Chapitre 6
Electric Mobility Today
In this chapter we will explore how the electric vehicle may be deployed over the
course the 21st century. To do this, we will explicitly use a prospective approach
aimed at exploring the future rather than predicting it.
We will begin by decomposing the main instruments to reduce the environmental
impacts of transport through the ASIF (Activity Structure Intensity Fuel) approach,
then study the crucial issue of the deployment of charging infrastructures. Finally,
we will examine the role of hybridization as a transition technology to the electric
vehicle.
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6.1 The ASIF Approach
6.1.1 More on Method - The ASIF Approach
Author : Adrien Vogt Schilb, Inter-American Development Bank
In the transportation industry, public authorities have 4 levers to influence green-
house gas emissions.
First, they can reduce the total activity of the transport industry. That is to say the
total number of transported travelers each year or the average distance traveled by
each and everyone. The transport volume is measured in passenger-kilometers. Two
passengers who travel 1 kilometer each equal 2 passenger-kilometers. One passenger
who travels 2 kilometers also equals 2 passenger-kilometers. If we reduce the total
quantity of transports by 30 % for instance, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced in
the same proportion. In the freight industry, activity is measured in tonne-kilometers.
Secondly, they can change the transportation structure that is to say the share of
each transport mode or modal share. If mobility shifts from private cars to sustai-
nable or more efficient mode in terms of energy, a well-crowded bus for instance,
emissions will be reduced by the differential value of the emissions between the two
modes in passenger-kilometers.
Thirdly, they can reduce the energy intensity of each mode. Intensity measures the
quantity of energy required to travel over a given distance in liter per 100 km or
kWh per 100 km for electric cars. For instance, a passenger traveling alone in an
old car can use up to 12 liters per passenger-kilometer whereas if he travels in a
new compact car, he can use less than 6 liters per passenger-kilometer. With two
passengers in the same car, it goes down to 3 liters per passenger-kilometer.
Finally, the carbon intensity of the energy used can be reduced. This can be achieved
through a fuel shift. For instance, LPG contains less carbon than petrol per quantity
of energy. In the case of electric cars, it goes through a shift in the way electricity is
produced.
This way of decomposing emissions is called the ASIF method which stands for
Activity, Structure, Intensity and Fuel. This method is frequently used to analyze
the historical evolution of greenhouse gas emissions in every sector, not only that of
transports.
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6.2 Deployment of Charging Infrastructures
6.2.1 Deployment of Charging Infrastructures
Author : Philippe Degobert, Arts et Métiers ParisTech
In this section, we will introduce the basics to define and understand the deployment
of charging infrastructures for electric vehicles. First, we will talk about history
before focusing on today’s projects, we will finish by studying more specifically the
case of France.
Some History
Charging solutions after 1900 Electric vehicles imply charging stations or char-
ging. Before 1900, charging solutions were hand-made. Then, charging stations deve-
loped. In those times, they were called "charging columns for electric automobiles".
Vehicles could be charged individually at home or collectively within fleets.
Charging column for electric automobiles The 1899 charging column could
charge a lead battery with a power ranging from 2 to 6.4 kW with an intensity
ranging between 25 and 80 A at 80 V.
Figure 6.1 – The 1899 charging column - Source : http ://[Link]
This device was awarded at the July 1899 Show by the Mixed Commission which was
in charge of determining the conditions under which automobiles could be charged
with electricity. In those times, this model already planned an elegant integration in
an urban setting with a format close to that of mailboxes. To charge these accumu-
lators, users had to put a token in the meter, close the internal circuit breakers, the
bipolar switch, and choose the charging intensity with the rheostat’s switch.
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In Europe : Tesla supercharger In Europe, Tesla has already installed about 6
000 Superchargers with a 150-kW power and an intensity ranging from 25 to 150 A
at 1 000 V. They are distributed in a little under 900 stations. These chargers can
give an additional 270km autonomy in less than 30 mn for an average charging cost
of 0.24 euros per kW.
135 years passed between these two devices that almost have the same weight and
volume.
In the second part, we will introduce a few exemplary technico-economic projects in
California and Norway.
Few exemplary projects
California : its electric infrastructures In California, private vehicles are over-
represented. 38 million inhabitants own 35 million vehicles registered in the state.
In 2016, the Californian electric vehicle fleet represented 140 000 vehicles, thus 40%
of the number of electric vehicles in the US.
California offers 2 500 dollars for the purchase of an electric vehicle as well as a tax
credit that can go up to 7 500 dollars. EV users can take carpool lanes. The state of
California hopes that electric car sales will represent 15% of the sales of new vehicles
by 2025.
In terms of power generation, California produces a quarter of its electricity via
renewable energies, solar and wind energy.
Regarding the network, the Californian territory has 7 400 charging stations among
which 2 500 fast-charging stations. San Francisco has installed 100 free-of-charge
charging stations to incite electric mobility.
Norway : Worlwide reference in electric mobility Here is another example.
Norway is a reference in terms of electric mobility development worldwide. This
country has 50,000 electric cars for 5 million inhabitants. It is estimated to reach
200,000 EVs by 2020. This country convinced purchasers thanks to several aids : free
highways, bridges and parking spaces, driving in bus lanes allowed, VAT aid when
purchasing an EV and 500 free-of-charge charging stations.
These numerous favorable conditions allow Norway to achieve record sales since
2015. One new car out of five is electric. Thermal vehicles cost more than electric
vehicles and they are severely taxed.
One of the particularities of Norway is that it is the first European oil producer. Its
hydraulic resources represent 95% of the electricity produced. But it also develops
renewable energies such as wind energy. The use of electric cars in Norway is consi-
dered as being clean since the supplied electricity comes from renewable energies.
Furthermore, the Norwegian power grid accepting 50,000 charging stations is desi-
gned to accept a 2.5 million electric vehicle fleet, just as much as the current thermal
vehicle fleet.
Last June, the main Norwegian political parties reached an agreement to prohibit
the sale of thermal vehicles as of 2025.
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France
A different situation In France, the situation is different. The French fleet
consists of 38.5 million thermal vehicles and 76% of the electricity comes from nu-
clear power. The remaining 24% come from other resources : fossil fuel, hydraulic
energy, wind energy, solar energy and bioenergy.
In 2015, France has adopted a law on energy transition for green growth. One of its
aims is to deploy electric mobility. This goes through the installation of 7 million
charging stations on the whole territory, the obligation to install charging stations
in every new facility and construction, in existing business premises and shopping
malls, but also in housings in the event of works.
With 7 million electric vehicles, the electricity production would be enough but
would require an optimized management of demand. Should we go over 15 million
EVs, the equivalent of the production of 5 EPRs would be necessary to supply the
required electricity.
The different actors involved are thinking about the grid, the production of electricity
favoring renewable energies, and the integration of electric vehicles. It is the vehicle
to grid concepts associated with smartgrids, V2G related to smartgrid.
To this day, 16,000 charging stations are available on the territory. By the end of
2017, there should be 38,000.
Project BlueSolutions The Bolloré group, with the agreement of the govern-
ment, is going to install 16,000 charging stations by 2019 for a 150-million-euro
investment. They aim at offering users charging stations every 40 km. Note that
these stations will not offer fast charging, since they have a 3 to 7 kW power. It
must be noted that this installation is behind the initial development plan.
Project Corri-Door Corri-Door is a private consortium which gathers Sanef,
EDF and its subsidiary Sodetrel, automotive manufacturers such as Renault-Nissan,
BMW and Volkswagen, as well as ParisTech. On a national level, the Corri-Door
project aims at being the backbone of the charging networks in France by connecting
already equipped cities and regions. It has been acknowledged as being of national
scale via a ministerial decision on January 29 2016. This project is integrated in the
Trans-European Transport Network program established by the European Commis-
sion which finances 50% of the investments. The installation of fast-charging stations
for a total cost of 10 million euros is done along highways and in city suburbs. Even-
tually, the Corri-Door network will provide a 200-charging-station network, meaning
every 80 km.
Example of territorial deployment : Nord-Pas de Calais regional project
Before the January 1 2016 merger, the former Nord-Pas de Calais regional council
had launched a regional plan to develop electric mobility in partnership with 19
EPCIs in order to implement a charging station network over 250 km from Maubeuge
to Dunkirk. In order to observe a territorial meshing, each EPCI joining the program
agreed to install one outlet for 3 000 inhabitants over 3 years. The mobility plan has
been organized via a corridor system, mainly along major roads, with the goal of
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installing a semi-fast-charging station every 50 km. The first installation phase saw
the implementation of 233 charging stations out of the 2 500 planned stations.
Exemple of territorial deployment : Valenciennes Métropole The Valen-
ciennes métropole project is part of a state call for projects via the ADEME and
the regional council which financed up to 80% of a charging station installation until
January 20 2016. 16 municipalities are affected. 37 semi-fast-charging stations built
by G2 mobility were planned every 20 km and one fast-charging DBT station at the
junction of the two highways. The global installation and operation budget is about
650,000 euros. The average cost to install a station was 12,000 euros minus public
aids : 50% by the ADEME, 30% by the regional council. Local authorities were to
finance the remaining 20% and finance operation costs. Regional use fares were also
defined. They are described in the table of Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 – Valenciennes Métropole : Regional use fares
Conclusion
To conclude, to this day France is not able to offer operating conditions similar to
that of Norway. However, our model is close to that of the one offered in California
but we suffer from an important delay in terms of the number of electric vehicle in
circulation and the development of electric networks.
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6.3 Hybridization and Electric Vehicles
6.3.1 Hybridization and Electric Vehicles (1/2)
Author : François Badin, IFPEN
In this first part we will discuss vehicle electrification, and more specifically the case
of electric vehicles.
Vehicle drivetrain system choice
What type of drivetrain ? Vehicle powertrains can be summarized as follows :
first of all, energy storage is required on board, then an energy transformer, that
ensures the production of mechanical energy, necessary to the motion of the vehicle.
If we now consider a conventional engine (Figure 6.3), first we have a fuel tank, which
provides the energy reserve required for motion, for the range of the vehicle, then a
thermal engine that produces mechanical energy, that provides the power necessary
for the dynamics of the vehicle. Recharging the energy is done very simply, as the
storage system is an open tank, it is simply filled with fuel to recharge the vehicle and
recover its full range. This system has the disadvantage of emitting local nuisance,
notably pollutant exhaust emissions, and sound emissions due to the operation of
the thermal engine.
Figure 6.3 – Conventional drivetrain vehicle
If we now consider an electric vehicle (Figure 6.4), according to the same principle,
on-board energy storage is provided by a battery, with the particularity that the
battery provides both the storage of energy and the supply of power. It powers an
electric machine, which provides the mechanical energy required by the wheels. Note
that this system is reversible, energy can be recovered from the braking of the vehicle.
This vehicle has the advantage of emitting no local pollutants, and only extremely
low noise levels in urban use. Recharging the vehicle is done differently, the battery
is a closed system, and the recharging system consists of an electric charger that
reinjects power into the battery during recharge. Taking into account the balance
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of this vehicle then requires a total life-cycle approach, since there is production of
electricity, therefore decentralization of pollutant emission to where the electricity
is produced.
Figure 6.4 – Electric drivetrain vehicle
Issues regarding on board energy storage Let us now compare thermal and
electric vehicles in terms of on-board energy (Figure 6.5). We have on this synthetic
diagram first a conventional thermal vehicle, with a 45-liter tank, and we see that the
range of this vehicle is approximately 1 000 km, and a very interesting factor, a very
short recharging time, since the fuel pump hose represents a power of approximately
1 megawatt, and you see that in a few minutes, 2-4 minutes, the conventional vehicle
can be fully recharged.
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Figure 6.5 – Some elements of comparison
For both electric vehicles shown to the right in Figure 6.5, you see that the sto-
rage masses are larger, however the ranges are much lower, and an aggravating
factor, recharging time is much longer, as it is linked to the power available from
the network, and we see that we can increase this power, but this comes with many
problems concerning the electric network and the cost of recharging. We see that re-
charging electric vehicles takes approximately one hour, compared to a few minutes
for thermal vehicles.
Example of the Renault Zoé Taking a closer look at an electric vehicle, here we
have the Renault Zoé, produced by Renault, which has the particularity of having
been designed from the start as an electric vehicle, with a battery highly integrated
into the vehicle body, an electric machine designed and produced by Renault, and
battery assembly also carried out by Renault. It is interesting to note that the
performances of this vehicle are constantly improving, as you can see, year to year,
the energy content of the battery has increased, thus increasing the range, which is
now 300 km in real use, with perspectives beyond 2020 of ranges over 400 km. It is
currently the best-selling vehicle in France and in Europe.
Range and power consumption and regenerative braking
EVs energy consumption influencing factors It is important to note that for
electric vehicles, range and power consumption, which are directly linked, are closely
linked to the use made of the vehicle. Diagram 6.6 shows various cycles of use, listed
by average speed in increasing order. We see that power consumption, and therefore
range, have an optimum for speeds around 20-30 km/h, then deteriorate significantly
at high speeds, due to many losses, of aerodynamic notably. They also degrade at
low speeds, at which transmission losses occur, notably via the auxiliaries.
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Figure 6.6 – Influence of EV operating conditions
Another point to note is the consumption of the auxiliaries, that must notably
provide electric vehicles with heat for the heating system, and with cold for the
air conditioning. We see on diagram 6.7, with the same axes as previously, the
importance of the power absorbed by this on-board network, which can lead to
range losses of 15 to 40% in urban driving, which is significant.
Figure 6.7 – Influence EV auxiliaries consumption
Braking energy recovery influence on EV range An important particularity
of electric engines is regenerative braking. Diagram 6.8 shows the distribution of
the energies corresponding to the forces that apply to a vehicle driving on a level
road. There are two main dissipative forces, linked to aerodynamics and rolling, and
a potential force that we try to recover during braking. You can see that in urban
use the corresponding energy represents more than half of the energy required for
motion. This is not the case in motorway use where aerodynamic losses predominate,
and potential recovery is negligible, around 15%.
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Figure 6.8 – Influence of vehicle use on recoverable energy potential - Source : EAFO,
European Alternative Fuels Observatory
When we look at the influence of energy recovery during braking still as a function
of use types (Figure 6.9), as shown here to the right, we see that it is very important
in urban use, with gains up to 30-50% from the energy recovered during braking,
and that as we said earlier its impact is lower for road or motorway cycles.
Figure 6.9 – Influence of braking energy recovery on energy consumption - Source :
EAFO, European Alternative Fuels Observatory
The issue that we saw about the electric vehicle is essentially linked to the size of
the battery that is required on board to ensure maximum range, which remains low
and entails significant battery costs.
In the next part we will study hybrid powertrains, that we will present as a solution
enabling the vehicle to retain all its capabilities, while eliminating, or avoiding as
much as possible, the issue of the battery and of the cost linked to the battery on
board the vehicle.
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6.3.2 Hybridization and Electric Vehicles (2/2)
Author : François Badin, IFPEN
In this second part, we will focus on the different types of hybrid vehicles.
Hybrid drivetrain
Following the same principle, hybrid powertrains include a conventional thermal
engine and a fuel tank, as previously, to which is associated an electric engine,
and a battery with a limited size, to limit problems related to the cost of the on-
board battery. Notice also that these vehicles do not require external charging of
the battery, which also eliminates all constraints related to the vehicle charging
infrastructure. However, these hybrid vehicles produce local pollutant emissions,
due to the use of the thermal engine, as well as, to a lesser extent, noise emissions,
also due to the use of the thermal engine.
Figure 6.10 – Hybrid drivetrain vehicle
Note here that the functions have been separated. The energy reserve is still provided
by the fuel tank, and the battery, limited in energy in this solution, is used as a power
buffer instead of a power and energy reserve as in the all-electric vehicle.
This hybrid powertrain enables us to seek to achieve synergy between the two en-
gines, electric and thermal, as well as to optimize more or less extensively the per-
formance of the thermal engine, notably with the stop-start system, i.e. engine shut-
down at idle, the help provided to the thermal engine by the electric engine, or
boost mode, and to a lesser extent, the possibility to drive the vehicle over short
distances without using the thermal engine, in all-electric mode. Besides, this system
also enables the vehicle to recover energy from braking, like electric vehicles.
As we just saw, hybridization significantly improves the operating conditions of the
thermal engine. This is shown on the two diagrams of Figure 6.11, where we see the
operating range of a thermal engine in a hybrid vehicle, for urban and extra-urban
use, and we see that in both cases the hybrid system maintains the thermal engine
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around its maximum efficiency area, i.e. it notably lowers fuel consumption in urban
use, and all the low-efficiency use phases of the thermal engine, specific to urban
use, have been replaced by all-electric use phases. The consumption gain is therefore
very significant in urban areas, thanks to the hybridization of the thermal engine.
Figure 6.11 – Example of I.C. Engine operating region
Plug-in hybrid drivetrain
Intermediate all electric capacities between all electric vehicles and hybrid
vehicles ones An evolution of hybridization consists in using a battery with an
energy content intermediate between that of a hybrid vehicle and of an all-electric
vehicle, as is in Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12 – Plug-in hybrid vehicle drivetrain
This brings two notable advantages, firstly, the vehicle can be used with significant
electric ranges, from 20 to 60 kilometers, and secondly, the capacity of the on-
board battery is sufficient for it to be recharged, as shown here, and the result
is a rechargeable hybrid vehicle, characterized in that it uses two energy vectors, a
hydrocarbon, and electricity. Therefore, this vehicle, like all-electric vehicles, requires
a total life-cycle analysis taking into account the production of the required electric
energy.
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The advantages of this rechargeable hybrid vehicle are of course the same as those of
hybrid vehicles, plus the extended all-electric mode, and the possibility to recharge
the battery using the network.
A large variety of solutions Let us look at the solutions devised by manufactu-
rers for the all-electric range of their rechargeable hybrid vehicles. On the diagram
(Figure 6.13), that shows the dynamic power and the range of the vehicle, are re-
presented various solutions implemented by manufacturers, and you can see that
between Toyota’s 2012 solution, which is the most restrictive, and BMW’s on its i3
with its range extender, there are huge differences in the range that can be covered
and in the dynamics of the vehicle in this all-electric mode.
Figure 6.13 – All electric mode performances
High sensitivity of fuel consumption to vehicle use conditions Another
particularity of hybrid vehicles is their consumption of two types of energy vectors.
The overall consumption is a balance of these consumptions, and this balance de-
pends heavily on the distance over which the vehicle is used between two recharges.
As shown on diagram 6.14, , at the start, when the battery is full, the energy used
is mostly electric, and as the distance between two recharges increases, more and
more fuel is used, there is a transfer to the energy from the fuel.
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Figure 6.14 – Illustration of the variation in the ratio fuel consumption vs electricity
consumption according to the distance covered between two battery charges
The current European Standard, although it will change very soon, places this sha-
red consumption approximately at the center of Figure 6.14, and remarkably, in
the statements of the manufacturers, you may have a rechargeable hybrid, such as
this very large BMW sedan, which features a powerful 240 kW engine, and which,
according to the standard, has a consumption of 2.5l/100km, reflective of this split
between electricity and fuel. We can well imagine that this vehicle, when driven
hundreds of kilometers without recharging the battery, has a consumption around 6
to 8l/100km, very different from the 2.5l/100km which corresponds to this vehicle’s
standardized test.
Synthesis of the main hybridization solutions
As we said earlier, we see on diagram 6.15 that hybrid engines represent a continuum
of solutions, that bridge the gap between the conventional vehicle on one side, and
the all-electric vehicle on the other side, with an increasing number of features, from
the simplest vehicle with a stop-start system, to the most complex vehicle, closest
to the electric vehicle, the range extender vehicle, such as the BMW i3.
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Figure 6.15 – Synthesis of the main hybridization solutions
Evolution of the Electrified vehicle market (EVs and PHEVs) Figure 6.16
gives the sales of electric and rechargeable hybrid vehicles in several countries over
the last 6 years.
Figure 6.16 – Evolution of the Electrified vehicle market (EVs and PHEVs) (2015) -
Source : IEA, Global EV Outlook 2016
We can see several things, first the increasing share of China among these countries,
and we see that China has taken the lead for vehicle sales, with an extremely high
growth rate and sales now greater than those of the United States.
Second interesting point, on the right axis of the chart, we see that for most countries,
market penetration is around 1%, or slightly over 1%, except for two countries,
Netherlands and Norway, two countries that do not have local manufacturers, and
that have huge vehicle import taxes, and through these taxes, the governments
manage to promote the purchase of these vehicles by significantly correcting the price
differences. As you can see, this leads to significant differences in the penetration
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rate of these vehicles in these countries, which are artificially due to a change of the
huge import taxes on these vehicles.
Annual light-duty vehicles sales predictions Let us now look at future pers-
pectives (Figure 6.17). Here we have sale volumes for several engine types until 2050,
and we see that conventional vehicles tend to gradually disappear.
Figure 6.17 – Annual light-duty vehicles sales predictions - Source : IEA, 2011
In the lead we have hybrid vehicles, then gradually plug-in hybrids, and finally all-
electric vehicles, and as a complement hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
Conclusion
As a conclusion on these electric vehicles, note that we see a great number of tech-
nological solutions, and as we said there is a continuum of solutions that will enable
us to switch gradually from conventional vehicles to all-electric vehicles, then one
day to fuel cell vehicles.
There will be a range of solutions available on the market, and buyers will have to
choose their solution, mostly based on how they will use their vehicle.
One last thing to note, for all vehicles that will use energy networks based on electri-
city and hydrogen, their development in the market will need to go hand in hand with
the development of the electricity infrastructure and of the hydrogen distribution
infrastructure required by these vehicles.
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