The Bombay Salesian Society’s

Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70

Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

Module 1 Introduction to Network Architectures, Protocol Layers, and Service

models
Syllabus
1.1 Applications of computer networks. Network types: LAN, MAN, and WAN, Network
topologies. 1.2 Protocols and standards, need of layered protocol architecture, OSI
reference model. 1.3 TCP/IP architecture: protocol suite, comparison of OSI and TCP/IP
1.4 Layer wise network hardware devices (NIC, Repeaters, Hubs, Bridges, Switches,
Routers, Gateway and their comparison) 1.5 Addressing: physical / logical /port
addressing/socket addressing.

Q. What is a computer network?

A Computer network consists of two or more autonomous computers that are linked
(connected) together in order to:

· Share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines).

· Share Application software like MS Office.
· Allow Electronic communication.
· Increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users).

Figure 1 shows people working in a networked environment. The Computers on a

network may be linked through Cables, telephones lines, radio waves, satellites etc.

A Computer network includes the network operating system in the client and server
machines, the cables, which connect different computers and all supporting hardware ill
between such as bridges, routers and switches. In wireless systems, antennas and towers
are also part of the network.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 1

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Computer networks are generally classified according to their structure and the area they
are localized in as:

Local Area Network (LAN): The network that spans a relatively Small area that is, in
the single building or campus is known as LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): The type of computer network that is, designed
for a city or town is known as MAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that covers a large geographical area and
covers different cities, states and sometimes even countries, is known as WAN.

The additional characteristics that are also used to categories different types of networks
are:

Topology: Topology is the graphical arrangement of computer systems in a network.

Common topologies include a bus, star, ring, and mesh.

Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules which are used by computers on
the network that communicate between hardware and software entities. One of the most
popular protocols for LANs is the Ethernet. Another popular LAN protocol for PCs is the
token-ring network.

Architecture: Networks can be broadly classified as using either a peer-to-peer or

client/server architecture.

1.2 Network Goals and Motivations

One of the main goals of a computer network is to enable its users to share resources, to
provide low cost facilities and easy addition of new processing services. The computer
network thus, creates a global environment for its users and computers.

Some of the basic goals that a Computer network should satisfy are:
· Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources.
· Provide high reliability by having multiple sources of supply.
· Provide an efficient means of transport for large volumes of data among
various locations (High throughput).
· Provide inter-process communication among users and processors.
· Increase productivity by making it easier to share data amongst users.

1.3 Classification of Networks

Depending on the transmission technology i.e., whether the network contains switching
elements or not, we have two types of networks:

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 2

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
 Broadcast networks.
 Point-to-point or Switched networks.

1.3.1 Broadcast Networks

Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network. In this type of network, short messages sent by any machine
are received by all the machines on the network. The packet contains an address field,
which specifies for whom the packet is intended. All the machines, upon receiving a
packet check for the address field, if the packet is intended for itself, it processes it and if
not the packet is just ignored.

1.3.2 Point-to-Point or Switched Networks

Point-to-point or switched, networks are those in which there are many connections
between individual pairs of machines. In these networks, when a packet travels from
source to destination it may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines.
Routing algorithms play an important role in Point-to-point or Switched networks
because often multiple routes of different lengths are available.

Lecture 2

1.4 Network Topology

Q. What are the various types of network topology? What are the implications of
having different topology?

Topology refers to the shape of a network, or the network’s layout. How different nodes
in a network are connected to each other and how they communicate with each other is
determined by the network’s topology. Topologies are either physical or logical.

Some of the most common network topologies are:

 Bus topology
 Star topology
 Ring topology
 Tree topology

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 3

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
 Mesh topology


The parameters that are to be considered while selecting a physical topology are:
 Ease of installation.



1.4.1 Bus Topology

In Bus topology, all devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone.
The bus topology connects workstations using a single
cable. Each workstation is connected to the next workstation in a point to-
point fashion. All workstations connect to the same cable. Figure 2 shows computers
connected using Bus Topology. It may be affected as all workstations share the same
cable for the sending and receiving of information. The cabling cost of bus systems is the
least of all the different topologies. Each end of the cable is terminated using a special
terminator.
The common implementation of this topology is Ethernet. Here, message transmitted by
one workstation is heard by all the other workstations.

Advantages of Bus Topology


 nections are simple and this topology is easy to use.


Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Used only in comparatively small networks.
 As all computers share the same bus, the performance of the network deteriorates
when we increase the number of computers beyond a certain limit.
 Fault identification is difficult.
 A single fault in the cable stops all transmission.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 4

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
1.4.2 Star Topology

Start topology uses a central hub through which, all components are connected. In a Star
topology, the central hub is the host computer, and at the end of each connection is a
terminal as shown in Figure 3. Nodes communicate across the network by passing data
through the hub. A star network uses a significant amount of cable as each terminal is
wired back to the central hub, even if two terminals are side by side but several hundred
meters away from the host. The central hub makes all routing decisions, and all other
workstations can be simple.

An advantage of the star topology is, that failure, in one of the terminals does not affect
any other terminal; however, failure of the central hub affects all terminals. This type of
topology is frequently used to connect terminals to a large time-sharing host computer.

Advantages of Star Topology

 Installation and configuration of network is easy.
 Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.
 Faults in the network can be easily traced.
 Expansion and modification of star network is easy.
Single computer failure does not affect the network. Supports multiple cable types like
shielded twisted pair cable, unshielded twisted pair cable, ordinary telephone cable etc.

Disadvantages of Star Topology


 More cabling is required in comparison to tree or bus topology because each node
is connected to the central hub.

1.4.3 Ring Topology

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 5

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

In Ring Topology all devices are connected to one another in the shape
of a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other devices, one on
either side of it, i.e., the ring topology connects workstations in a closed loop, which is
depicted in Figure 4 Each terminal is connected to two other terminals (the next and the
previous), with the last terminal being connected to the first. Data is transmitted around
the ring in one direction only; each station passing on the data to the next station till it
reaches its destination.
Information travels around the ring from one workstation to the next. Each packet of data
sent on the ring is prefixed by the address of the station to which it is being sent. When a
packet of data arrives, the workstation checks to see if the packet address is the same as
its own, if it is, it grabs the data in the packet. If the packet does not belong to it, it sends
the packet to the next workstation in the ring.
Faulty workstations can be isolated from the ring. When the workstation is powered on, it
connects itself to the ring. When power is off, it disconnects itself from the ring and
allows the information to bypass the workstation. The common implementation of this
topology is token ring. A break in the ring causes the entire network to fail. Individual
workstations can be isolated from the ring.
 Advantages of Ring Topology

 Fault isolation is simplified.
 Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in Ring topology because the tokens
are data packets that are re-generated at each node.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 g computers disrupts the entire network.
 network.
 Finding fault is difficult.
 Expensive when compared to other topologies.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 6

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

1.4.4 Tree Topology

Tree topology is a LAN topology in which only one route exists between any two nodes
on the network. The pattern of connection resembles a tree in which all branches spring
from one root. Figure 5 shows computers connected using Tree Topology.

Tree topology is a hybrid topology, it is similar to the star topology but

the nodes are connected to the secondary hub, which in turn is connected to the central
hub. In this topology groups of star-configured networks are connected to a linear bus
backbone.

Advantages of Tree Topology


 Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.

 attached to
the central hub.
 multiple cable types like shielded twisted pair cable,
 Unshielded twisted pair cable, ordinary telephone cable etc.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology


 More cabling is required when compared to bus topology because each node is
connected to the central hub.

1.4.5 Mesh Topology

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 7

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between network nodes. In
a well-connected topology, every node has a connection to every other node in the
network. The cable requirements are high, but there are redundant paths built in. Failure
in one of the computers does not cause the network to break down, as they have
alternative paths to other computers.

Mesh topologies are used in critical connection of host computers (typically telephone
exchanges). Alternate paths allow each computer to balance the load to other computer
systems in the network by using more than one of the connection paths available. A fully
connected mesh network therefore has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. To
accommodate these, every device on the network must have (n-l) input/output ports.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Use of dedicated links eliminates traffic problems.
 Failure in one of the computers does not affect the entire network.
 -to-point link makes fault isolation easy.

 Privacy between computers is maintained as messages travel along dedicated path.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology


 number of I/O (input/output) ports are required.

1.4.6 Cellular Topology

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 8

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

Cellular topology, divides the area being serviced into cells. In wireless media each point
transmits in a certain geographical area called a cell, each cell represents a portion of the
total network area. Figure 7 shows computers using Cellular Topology. Devices that are
present within the cell, communicate through a central hub. Hubs in different cells are
interconnected and hubs are responsible for routing data across the network. They
provide a complete network infrastructure. Cellular topology is applicable only incase of
wireless media that does not require cable connection.

Advantages of Cellular Topology

 If the hubs maintain a point-to-point link with devices, trouble shooting is easy.
 Hub-to-hub fault tracking is more complicated, but allows simple fault isolation.

Disadvantages of Cellular Topology

When a hub fails, all devices serviced by the hub lose service (are affected).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1) List the importance of using computer networks in Airline and
Railway reservation systems?
2) What are the various types of networks??
3) Compare Tree topology with Star topology.
4) Suppose we have~ to add new nodes to the network, then which is the best suited
topology and why?

Q. Explain OSI reference model and the services and the functions of each layer.
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a structured framework designed for
developing and standardizing network systems, facilitating communication between
diverse computer systems. This model is divided into seven distinct yet interrelated layers,
each representing a specific function in the process of transmitting information across a
network.

The Seven Layers of the OSI Model:

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 9

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Network Support Layers (Layers 1, 2, and 3):

These include the Physical, Data Link, and Network layers. They manage the physical
aspects of data transmission, such as electrical specifications, physical connections,
addressing, timing, and reliability. Their primary role is to ensure data is effectively
transmitted from one device to another.

User Support Layers (Layers 5, 6, and 7):

These encompass the Session, Presentation, and Application layers. They enable
interoperability between unrelated software systems and ensure seamless communication
between applications on different devices.

Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Serving as a bridge between the two subgroups, the Transport layer ensures that the data
transmitted by the lower layers is in a format usable by the upper layers. It is responsible
for maintaining data integrity and reliability during communication.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 10

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

Figure 2: The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Functions of each of the layer are described below:
1. Physical Layer: It is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop
(node) to the next.
Functions:
i. To activate, maintain and deactivate the physical connection
ii. To define voltages and data rates needed for transmission
iii. To convert digital bits into electrical signal
iv. To decide whether the transmission is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex.
v. A physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media (Line
configuration).
vi. It also defines the physical topology.
vii. It also helps in synchronization of bits.
2. Data Link layer: It transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility to a
reliable link. It is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next i.e Hop-
to-Hop delivery.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 11

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Functions:
i. Framing: The layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
ii. Physical addressing: It adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the
sender and/or receiver of the frame.
iii. Flow Control: It provides a flow control mechanism to avoid a fast transmitter from
over-running a slow receiver by buffering the extra bits.
iv. Error control: It is achieved by adding a trailer at the end of the frame. It also uses a
mechanism to prevent duplication of frames.
v. Access Control: The layer determines which device has control over the link at any
given time, when two or more devices are connected to the same link.
3. Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host i.e End to End delivery or source to
destination delivery.
Functions:
i. It translates logical network address into physical machine address i.e. the numbers
used as destination IDs in the physical network cards.
ii. It determines the quality of service by deciding the priority of message and then route
a message will take if there are several ways a message can get to its destination.
iii. It breaks the larger packets into smaller packets if the packet is larger than the largest
data frame the data link will accept
iv. Routers and gateways operate in the network layer.
4. Transport layer: It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire
message i.e. source to destination delivery of the entire message. It ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, ensuring both error control and flow control at source
destination level.
Functions:
i. Segmentation and re-assembly: It divides each message into packets at the source and
reassembles than at the destination.
ii. Service point addressing The transport layer header H4 includes service point to
deliver a specific process from source to a specific process at the destination.
iii. Connector Control: The layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
iv. Flow Control: It provides end-to-end flow control rather than across a single link.
v. Error Control: It ensures that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer
without error.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 12

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
5. Session Layer: It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization i.e it is network
dialog controller. It establishes maintains and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems.
6. Presentation Layer: It is responsible for translation, compression and encryption. It is
concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
7. Application Layer: It is responsible for providing services to the user. It provides
services that directly support user application such as database access, e-mail, file
transfer.

Q. Explain TCP/IP model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol, which form the
foundation of the modern Internet architecture. These protocols establish a set of rules
that govern communication over a network, describing how data moves between a source
and destination across the internet. They also provide simple naming and addressing
schemes to facilitate communication.

Layers of the TCP/IP Model:

1. Host-to-Network Layer (Layer 1):

o This is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 13

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
o It involves protocols used to connect to the host, enabling packet
transmission over the network.
o The implementation varies depending on the host and network.
2. Internet Layer (Layer 2):
o This layer is responsible for selecting a connectionless packet-switching
network, commonly referred to as the Internet layer.
o It serves as the backbone of the TCP/IP architecture.
o It allows packets to travel independently to their destination, where their
arrival order may differ from their sent order.
o The Internet Protocol (IP) operates at this layer.
3. Transport Layer (Layer 3):
o This layer determines whether data should be transmitted via parallel or
single paths.
o Functions like multiplexing, segmenting, or splitting of data are performed
here.
o Applications can directly interact with the transport layer to send or
receive data.
o The transport layer adds header information to the data for proper
transmission.
o It has two protocols TCP and UDP
o TCP is transmission control protocol which is reliable
o UDP is userdatagram protocol which is unreliable
4. Application Layer (Layer 4):
o This layer includes various applications described in the TCP/IP
specifications, such as TELNET, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.
 TELNET: A two-way communication protocol enabling remote
access to a machine to run applications.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A reliable, simple, and efficient
protocol for transferring files between networked computers.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): Used to transmit
electronic mail from source to destination through specified routes.
 DNS (Domain Name System): Converts IP addresses into human-
readable textual addresses for networked hosts.

Merits of the TCP/IP Model:

 Operates independently of underlying hardware.

 Highly scalable.
 Supports a client/server architecture.
 Compatible with multiple routing protocols.
 Facilitates connections between computers.

Demerits of the TCP/IP Model:

 The transport layer does not guarantee packet delivery.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 14

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
 The model is not adaptable for other applications outside its intended scope.
 Protocol replacement within the model is challenging.
 Services, interfaces, and protocols are not distinctly separated.

Differentiate between OSI ISO and TCP/IP model

OSI (Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP (Transmission Control

Protocol / Internet Protocol)

1. OSI is a generic, protocol independent 1. TCP/IP model is based on standard

standard, acting as a communication gateway protocols around which the Internet has
between the network and end user. developed. It is a communication
protocol, which allows connection of
hosts over a network.

2. Follows vertical approach. 2. Follows horizontal approach.

3. OSI model has a separate Presentation 3. TCP/IP does not have a separate
layer and Session layer. Presentation layer or Session layer.

4. OSI is a reference model around which the 4. TCP/IP model is, in a way
networks are built. Generally it is used as a implementation of the OSI model.
guidance tool.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 15

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

OSI (Open System Interconnection) TCP/IP (Transmission Control

Protocol / Internet Protocol)

5. Network layer of OSI model provides 5. The Network layer in TCP/IP model
both,connection oriented and connectionless provides connectionless service.
service.

6. Protocols are hidden in OSI model and 6. In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not
are,easily replaced as the technology changes. easy.

7. OSI model defines services, interfaces 7. In TCP/IP, services, interfaces

and,protocols very clearly and makes clear and,protocols are not clearly separated. It
distinction between them. It is,protocol is also protocol dependent.
independent.

8. It has 7 layers 8. It has 4 layers

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 16

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Q, Explain Networking and Internetworking Devices

Networking Devices:
Repeater
A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its main function is to amplify (i.e., regenerate)
the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. When the
signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology
connectors connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
Switch:
A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before
forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have
errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.
Layer 2 Switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model and
are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network segment.
Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model and can
route data between different network segments. They are more advanced than Layer 2
switches and are often used in larger, more complex networks

.Bridges:

 A bridge operates in the physical layer as well as in the data link layer. It can
regenerate the signal that it receives and as a data link layer device, it can check
the physical (MAC) addresses of source and destination contained in the frame. - -
The major difference between the bridge and the repeater is that the bridge and
the repeater is that the bridge has a filtering capability.
 That means it can check the destination address of a frame and decide if the frame
should be forwarded or dropped. If the frame is forwarded, then the bridge should
specify the port over which it should be forwarded.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 17

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN

Hub:
Passive Hubs
A passive hub is just a connector. It connects the wires coming from different branches.
In a star-topology Ethernet LAN, a passive hub is just a point where the signals coming
from different stations collide; the hub is the collision point. This type of a hub is part of
the media; its location in the Internet model is below the physical layer.
Active Hubs :
An active hub is actually a multipart repeater. It is normally used to create connections
between stations in a physical star topology. We have seen examples of hubs in some
Ethernet implementations (lOBaseT, for example). However, hubs can also be used to
create multiple levels of hierarchy, as shown in Figure. The hierarchical use of hubs
removes the length limitation of 10Base-T (100 m).

Internetworking Devices

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 18

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Router:

 A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical

addresses (host-to-host addressing).
 A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing
table that is used for making decisions about the route. The routing tables are
normally dynamic and are updated using routing protocols.
 Data is grouped into packets, or blocks of data. Each packet has a physical device
address as well as logical network address. The network address allows routers to
calculate the optimal path to a workstation or computer.

Gateway:

 A gateway is normally a computer that operates in all five layers of the Internet or
seven layers of OSI model. A gateway takes an application message, reads it, and
interprets it.
 This means that it can be used as a connecting device between two internetworks
that use different models. For example, a network designed to use the OSI model
can be connected to another network using the Internet model.
 The gateway connecting the two systems can take a frame as it arrives from the
first system, move it up to the OSI application layer, and remove the message.

Q. Discuss the different types of addresses used in the TCP/IP protocol.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 19

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
Four levels of addresses are used in the TCP/IP protocol: physical address, logical
address, port address, and application-specific address as shown in Figure.

Physical Addresses

A physical address, also known as a link address, is the unique identifier of a node as
defined by its LAN or WAN. The size and format of these addresses depend on the
specific network. For instance, Ethernet utilizes a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address.
Physical addresses can be of three types:

 Unicast: Addressing a single recipient.

 Multicast: Addressing a group of recipients.
 Broadcast: Addressing all systems in the network.

Example: Most local area networks use 48-bit (6-byte) physical addresses written as 12
hexadecimal digits, with each byte (2 hexadecimal digits) separated by a colon, such as
07:01:02:01:2C:4B.

Logical Addresses

Logical addresses are used by networking software to ensure packets remain independent
of the network’s physical connection, allowing compatibility across various network
topologies and media types.

In the Internet, a logical address is typically a 32-bit address that uniquely identifies a
host connected to the Internet, as in IPv4.
Example: An IPv4 address represented in decimal form, such as [Link].

Key characteristics:

 Each publicly visible host must have a unique IP address.

 Logical addresses remain unchanged during data transmission, even as physical
addresses may change from hop to hop.
 Logical addresses can also be unicast, multicast, or broadcast, though broadcast
addresses are subject to certain limitations.

Port Addresses

Computers often run multiple applications simultaneously, each identified by a logical

port number. A port number is a crucial part of the addressing information, enabling the
identification of message senders and receivers.

 Port numbers are widely used in TCP/IP connections.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 20

 The Bombay Salesian Society’s
Don Bosco Institute of Technology Kurla (W)-70
Department of Electronics and Telecommunication
Lecture Notes: CCN
 They allow multiple applications on the same computer to share network
resources concurrently.

Example: A port address is a 16-bit number, such as 753.

While physical addresses may change from hop to hop, logical and port addresses
typically remain constant during communication.

Application-Specific Addresses

Certain applications use user-friendly addresses designed for their specific purposes.

Examples:

 E-mail address: forouzan@[Link], which identifies an email recipient.

 Universal Resource Locator (URL): [Link], which is used to locate a
document on the World Wide Web.

Notes Prepared by-Aparna M. Telgote 21