculation of Bond Work Index

Bond's Work Index (Wi) is a measure of the grindability of an ore. It represents the energy

(kWh/t) required to reduce an ore from an infinite size to 100 microns, where 80% passes that

size.

The formula for Bond's Law is: W=Wi(P801−F801) where: W = work input = 20 kWh/t P80
=

80% passing size of the product = 0.15 mm F80 = 80% passing size of the feed = 1.5 mm

Rearranging the formula to solve for Wi: Wi=(P801−F801) W

Wi= (0.151−1.51)20= (0.3871−1.2251)20= (2.584−0.816)20=1.76820≈11.31

The Bond Work Index for the sulphide ore is approximately 11.31 kWh/t.

b. Use of Magnets in Mineral Processing

Magnets are used in mineral processing to separate magnetic minerals from non-magnetic
ones.

The primary applications are:

 Tram iron removal: Magnets are placed over conveyor belts to remove stray pieces of

tramp iron (bolts, drill bits, etc.) that could damage downstream crushers, screens, and

mills.

 Magnetic separation: This is the main application, used to concentrate or purify

magnetic minerals.

o Low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS): Used for highly magnetic minerals

like magnetite and ferrosilicon.

o High-intensity magnetic separation (HIMS): Used for weakly magnetic

minerals like hematite, ilmenite, and wolframite.

c. Effects of Operating a Ball Mill Above or Below Critical Speed

The critical speed of a ball mill is the speed at which the centrifugal force is so high that the

grinding media are held against the mill liner, preventing them from cascading or cataracting.

 Operating Below Critical Speed:

o Effect: The grinding media do not get enough kinetic energy to be lifted high

enough. They tumble and cascade in a low-energy motion.

o Performance: This results in inefficient grinding and a low throughput. The

comminution mechanism is primarily attrition and abrasion, which is less

effective than impact. There is also a risk of "dead spots" where no grinding

occurs.

 Operating Above Critical Speed:

o Effect: The mill operates in a "centrifuging" regime. The grinding media are held
against the liner by centrifugal force and spin with the mill, forming a solid ring.

o Performance: This results in no significant grinding. The media are not free to

fall and impact the ore, and the mill's power draw is often low, indicating a waste

of energy with no size reduction. It also causes excessive wear on the mill liner

and can be a safety hazard.

Question 5

a. Recovery of Pt Equivalent Minerals

R=f(c−t) c(f−t) ×100%

where: c = Grade of concentrate = 150 g/t

f = Grade of feed = 4.0 g/t

t = Grade of tailings = 0.5 g/t

R=4.0(150−0.5)150(4.0−0.5) ×100%=4.0(149.5)150(3.5) ×100%≈87.79%

The recovery = 87.79%.

a. Explain the need for storage in mineral processing.

[5]

 Process Stability: Maintaining a constant level in a tank or bin helps stabilize process

parameters like flow rate and slurry density, leading to more consistent and predictable

results.

 Preventing Downtime: If a piece of equipment fails, a storage buffer allows the rest of

the plant to continue running for a period, minimizing total production loss.

 Homogenization of Ore: Ore from the mine can be highly variable in grade and

mineralogy. Stockpiles allow for the blending of different ore batches, ensuring a more

consistent feed to the plant and improving metallurgical performance

 Buffer for Operations: They act as a buffer between different unit operations, allowing

them to operate at their optimal, often different, flow rates. This prevents upstream or
downstream equipment from being starved or overloaded.

 Inventory Management: Storage of final concentrate and reagents allows for better

inventory management and scheduling of shipments.

Explain how dust levels are kept low in mineral processing plants.

[5]

 Water Sprays: Water is sprayed at transfer points (e.g., conveyor discharge chutes) to

suppress dust. Surfactants can be added to the water to improve its effectiveness.

 Enclosures and Hoods: Crushing and screening areas, conveyor transfer points, and

other dusty operations are enclosed and fitted with extraction hoods to capture dust at its

source.

 Dust Collection Systems (Baghouses): Air from enclosed areas is drawn into a

baghouse or filter system where dust particles are trapped in fabric filters, and clean air is

discharged.

 Wet Grinding: The milling circuit operates in a wet environment, which eliminates dust

generation during grinding.

 Tailings and Stockpile Management: Tailings are typically stored as a slurry to prevent

dusting. Stockpiles can be sprayed with water or chemical dust suppressants to prevent

wind erosion.

 Process Design: Minimizing the height of material drops and using covered conveyors

and chutes to reduce dust generation.

What are the effects of the following on the milling circuit:

 I. Tonnage Increase:

o Effect: A higher feed rate (tonnage) can reduce the residence time of ore in the

mill.

o Impact: This can lead to coarser mill product and a decrease in grind size. The
mill may become overloaded, leading to poor grinding efficiency and a potential

increase in circulating load.

o Effect: Increases the slurry density and viscosity in the mill.

o Impact: Can decrease the efficiency of the classification circuit (e.g.,

hydrocyclone), leading to a higher percentage of fine material being returned to

the mill. This can result in over-grinding and an increase in circulating load.

Conversely, too much water will decrease slurry density and the grinding media's

effectiveness.

 iii. Ore Hardness:

o Effect: A harder ore requires more energy to grind to a given size.

o Impact: A harder ore will result in a coarser mill product for the same energy

input or a reduced mill throughput to achieve the target grind size.

e.. With the aid of a diagram explain the mechanism of separation in Dense Medium
Separation

(DMS). [5]

The mechanism relies on Archimedes' Principle and the principle of flotation and settling.
The

process uses a fluid (the dense medium) with a specific gravity intermediate to that of the

valuable mineral and the gangue.

The diagram shows a typical DMS cone or vessel.

1. Medium Recovery: The dense medium is typically recovered and recycled through a

magnetic separator and dewatering screens.

2. Feed Inlet: Crushed and sized ore is fed into the vessel along with the dense medium.

3. Dense Medium: The medium is a suspension of fine, heavy particles (e.g., ferrosilicon)

in water, which gives the slurry a specific gravity higher than water.

4. Separation Zone: As the ore and medium mixture enters the vessel, particles with a
specific gravity lower than the medium's (the "lights") are buoyant and float to the top.

Particles with a specific gravity higher than the medium's (the "heavies") sink through

the medium to the bottom.

5. Overflow Weir: The floating light particles are carried over a weir and collected as one

product.

6. Underflow Discharge: The sinking heavy particles are collected at the bottom and

discharged as the second product. rewrite in another version

Unit Operations in Mineral Processing

Mineral processing involves several key operations to separate valuable minerals from waste
materials. These include:

 Comminution: This is the process of reducing the size of ore particles. It begins with
crushing the ore as it comes from the mine and finishes with grinding it into a fine
powder using mills.
 Concentration: This aims to separate the valuable minerals from the waste material
(gangue) using methods like:
o Gravity Separation: Separates minerals based on their density.
o Magnetic Separation: Separates minerals based on their magnetic properties.
o Electrostatic Separation: Separates minerals based on differences in their
electrical conductivity.
o Froth Flotation: A process where valuable mineral particles are made
hydrophobic (water-repelling) so they can attach to air bubbles and float to the
surface.
 Leaching: This process dissolves valuable minerals using a solvent to separate them
from the ore.

Thickener Control Equipment

Thickeners are used to separate solids from liquids in a slurry. The equipment used to control
their operation includes:

 Underflow Density Sensor: Measures the density of the thick slurry at the bottom to
manage its flow rate.
 Torque Meter: Measures the rotational resistance of the rake, which indicates the
amount of solids present.
 Slurry Level Sensor: Monitors the height of the slurry to prevent overflow.
 Polymer Flocculent Dosing System: Controls the amount of flocculant added to the
slurry to aid in proper settling.
 Underflow Pump: Controls the discharge rate of the thickened slurry.
Classification in the Milling Plant

Classification is essential in a milling plant for these reasons:

 Prevents Over-Grinding: It separates fine particles that have already been ground
from the coarse ones. This prevents valuable energy from being wasted on grinding
particles that are already small enough.
 Increases Grinding Efficiency: Coarse particles are returned to the mill for more
grinding, ensuring the mill is always working on particles that need size reduction,
which maximizes its efficiency.
 Controls Product Size: The classifier controls the final particle size of the ground
ore, which is important for downstream processes like flotation or leaching that
require a specific size to work effectively.

Industrial Screens Used in Crushing Plants

Four industrial screens used in crushing plants are:

 Grizzly Screen: A screen with widely spaced bars used for primary screening of large
ore to protect the crusher from oversized material.
 Vibrating Screen: The most common type of screen, it uses vibration to classify
particles. It can have multiple decks for sorting into different sizes.
 Trommel Screen: A rotating, cylindrical screen used for sizing and washing material.
 Static Sieve Bend Screen: A curved screen used for dewatering or sizing fine
particles, which works using gravity and centrifugal force.

Froth Flotation Process

Froth flotation is a key mineral separation process that separates hydrophobic (water-
repelling) minerals from hydrophilic (water-loving) ones. The process takes place in a
flotation cell where finely ground ore is mixed with water.

Chemical reagents are added to the mixture:

 Collectors coat the target mineral particles, making them water-repelling.

 Frothers create a stable layer of bubbles.
 Activators or depressants can be used to control which minerals float.

Air is then pumped into the cell. The hydrophobic mineral particles attach to the rising air
bubbles and form a froth on the surface, which is collected. The hydrophilic gangue particles
remain in the slurry and are discharged as tailings.
Dense Medium Separation (DMS)

Dense Medium Separation (DMS) separates minerals based on their specific gravity. The
process uses a dense medium, which is a fine mixture of a heavy solid (like ferrosilicon) and
water. The density of this mixture is carefully controlled to be in between the densities of the
valuable minerals and the waste material.

The separation mechanism is based on Archimedes' Principle:

 When ore is introduced into the dense medium, particles with a specific gravity lower
than the medium's density will float on the surface. These are the lighter, less valuable
gangue minerals, called "floats".
 Particles with a specific gravity greater than the medium's density will sink. These are
the heavier, valuable minerals, called "sinks".
 The floats and sinks are then collected separately.

Comminution Theories

These are three main theories that describe the energy required for comminution:

 Rittinger's Theory: Energy is directly proportional to the new surface area created
during size reduction. The formula is E=K(1/d2−1/d 1), where E is the energy, and d1
and d2 are the initial and final particle sizes.
 Kick's Theory: Energy is proportional to the reduction in the volume or mass of the
particles. The formula is E=K(log R/log 2), where E is the energy and R is the
reduction ratio.
 Bond's Theory (Bond's Law): Energy is proportional to the new crack length
produced in the material. The formula is W=10Wi/p−10Wif, where W is the work
input, and Wi is the Bond Work Index.

Working Principle of a Shaking Table

A shaking table has a riffled deck that is slightly inclined in two directions. A slurry of ore
and water is fed onto the table, which is subjected to a shaking motion with a slow forward
stroke and a rapid return stroke.

The shaking motion moves the particles along the table. Lighter particles are carried over the
riffles by the water flow and are discharged as tailings. Heavier particles settle between the
riffles and are propelled forward by the shaking motion toward the concentrate discharge end.

Ball Mill Operating Speed

The operating speed of a ball mill is calculated as a percentage of its critical speed, which is
the speed at which the grinding media (balls) are held against the mill liner by centrifugal
force.

Calculation:

 Critical Speed (Nc): Nc=(42.3/D−d)

o D = internal diameter of the mill = 2 m
o d = diameter of the balls = 0.1 m
o Nc=42.3/2−0.1=30.69 rpm
 Operating Speed (No): The mill operates at 70% of the critical speed.
o No=0.70×Nc=0.70×30.69≈21.48 rpm

Sorting Methods in Mineral Processing

Sorting methods separate individual particles from crushed ore based on a specific property:

 Color Sorting (Optical Sorting): Uses optical sensors to separate particles based on
their color or how they reflect light.
 Magnetic Sorting: Detects the magnetic susceptibility of particles. It is used to
separate magnetic minerals like magnetite from non-magnetic ones.
 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Sorting: Uses X-ray fluorescence to identify the
elemental composition of individual particles.

Factors Affecting Screening Efficiency

Screening efficiency is influenced by:

 Screen Media Type: The material and shape of the screen's openings.
 Particle Shape and Size Distribution: Irregularly shaped particles can clog screen
openings.
 Screen Deck Angle and Motion: The angle and type of motion affect how quickly
material passes over the screen.
 Open Area: A larger open area generally leads to better efficiency.
 Moisture Content: Wet or sticky material can clump together and "blind" the screen,
reducing efficiency.
 Feed Rate: A high feed rate can overload the screen, reducing the time particles have
to pass through.
Tools