Updated July 30, 2025

World Trade Organization

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international (Table 1). The WTO’s diverse membership and the “single
organization established in 1995 following the ratification undertaking” approach (i.e., nothing is agreed until
of the Uruguay Round Agreements, and today includes 166 everything is agreed) made consensus on the broad Doha
members. It succeeded the 1947 General Agreement on mandate difficult. These aspects continue to beset WTO
Tariffs and Trade (GATT), created as part of the U.S. and talks today. Doha was generally characterized by persistent
Europe-led post-World War II effort to build a stable, open differences among developed and developing country
global trading system. The WTO’s basic functions include: members across major issues, including market access.
administering its trade agreements; serving as a negotiating Agriculture, where multilateral solutions arguably remain
forum for trade liberalization and rules; and providing a ideal, is among the thorniest issues left on the Doha
dispute settlement (DS) process to resolve disputes. WTO agenda—see CRS In Focus IF11906, Agriculture in the
agreements cover trade in goods, agriculture and services; WTO’s 12th Ministerial Conference (MC12). Doha’s legacy
remove tariff and nontariff barriers; and establish rules on may be the successful negotiation of the 2013 Trade
government practices relating to trade (e.g., trade remedies, Facilitation Agreement, which removes customs obstacles
technical barriers to trade (TBT), intellectual property rights at the border.
(IPR), government procurement). The agreements are based Table 1. GATT/WTO Rounds
on the core principles of nondiscrimination—most-favored
Year Round Subjects covered Members
nation (MFN) and national treatment, fair competition, and
transparency. WTO rules also allow for exceptions, such as 1947- Geneva, Five rounds of tariff reductions 23 (1947);
preferential treatment/flexibilities for developing countries. 1961 Annecy, 26 (1961)
Torquay,
The GATT/WTO system over time has led to a significant Geneva
reduction of trade barriers, supported trade expansion and II, Dillon
economic growth, and helped manage trade frictions. At the
1964- Kennedy Tariffs, antidumping measures 62
same time, the WTO faces serious challenges. One key 1967
concern of WTO members and observers is that the WTO is
losing relevance due to its inability to adapt to the modern 1973- Tokyo Tariffs, antidumping, subsidies, TBT, 102
1979 government procurement
global economy. For decades, members have struggled to
negotiate a successful round of major trade liberalization 1986- Uruguay Tariffs, nontariff measures, rules, 123
since 1994. In recent years, many have increasingly 1994 services, IPR, dispute settlement,
textiles, agriculture, WTO institution
resorted to measures that may violate core trade rules.
Moreover, challenges, such as the COVID-19 pandemic 2001- Doha Tariffs, nontariff measures, agriculture, 142 (2001);
and Russia’s war in Ukraine, have disrupted global trade 2015* services, trade facilitation, trade 166
remedies, and development (current)
and supply chains and prompted trade-related responses.
WTO members are considering various reforms to the Source: CRS based on the WTO.
institution in attempts to safeguard and improve it. Note: *In 2015, WTO members failed to reaffirm Doha’s mandates.
In statute, Congress has recognized the WTO as the Ministerial Conference (MC) Prospects
“foundation of the global trading system” and has a The MC is the WTO’s top decisionmaking body, and the
legislative and oversight role over WTO agreements. Some MC biennial meeting is generally seen as an action-forcing
Members have expressed support for WTO reforms, new event. WTO members held their latest ministerial (MC13)
rules, and U.S. leadership (e.g., 118th Cong., [Link]. 202, S. in February 2024, with the next scheduled for March 2026.
446). Others have criticized the WTO and oppose U.S. Members did not announce major outcomes, but sought to
participation (e.g., [Link] 93). The Trump Administration take stock of progress and build on achievements reached in
has expressed skepticism toward the WTO, criticized the 2022 at MC12, which many observers had viewed as
lack of reciprocity in WTO members’ trade concessions, boosting the WTO’s credibility. MC12 outcomes included a
and significantly increased U.S. tariffs. The Administration limited multilateral agreement on fisheries subsidies, which
has also withheld U.S. contributions to the WTO’s annual commits members to curb certain harmful subsidies. The
budget for the first time, as it conducts a broader review of deal, which was subject to prolonged talks since 2001, was
U.S. participation in international organizations. Amid notable as the only current multilateral negotiation within
debate over the WTO’s future, key issues facing Congress the WTO and first to cover sustainability issues. Members
include the effect of WTO agreements on the U.S. have continued talks on issues left out of the deal—see CRS
economy, outcomes of reform and negotiation efforts, and In Focus IF11929, World Trade Organization Fisheries
the value of U.S. membership and leadership in the WTO. Subsidies Negotiations. Other MC12 decisions involved
The Doha Round WTO responses to emergencies, food insecurity, and
The Doha Development Agenda, the most recent “round” pandemics.
of multilateral WTO negotiations, was launched in 2001, In 2024 at MC13, after overcoming opposition of India and
but ended in stalemate in 2015 with no clear path forward some others, WTO members agreed to extend a moratorium

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on e-commerce duties until 2026. Members also sought to issues like digital trade, state-owned enterprises, and
clarify roadmaps toward WTO reform, including on DS, climate change that pose challenges to the trading system.
and bridge persistent differences in agriculture and in the U.S. officials contend that WTO rules were not designed to
second phase of fisheries talks, which ultimately had failed effectively handle the challenges of China’s statist trade
to conclude. Members formally approved the accessions of practices. Past U.S. talks with the EU and Japan explored
Comoros and Timor-Leste as the newest WTO members. strengthening rules on such issues, e.g., industrial subsidies.
Plurilateral Initiatives Whether Trump officials will prioritize such issues within
While multilateral efforts have generally progressed slowly, the WTO or plurilateral efforts is an open question.
various plurilateral talks among subsets of WTO members COVID-19. Since 2020, WTO members have focused on
are underway. The United States and others support COVID-19 related global trade and economic disruptions,
plurilateral deals as a key means to address priority issues which tested coordination in trade policies, upset supply
on the global trade agenda. Some members are concerned chains, and spurred trade protectionism. Many viewed the
that plurilaterals could marginalize non-participating WTO as playing an important role in tackling the trade
countries, or allow “free riders” to benefit from others’ challenges and vulnerabilities revealed by the pandemic.
commitments. Agreements with U.S. membership include WTO members agreed at MC12 to a five-year waiver and
• Government Procurement Agreement (GPA). clarifications of certain WTO provisions concerning patents
Revised in 2014, provides market access for various and compulsory licenses for COVID-19 vaccines. In 2024,
nondefense government projects to its 49 signatories. members affirmed “consensus could not be reached” on
• Information Technology Agreement (ITA). In 2015, extending the waiver to diagnostics and therapeutics.
members expanded the 1996 ITA product coverage for WTO Reform. WTO members have agreed to advance
duty-free treatment (applied on an MFN basis). reforms, but have yet to achieve concrete outcomes. WTO
• Joint Initiative on Services Domestic Regulation. members committed “to improve all [WTO] functions”
Entering into force in 2024, 72 members agreed to through a process that is “Member-driven, open,
facilitate services trade by improving transparency on transparent, inclusive.” U.S. top priorities have included
domestic processes and addressing regulatory barriers. improving WTO transparency and members’ compliance
Other plurilateral talks include the Joint Initiative on E- with notification requirements, and reforming use of special
commerce with the United States and over 90 members. In and differential treatment for developing countries. Many
2023, the Biden Administration withdrew U.S. support for U.S. frustrations are shared by other WTO members, but
certain provisions under negotiation, citing need for policy approaches to solutions differ and remain contentious,
space to reconsider domestic regulations and issues like particularly for DS reform. Many question the sustainability
data flows. The United States is also part of the Trade and of the DS system given members’ inability to agree to
Environmental Sustainability Structured Discussions, which reforms and negotiate new agreements, thus preventing key
focus on trade-related climate measures and environmental trade issues from being adjudicated. Successive U.S.
goods and services. It remains to be seen what positions the Administrations and some Members of Congress have long
Trump Administration may take on these talks. expressed concerns about DS, alleging “judicial overreach”
Ongoing Challenges in panel decisions. The U.S. blocking of Appellate Body
Since the Doha Round, WTO members continue to debate a appointments led to the body ceasing to function in 2019. In
path forward. While MC12 appeared to reenergize efforts 2020, the EU, China, and other members put into effect an
and optimism for some, others criticized key issues left appeal arbitration arrangement to hear their own cases. At
aside and slow progress made during 2024. Many WTO MC13, members had reaffirmed the commitment to achieve
members concur that the WTO must reform its negotiating, “a fully and well-functioning” DS system accessible to all
monitoring, and DS functions to remain effective. The WTO members by 2024; this deadline was not met.
impact of WTO agreements and prospects for ongoing talks Tariffs and Trade Enforcement. Some WTO members
remain oversight issues for Congress. In 2024, House Ways and observers are concerned that tariffs imposed since the
and Means held a hearing on advancing U.S. interests at first Trump Administration and counter-tariffs by U.S.
MC13. Members of Congress have expressed views on trading partners have strained the WTO and DS system. In
WTO negotiating priorities in legislation and urged U.S. this view, unilateral measures, some pursued in the name of
engagement and leadership in specific areas. P.L. 103-465, national or economic security, could undermine the WTO’s
which approved and implemented the Uruguay Round credibility and lead to new restrictions. Pandemic-related
Agreements, established procedures by which every five trade restrictions since 2020 amplified such concerns,
years, Members may consider a joint resolution to withdraw though WTO rules permit flexibility for governments to
congressional approval of WTO agreements and end U.S. impose temporary measures justified by national security or
participation (§125). Such a resolution ([Link] 93) was health crises. U.S. trade officials maintain that a country’s
introduced on April 10, 2025—see CRS In Focus IF12997, “essential security interests” is self-judging and not
Congressional Review of U.S. Membership in the WTO. reviewable by DS panels, despite adverse panel decisions
Negotiating Agenda. WTO members’ ability to negotiate against the United States over its tariffs. Across-the-board
rules is central to WTO legitimacy, but “hostage-taking” tariffs imposed in 2025 by President Trump, could heighten
tactics and elusive consensus often stymie progress. Some trade frictions and complicate cooperation in the WTO.
issues, such as agricultural subsidies and public stock-
holding programs, remain contentious and unresolved from Cathleen D. Cimino-Isaacs, Analyst in International Trade
the Doha agenda. Further, with the emergence since 1995 and Finance
of new trade barriers, global supply chains, and technology IF10002
advances, countries have sought to address “21st century”

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[Link] | IF10002 · VERSION 40 · UPDATED