Knight, N., & Heazle, M. (2011).

Understanding Australia’s Neighbours: An

Introduction to East and Southeast Asia
Introduction:

Reactions to European Colonialism:

-​ Local elites enjoyed the expanded economic and social privileges that support for the
colonial administration brought (Zainuddin, 1928).
-​ While others came to resent the great gap that existed between the societies of those
that were able to get to Europe and the prosperity and technological advancement of
Europe.
-​ This is because they realised that in material terms that it was colonialism that
was responsible for the relative backwardness and poverty of their people.
-​ Then they concluded that independence from these colonizers would reduce this
great gap.

Knight and Heazle makes a compelling case of the correlation between nationalism and
socialism:
-​ They talked about how post-colonial society is influenced by both nationalism and
socialism but they propose that they cannot be more important than the other but rather
they work in concert with one another in the age of independences.
-​ Some that propose that communism and socialism isplays a significant factor is because
even though the leaders talked about nationalism they still steered their nation towards
socialism
-​ Nationalism was the idea while the ideals of socialism was used to mobilise the masses
of people behind their banner.
-​ If this is the case then post-colonial era can be considered as assuming a more
substantial significance: social revolution

Global influences:
-​ U.S. administrations underestimated the force of nationalism in East and Southeast Asia
-​ Exaggerated the influence of communism and its capacity to unite parties and
governments in diff countries
-​ Nationalist sentiments made sure of this
-​ But this does not mean that communist ideals are totally lost on influencing nationalist
leaders
-​ If this is so then how do we explain the economic and social policies
implemented by these leaders on coming to power?

Nationalism:

Nationalism is not only determined by language but also their racial, physical characteristics,
religions, and shared natural boundaries.
 -​ Beyond this, there is reference to a less tangible dimension of nationalismL
-​ Soul / spiritual principles that united the people of one nation wherever they may
be
-​ An imagined political community to which they belong
-​ Deep horizontal comradeship
-​ Nations are imagined or invented
-​ They provide a sense of unity and solidarity
In the colonial context:
-​ Language was not the defining characteristic
-​ Colonialism paid little attention to ethnic division and language.
-​ Based on the domination by a colonial power

Steps to colonial nationalism:

-​ Rupert Emerson: High level of disruption to old society & westernised intellectual elite
who could articulate the grievances of local people against socialism.
-​ Ernest Gellner: Uneven distribution of the rewards of industrialisation and modernisation
-​ Alienation of the local
-​ Traditional society that Gellner suggests is constituted of culture and
structure is eroded by colonialism and culture is also infused with alien
western culture
-​ Makes the locals come seeking back to the cultural integrity of their
society that contains within them a sense of community and belonging.
-​ Anti-western and anti-colonial statements of Asian nationalist leaders
demonstrate they deeply resented the destruction of their traditional societies and
cultures by the west.
-​ Appealing to past glories
-​ But really they dont want to restore that past greatness they just want to
establish nation-states that follow the pattern of European nation-states,

Marxism and Socialism:

Ho Chi Minh out of many examples were taken by Knight and Heazle:
-​ A good example of Nationalism and Socialism.
-​ They wanted to eject colonial powers and establish own independent nation-states
-​ Wanted to fundamentally alter the social and economic landscape of their societies
-​ Elimination of feudalism
-​ Create benefits of industrialisation and modernisation to the masses of the people than
the small handful.

Leaders and their appeal to Marxism and Socialism:

-​ Asian Nationalism has frequently been hospitable to socialism - including Marxist
socilaism
-​ Main enemy was an intolerable statusquo created by, and benefiting, the
capitalist Western world.
 -​ Asian intellectuals find in Marxism the sanctions for revolutionary social
engineering.
-​ Economically dominant class invariably a minority of the population owned the means of
production
-​ Political coercion and ideological influence, the ruling class was able to compel the
obedience of the non-owning class.
-​ Econ inequality pushes for the overthrow of the ruling class and the establishment of
new forms of class relations.
-​ Exploitation so extreme that the working class would rise in revolution and overthrow
capitalism.
-​ Premising the importance of capitalist industrialisation and modernisation to the
achievement of socialism - class struggle - makes it attractive to leaders in SEA.
-​ But needed some development as it was premised on European experience
-​ Lenin helped with this matter:
-​ Articulated a theory of imperialism
-​ European capitalism had been able to ‘buy off’ its working class to
improve its living standards and defuse potential for any socialist
revolution - this was what the colonies were for.
-​ If imperialism = international econ system [then] uprisings in
colonies that weakened the system through elimination of profits =
international anti-imperialist struggle.
-​ Strong anti-imperialist theme in Lenin’s writing attracted revolutionaries like Ho Chi Minh
and Mao Zedong during inter-war period.
-​ Movement against imperialism satisfied nationalist leaders and it increased their
identification with marxism.

Sukarno and the Indonesian Revolution:

Sukarno infused elements of Socialism with Nationalism:

-​ Fusion of nationalism and socialism with some ambivalence towards Marxist
Communism
-​ Nationalist sentiment against Dutch Colonialism emerged in early years of twentieth
century
-​ Formation of Budi Utomo in 1908
-​ Focused on solutions to cultural and educational problems created by
colonialism.
-​ Formation of the Party of the Indies in 1912
-​ Demanded immediate independence from the Dutch.
-​ Nationalism manifested itself in the formation of islamic and socialist organisations
-​ PKI established in 1920
-​ Activities of the PKI include uprisings in Java and Sumatra
-​ Leading to a ruthless policy against PKI - silenced effectively
-​ Persecution and execution of it members
 -​ Nationalists influenced by Islam and Socialism - overwhelming commitment to the
struggle against Dutch colonialism and the creation of an independent Indonesia
-​ Sukarno was most imjportant
-​ Sukarno’s nationalism was inclusive of all those committed to the struggle against
colonialism regardless of ideological orientation.
-​ Extended to Muslims, Christians, and Marxists
-​ Sukarno used Nationalism as the Common denominator of all
anti-imperialist and anti-western elements.
-​ Worked to establish a common nationalist basis.
-​ Proposed that:
-​ Muslims should support nationalism as it targeted infidels and its success
would lead to the revival of Islam
-​ Marxists should support nationalism because national autonomy was a
prerequisite for realising the goals of the working class.
-​ Nationalism was an ‘overarching ideology’ that brings different ideological
currents together.
-​ Formation of the Indonesian National Association in 1927:
-​ Sukarno worked to bring diverse political groups into a nationalist federation
-​ ‘Let us seek that which brings us close to one another. Let us put into the
foreground all that unites us’
-​ The unity of various groups allowed Sukarno and the PNI to create a mass
movement that had the tactic of non-cooperation with the Dutch.
-​ Sukarno arrested in December 1929 and imprisoned
-​ ‘Indonesia Menggugat’
-​ Sukarno premised his nationalist ideas on opposition to imperialism as a system
of economic exploitation - The Dutch were guilty of ‘turning Indonesia into an
area for the exploitation of foreign capital’.
-​ Careful not to associate with PKI - did not advocate for armed struggle or
refer to Lenin’s theory of imperialism.
-​ Asserted the PNI was a revolutionary party as it wanted to ‘eliminate anything
whatsoever which might slow down or hinder the growth of Indonesian society
and the organisation of her people for the removal of these obstacles’.
-​ PNI was a revolutionary nationalist party rather than a communist one.
-​ Sentenced to jail for 4 years but released in December 1931.
-​ After imprisonment he saw that the PNI had divided into different parties and the
nationalist movement was dissolved.

Sukarno and the Japanese

-​ After Sukarno’s exile in the island of Flores, he was able to continue his work when the
Japanese invasion of the Dutch East Indies came.
-​ Sukarno agreed to work and cooperate with the Japanese as their goals were to free
Indonesia.
-​ But Sukarno and other nationalist leaders pursued a:
-​ Legal and aboveground strategy
 -​ Illegal and underground strategy.
-​ Sukarno had no illusions about Japan’s ideological orientation.
-​ Used the opportunity presented by the Japanese occupation to spread nationalist ideas
to raise the consciousness of the Indonesian masses.
-​ As it became apparent that Japan was losing the war - nationalist sentiment grew and
became increasingly anti-Japanese in character.
-​ Speech in June 1945:
-​ Outlined what the Pancasila is, focusing on aspects of:
-​ Nationalism.
-​ Internationalism.
-​ Democracy.
-​ Social justice.
-​ Belief in God.
-​ 17 August 1945:
-​ Declaration of independence
-​ The Japanese did not approve.
-​ PETA fought against the Japanese army.
-​ Surrender of the Japanese
-​ Dutch forces returned and began creating conditions for a reinstatement
of Dutch colonial rule.
-​ Had no intention of leaving peacefully.
-​ Next four years until 1949:
-​ Dutch attempted to reimpose control.
-​ Resisted by Indonesians as Dutch authority had been shattered by
the Japanese invasion.
-​ Global perception of the Dutch for such maneuvers garnered little
sympathy from the British and the Americans.
-​ Holland transferred sovereignty to its former colony on 27
December 1949.

Ho Chi Minh and the Vietnamese Revolution:

Ideological Diff:
-​ Ho Chi Minh was not afraid to associate himself with Communism and was strongly
driven by nationalism.
-​ Ho’s attraction to Marxism-Leninism was founded on the importance of establishing
Vietnam’s independence.
-​ While committed to the values of Marxist ideology, he was prepared to adept and apply
this ideology to Vietnam’s needs and characteristics and to establish Vietnam as an
independent nation.

Struggle against the French:

-​ French expedition against Vietnam in 1857
 -​ France started program of assimilation that was employed to destroy Vietnam’s culture
that stressed family authority and village community and the political authority of
Vietnamese emperors.
-​ France segregated the control of resources - the French had access to factories, mines,
and rubber plantations while Vietnamesee were restricted to agriculture.
-​ Those opposed to the French were not able to campaign legally and were forced to
organise illegally and to resis the French military.

Ho Chi Minh’s start:

-​ Commenced his career as a revolutionary and Vietnamese patriot.
-​ 1911 left Vietnam as a cook on a ship that took him to many parts of the world.
-​ In Paris in 1917 - became more involved in left-wing activities - became a journalist and
wrote a short book “The process of French Colonisation” - attach French governance in
Vietnam.
-​ Ho was still not a Marxist, only a committed nationalist.
-​ Ho attempted to present President Wilson a program for Vietnamese self-determination -
unsuccessful but it enhanced his reputation as a nationalist.
-​ Not possible to achieve independence for his country through conventional, legal,
means.
-​ More radical approach was necessary to undermine French colonialism.
-​ 1920 - increasingly involved witht he French left - as a member of the Socialist Party and
the French Communist Party.
-​ Came to regard communism as capable of ending colonialism.
-​ Lenin’s powerful analysis convinced Ho.
-​ From this point on he committed himself to communism and the Comintern -
studied Marxism precisely because he could see the legitimised union of the two
ideals that were so important to him: nationalism and communism.
-​ 1924 - moved to Moscow to study Marxism-Leninism, sent as a field agent to China in
1925 and established Thanh Nien (Association of Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth).
-​ 1930 - instrumental in setting up the Indochinese Communist Party
-​ Including members from Laos and Cambodia and Vietnam.
-​ WWII gave impetus to Ho’s attempts to liberate Vietnam from French colonialism.
-​ The Vichy administration remained in Vietnam but was obliged to provide Japan with
economic resources and allow Japanese troops to be stationed throughout Indochina.
-​ Defeat of the French by the Japanese destroyed images of invincibility that the
European colonial powers had fostered.
-​ Prepared to allow neither French nor the Japanese to dominate his country.

Fight against Colonialism:

-​ 1941: formation of the Vietminh in 1941 - appealing to all groups and classes of
Vietnamese society.
-​ Vietminh employed guerrilla tactics in its military struggle with the Japanese.
-​ 19 August 1945 - Vietminh troops entered Hanoi and took control of the city.
-​ Defeat of Japan - Ho established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).
 -​ In the dying days of the war, it can be interpreted that it was the Japanese rather than
the Vietminh that had deposed the collaborationist French Vichy regime in Indochina.
-​ 2 September 1945 - declaration of independence was about the pre-empting of
emerging non-communist Vietnamese Political Factions.
-​ Then this independence was challenged by the return of the French to reassert control
and the coming of vested American interests in stopping the spread of communism.
-​ The Vietnamese revolution was a war of national liberation rather than a genuine social
revolution.

Mao Zedong and the Chinese Revolution:

Mao and the Chinese revolution:

-​ Mao had made his allegiance to Marxism
-​ Mao and many Chinese of his generation bitterly resented the intrusive and damaging
activities of Western colonialism in China and the violent invasion of China by Japan in
the 1930s.
-​ Two goals:
-​ End to colonial interference in China’s affairs
-​ Creation of a just and equal society.
-​ Parallel to Vietnam - powerful ideological impulses of nationalism and
socialism.
Weakness of the Qing:
-​ Qing dynasty was weak, corrupt, and inefficient
-​ So much so that they were unmable to resist the encroachment of the Western
imperialist powers - influenced by a number of European powers since 1840
-​ In effect was a semi-colony
-​ Qing Chinese lived in abject poverty
-​ Plight exacerbated by the economic policies of the colonial powers.
-​ The Chinese working class worked in appalling conditions in foreign factories.
-​ Chinese society was characterised by great extremes of wealth and poverty, and
the political system was inefficient and unstable.​

Mao and Marxism:

-​ Mao rejected traditional confucian ideas and looked to the west
-​ Found Marx and Lenin to be the most attractive
-​ Recommended revolution as the means to overthrow colonial oppression
-​ Russian Revolution of 1917 was a good parallel to the state of China
-​ Mao was acutely aware of China’s weakness:
-​ Instability
-​ Oppression.
-​ Recognised that the Chinese revolution could not succeed without solving the problem
of land distribution.
 -​ With the discontent of the Chinese peasants at the oppression and exploitation they
suffered at the hands of feudal landlords - the communists could tap a powerful
revolutionary force.
-​ Fight against the Naitonalist party (Guomintang).
-​ Mao and his comrades forced to retreat into the rugged mountains of southern Chia -
undertook a number of initiatives that became central to Mao’s central theory of
revolution.
-​ Establishment of the Red Army
-​ Recruitement of peasants into the Party and army.
-​ Peasants as the main force of the Chinese revolution
-​ Creation of Soviets
-​ Areas controlled by the Communist partyy where Civil government was
established.
-​ Implemented social reforms here such as land reform.
-​ 1934 - Controlled the Jiangxi soviet in Southern China.
-​ Late 1934 - Communists were forced to flee and set off on the famous Long
March - took Mao and a few survivors to China’s northwest where they
established a revolutionary base area centred on Yenan.
-​ Mao and communists rebuilt political and military strength during the
anti-Japanese war.

Japanese menace:
-​ Japanese had been menacing China since their occupation of Manchuria in 1931 and
1937
-​ Chinese communists had earlier declared war on Japan but has changed their
policies in order to attract the support of as many Chinese as possible.
-​ Many supported the communists because of the violent and cruel policies
of the Japanese imperial army.
-​ Japanese brutality was the drive of those apolitical to the Chinese national cause
to defend China as a nation.
-​ Peasant nationalism created popular support for Mao and the Communist party
than their revolutionary communist doctrine.
-​ Major source of the Communist Party’s strong popularity arguably was its better
governance and the improved welfare of the people in the areas it controlled than
its armed resistance against Japanese occupation.

TLDR of this whole article:

-​ Lowkey the main problem is the economic disparity that colonialism has brought upon
these nations:
-​ Not only economic brutality but also social brutality
-​ This spurred on the need to look for alternatives that bring down these colonial
tendencies which came in the form of nationalism, socialism, and communism in
Indonesia, Vietnam, and China.
 -​ So from this point on, these nations adopt different mindsets and ways of
governance even though they are under the socialist banner - it is too politically
diverse to put them all under the box of a pan-Asian project:
-​ European colonialism created the material conditions where the need for
a revolution is critical - the inefficient and corrupt ways of governance in
these European colonies created the poverty and dissatisfaction of the
local people that was already so diverse - thus creating the bases for the
problem of economic disparity in an Pan-Asian project.
-​ Japanese imperialist policies were a catalyst in the creation and
development of these varying social ideologies as it emancipated - to a
certain extent - many of these Asian Nations from the grip of European
colonization, this can be a part of the experience of Japanese imperialism
as it was an achilles’ heel in trying to united peoples of Asia together - this
as the foundation then for the bases for the problem political diversity in a
pan-asian project, who will be in charge if there was to be one ‘Asian’
political entity?

Beasley (Chasley, W.G. (1987). Japanese Imperialism, 1894-1945

Ch. 3 - Modernization and Imperialism

Japanese responses to the west:

-​ The treaty port system and its reactions:
-​ Many reacted like their country was too weak to match the western powers - a
sense of threat.
-​ But many also thought that something had to be done about it.
-​ This was the beginning of Occident studies in Japan
-​ Number of western books taken from the Port Cities were studied and enabled them to
make some progress in acquiring a knowledge of it.
-​ The Opium War gave Japan some notice of Western expansion - but by then, there were
already a few Japanse who had a grounding in modern science and technology.
-​ Study of the west gained a military emphasis
-​ Sakuma Shozan, a senior samurai, propagated the idea that defending Japan
involved learning what foreigners could teach in the fields of machinery and
techniques.
-​ Acceptable to some members of the Tokugawa council that recognised
that the western style of international behaviour was inevitable.
-​ Hotta Masayoshi, head of the council at the time of the Harris negotiations,
proposed two things:
-​ Military power always springs from national wealth
-​ Wealth is to be found in trade and commerce
 -​ Japan’s aim should be to make friendly alliances and copy the foreigners
where they are at their best and repair their shortcomings to foster
national strength and complete their armaments.
-​ Yoshida Shoin: defence required territorial expansion:
-​ We will seize Manchuria, thus coming face to face with Russia; regaining
Korea, we will keep watch on China; taking the islands to the South, we
will advance on India
-​ Aizawa Seishisai: New Proposals (Shinron) proposed that to study the west
means to contaminate Japanese culture.
-​ The treacherous foreigner might well take advantage of this situation to
lure ignorant people to his ways.
-​ Results that could be harmful and weakentning.
-​ Defence did not depend solely on weapons or technology but also
leadership and morale.
-​ In turn that means the preservation of traditional attitudes and
values.
-​ Tokugawa Nariaki: government’s first task was to set an example of resolution
-​ Once ports were open in 1859, debates on the locus of authority
continued.
-​ Decade of turbulence followed soon - coup d’etats, local rebellions, civil
wars.
-​ 1868 - a decided leader brought to power and overthrew the Tokugawa
and launched Japan upon a programme of modernization in the western
manner - with the central concept of ‘wealth and strength’.
-​ The port system treaty not only opened Japanese ports to trade but also made it
possible for Japanese students to go to American and European universities.
-​ Came with it greater volumes and access to western knowledge.
-​ Fukuzawa Yukichi proposed:
-​ Acquiring the spirit of the west would allow more contribution to the
development of the national will and a proper understanding of science.
-​ It would also push Japan towards the stage of enlightenment.
-​ Fukuzawa also emphasized the importance of Japanese independence:
-​ We want our learning independent
-​ We want our commerce independent
-​ We want our law independent
-​ We want our religion independent.
-​ To achieve this, Fukuzawa proposed, is to stand aside from Asia - culturally and
politically in order to provide the kind of leadership which Asia seemed unable to
furnish itself.
-​ Japan must ‘quit Asia’.
-​ Tokutomi Soho: justified Japanese expansion
-​ Placed an importance over the revision of the Harris Treaties
-​ Victory over China in 1894-95 gave his country the kind of international
respect that more peaceful policies had never done.
 -​ Expansion was justified for the sake of winning security, reputation, and
economic advantage for themselves.
-​ Use of western values to justify Japanese expansion and western
technology to make it feasible.

Ch. 10 - Japan’s Territorial Dependencies (1895-1930)

Colonial Goverenment and Society:

-​ Taiwanese & Korean condition:
-​ Two ways of governing Taiwan:
-​ French model of assimilation - highly attractive
-​ British model of subordination of Taiwan as a political entity.
-​ The Taiwanese shared with the Japanese a Confucian education and the use of
the Chinese script.
-​ Partly civilised already.
-​ First months of rule there was open rebellion against Japanese governance -
making it difficult to treat them as being like the Japanese ‘one people under one
emperor’.
-​ Considered to be a part of the ‘sovereign’ group of Japanese colonies “Taiwan,
Korea, and Karafuto”.
-​ A modernizing / ‘civilising’ mission - applied as much to promoting education and
public health and economic development as it did to political behaviour.
-​ Relate colonies to the ‘national polity’

-​ The law that spelt out the nature of Japanese administration of Taiwan in 1896
evaded issues of forms of governance as it asserted the principle of Japanese
political unity.
-​ Role and powers of the Governon-General:
-​ Combined the legislative and executive powers of the National Diet.
-​ Immense authority - exercised the powers of the capital.
-​ Free from ministerial supervision.
-​ Colonial Ministry:
-​ Formed in 1896
-​ Administrer Taiwan and Hokkaido
-​ Abolished after a year.
-​ 1897 to 1910 there was no central office responsible for overseas
territories:
-​ Taiwan and Karafuto came under the home ministry and
Kwantung under the foreign ministry.
-​ Colonial bureau:
-​ Formed in 1910
-​ Dealing with Taiwan, Krafuto, and Kwantung
-​ Abolished in 1913
-​ Revived in 1917
 -​ Transferred to cabinet secretariat in 1922
-​ Absorbed to the colonial ministry in 1929.
-​ Very much disobeyed by the Koreans.
-​ Colonial governors enjoyed a large measure of independence
-​ Governor-Generals of Taiwan and Korea responsible to the emperor
personally through: Prime minister in civil matters, War ministry and Army
chief of staff in military ones.
-​ Taiwanese Resistance to Japanese occupation in 1895 meant that the First
Governor was in charge of a military campaign to suppress it.
-​ Characteristic pattern of Japanese colonial administration was that generals held
office as governors and had civilians as deputies.
-​ The powers of the Governor-General were authoritarian.
-​ Supervision was exercised directly from the colonial capital over the amin
units of regional government.
-​ Responsibilities went beyond the maintenance of law and order to take in
the regulation of the community and the monitoring of social policy.
-​ Enforcement of censorshiop and scrutiny of potentially subversive
organisations.

-​ The goal of the Taiwanese colony was to make it a colony that is fiscally
self-sufficient or at least be able to dispense with subsidies from Tokyo.
-​ Education was another important factor:
-​ Primary schools were established
-​ Currivulum concentrated on teaching the Japanese language,
useful skills such as arithmetic and letter-writing, and civic duty.
-​ Taiwanese could go to local private schools - broadly confucian in
approach to education, required also to teach Japanese and
Chinese.
-​ Further education was limited for the Taiwanese to facilities for training
primary-school teachers and doctors.
-​ 1918 - unrest in Colonial populations, Korea and Taiwan forced the Japanese to
put a different emphasis
-​ Access to secondary and higher education for Taiwanese including
commercial and agricultural colleges. Applicants had to competer on
disadvantageous terms with Japanese students.
-​ From this point on - there were a lot of inequalities that had been created for the
Taiwanese and the Koreans
-​ Unrest was put down by the effective and ruthless Japanese police to
deny independence movements any real success.
 -​

Colonial Economies:
-​ The government played an important part in facilitating trade:
-​ Legal and fiscal framework
-​ Investing in infrastructure: transport and communications - spread of new
technology.
-​ Provided by the Zaibatsu subsidiaries or affiliates.
-​ Parameters of policy were set by Japan’s own needs - for markets and
foodstuffs than colonial welfare.
-​ By the end of 1920s - 90% of Korea’s exports went to Japan.
-​ 2/3rds were foodstuffs
-​ Food available to Koreans averaged on 1924 caloreis per person.
-​ 10% less of what it had been in 1910-14
-​ 78% of Taiwan’s exports went to Japan
-​ 85% of the foodstuffs went to Japan.
-​ Food available to Taiwanese averaged on 2208 calories
-​ 10% more on an earlier date.
-​ Close to subsistence level.
-​ Taiwanese economy:
-​ Governor-General and his officials achieved self-suffiency and ran an export
balance in trade with the homeland.
 -​ Balance reached 36 million yen from total exports of 130 million in 1915-1919
-​ 65 million yen from total exports of 256 million in 1925-29
-​ Capital accumulation financed government investment.
-​ 50% of expenditures went to capital projects on the development of
railways and ports.

-​
-​ Better access to the ports, and an increase in the area of land under irrigation,
allowed the rise of exports of crops, rice, and sugar.

-​
-​ Korean economy:
-​ Infrastructure wise - Korea was greatly provided by Japan than that of Taiwan -
By 1930 there were 1750 miles of government-owned lines.
-​ No export surplus for funding an investment programme.
-​ Trade with Japan was consistently in deficit
-​ Government expenditure proved much heavier than in Taiwan.
-​ High costs of suppressing political unrest.
-​ Strategic considerations dictated moer spending on transport and
communications.
-​ Korea required inflow of Japanese capital to provide for its investment
needs.
-​