REMINDER: NECESSARY BASICS IN SET THEORY

Definition 1: A set refers to any well-defined collection of objects called elements or members e.g. the set of
SMA102 students is a set whose elements are students who do SMA102, the set of integers, the set of all
students of KU.
-A set is always represented by uppercase (capital) letters and its elements are separated by commas and
are all enclosed in curly brackets i.e. { }.

Examples of sets
A = 1,2,3,4,6 , B = 2,3,5,7,11,13 , C = −6, −4, −2,0,2,4 and D = 2,8,11, e, f , h ,
Membership of set
Consider the set A = c, e, f  .Clearly the element e belongs to A which can be written as follows;
e  A where the symbol  denotes “is a member of” or “belongs to” .Similarly c, f  A . Obviously an
element such as g does not belong to A which is written as g  A .
Remark:
➢ Repetition of elements of a set is inconsequential especially with respect to the number of elements
of the set under consideration.
➢ Arrangement of elements of a set is immaterial.

Specifying sets
There are two methods used to specify sets namely;
Enumeration method/Roster form
It involves listing the elements of a set e.g. the sets mentioned earlier were specified using this
method.
Set builder method or descriptive method
This method involves stating the property that characterizes the elements of a set. This implies that a set
which consists of elements with varied properties cannot be specified using this method.

Examples
Specify each of the following sets using set builder method
(a) A = 5,7,11,13,17,19 (b) B = −5, −3, −1,1,3,5,7 (c) D = 2,4,6,8,10,12,14
(d) E = 2, t , f ,5,7
Solution
A = x : 5  x  19, x is prime (A is a set of x such that x is greater or equal to 5 but less than or equal to
19 where x is prime) (b) B =  x | −5  x  7, x is odd (c)  x | 2  x  14, x is even
(d) Set E cannot be specified using set builder method because there is no unique property that
characterizes all the elements

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Interval notation
We also describe sets using interval notation. If a and b are real numbers, with a  b , we define the interval
( a, b ) called an open interval as the set of all real numbers between but not including a and b , that is, the
set of all x   for which a  x  b . Thus
( a, b ) = x   | a  x  b .
The interval  a, b  called a closed interval is the set of all real numbers between and including a and b ,
that is, the set of all x   for which a  x  b . Thus
 a, b = x   | a  x  b .
The intervals [ a, b) and ( a, b] called half-open intervals are the sets
[a, b) = x  | a  x  b and (a, b] = x   | a  x  b .

Note: a and b are called endpoints of the interval.

Common terms used in set theory

1. Universal set
It is the set of all possible elements within a particular context e.g. the set of KU students, the set of
Kenyan citizens, the set of humanity etc. It is denoted by or  .
2. The empty set
It is a set with no elements denoted by  or { }. A set with at least one element is called a non-empty
set.
3. Cardinality or order of a set
Let A be set. The cardinality or order of set, denoted A , is the number of elements contained in a set
e.g If A = {g , y, f } then A = 3 .
4. Finite and infinite sets
A finite set is a set whose number of elements can be counted i.e. a set which consists of a specific
number of different elements such whenever it is subjected to a counting process, the process comes to
an end e.g. all sets mentioned earlier. Otherwise, it is infinite e.g. the set of
integers= = {... − 4, −3, −2, −1,0,1, 2,3,...} .
5. Singleton set
It is a set with one element only e.g. A = {1} , C = { y} , E = {k} etc.
6. Complement of set
Let A be set. The complement of A, denoted Ac , is a set whose elements are in the universal set but do
not belong to A.

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7. Subset.
Let A and B be any two sets. A is said to be a subset of B, denoted A  B , if every element in A is in B. If
there is at least one element in B which is not in A, then A is said to be a proper subset of B
denoted A  B .Symbolically A  B if and only if x  B x  A .(NB:  represents ‘for every’ or ‘for
all’)
Example
Let A =  x : 3  x  5, x is prime , B =  x :1  x  9, x is odd and D = 3,5,7 . Determine whether
each of the following is true or false.
(a) A  B (b) B  A (c) A  D (d) D  A (e) B  D (f) D  B
Solution
We first use enumeration method to list the members of sets A and B i.e.
A = 3,5 and B = 1,3,5,7 .
True since every element in A is in B. In fact A  B .
False i.e. B  A (read as B is not a subset of A) since there is at least one element in B that is not in A
e.g 7  B but 7  B .
True(as in (a))
False(as in (b))
False(as in (b))
True
Remark
➢ Two sets A and B are said to be equal i.e. A = B , if and only if A  B and B  A .

Set operations
Union of sets
Let A and B be two sets. The union of A and B, denoted A  B , is a set whose elements belong to A or B
(or both). Symbolically A  B = x : x  A or x  B

Intersection of sets
Let A and B be two sets. The intersection of A and B, denoted A  B , is a set whose elements belong to
both A and B. Symbolically A  B = x : x  A or x  B

Examples
Let A = x |1  x  7, x is odd and B = x |1  x  11, x is prime .If =  x :1  x  13, x   find
(a) ( A  B ) (b) ( A  B ) (c).

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Solution
A = 1,3,5,7 , B = 2,3,5,7,11 , = 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13 .
(a) ( A  B ) = 1, 2,3,5,7,11 .
(b) ( A  B ) = 3,5,7 .

Remark
➢ If A  B =  then A and B are said to be disjoint. Otherwise they are non-disjoint.

The real number system

Subsets of the set of real numbers
1. The set of natural numbers = N = 1,2,3,4,... .
2. The set of integers = Z = ..., −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3,... .
Note: (a) Z = Z −  0  Z + where Z − = ..., −3, −2, −1 (the set of negative integers) and
Z + = 1,2,3,... (the set of positive integers.
(b) Z + = N .
3. The set of rational numbers = Q .A rational number is number which can be expressed in the form
a
where a, b  Z and b  0 e.g. −2, 2 , − 3 ,9,12 etc.
b 5 7
4. The set of irrational numbers = Qc .An irrational is number which cannot be expressed in the form
a
where a, b  Z and b  0 e.g. 2, 3 5, 6, 5 10 etc.
b
5. The set of real numbers =  = Q  Qc .
Note: N  Z  Q   and Qc   .

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 FUNCTIONS
Definition (Function)
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A rule that assigns to each element x  A an element f ( x)  B is
called a function from A to B, denoted f : A → B. The sets A and B are called the domain (denoted
D( f ) ) and the co domain of f respectively. The elements of D( f ) are called objects or pre-images
while the set of images of these objects under f is called the range of f, denoted R( f ).

Remark
➢ The definition of a function clearly rules out the mapping of one element in D( f ) to two or more
elements in B.
➢ R( f )  B .
➢ Functions are usually defined by formulae e.g. f ( x) = x − 3 , f ( x) = 2 x 2 + 4 x − 7 etc.

Example
1. Let f : A → B be a function defined by f ( x) = x 2 x  A . If A = {x  Z : −2  x  2} and
B = {−2,0,1, 2,3, 4,6,9} , find R ( f ) .
Solution
Note that Z is the set of integers (under the real number system) so we list the elements of A( i.e.
integers greater or equal to -2 but less than or equal to 2) as follows;
A = −2, −1,0,1,2 . Now R( f ) = (−2) 2 ,( −1) 2 ,02 ,12 , 2 2  = 4,1,0,1, 4 = 4,1,0 (see the remark
under membership of a set).

2. Find the domain for

3
(a) f ( x ) = (b) f ( x ) = 4 + 5 x
x−5
Solution
(a) We recall that a denominator cannot equal zero and ask, “What can we substitute?” Is there any
3 3
number x for which we cannot calculate ? Since cannot be calculated when the
x−5 x−5
denominator x − 5 is 0, we solve the following equation to find those real numbers that must be
excluded from the domain of f ;
x − 5 = 0  x = 5.
Thus 5 is not in the domain hence the domain of f is (−,5)  (5, ).
(b) We ask, “What can we substitute?” Is there any number x for which we cannot calculate
4 + 5x ? We recall that radicands in even roots cannot be negative. Since 4 + 5x is not a
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 real number when the radicand is negative, the domain is all real numbers for which
4 + 5 x  0 . We find the domain by solving the inequality 4 + 5 x  0 i.e.
−4
4 + 5x  0  x  .
5
 4 
Hence the domain is  − ,   .
 5 
Exercise
Find the domain of each function. Express your answers in interval notation.
3x
(a) f ( x ) = (b) f ( x ) = 3x − 8.
5x + 4

Types of functions

An onto (surjective) function or a surjection

A function f : A → B is said to be onto or surjective if R( f ) = B i.e. for every y  B there exists an
element x  A = D( f ) such that f ( x) = y .

A 1-1 function (Injective) function or an injection

A function f : A → B is said to be 1-1 or injective if every two distinct elements x1 , x2  A = D( f ) have
distinct images in B i.e. x1  x2  f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) OR f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 )  x1 = x2 .

A 1-1 correspondence (bijective) or a bijection

A function f : A → B is said to be 1-1corerspondence or a bijective function if it is both 1-1(injective)
and onto (surjective).

Examples
1. Let f , g :  →  be two functions defined by f ( x) = x 2 x  and
g ( x) = 4 x + 3  x  respectively. Determine whether or not each is bijective.

Solution
To prove bijectivity we need to show that each is 1-1 and onto.
1-1(for function f)
Suppose x1 , x2 = − x1  D( f ) =  .Then f ( x2 ) = f (− x1 ) = x12 implying that
f ( x1 ) = x12 = f ( x2 ) .Thus x1  x2  f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) .This does not satisfy the condition for the
injectivity of a function hence f is not bijective since it is not injective.

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 1-1(for function g )
Suppose g ( x1 ) = g ( x2 ) . Then 4 x1 + 3 = 4 x2 + 3  4 x1 = 4 x2  x1 = x2 implying that g is 1-1.
……………………………….. (*)

Onto (for function g )

y −3
Let g ( x) = y and make x the subject i.e. y = 4 x + 3  x =implying that for every
4
y , the codomain of g there exists an x , the domain of g such that g ( x) = y hence g is
onto……………. (**).
(*) and (**) imply that g is bijective.

2. Let A =  x  : x  5 and define a function f : A → B by . Show that f is injective and

determine a set B for which f is surjective*.
Solution
Test for injectivity is left as an exercise to the learner.
*the problem in italics is solved as follows;
Let f ( x) = y and make x the subject i.e.
9x 10 y
y=  2 xy − 10 y = 9 x  2 xy − 9 x = 10 y  x ( 2 y − 9 ) = 10 y  x = .Thus x is
2 x − 10 ( 2 y − 9)
defined for all y  except when y = 4.5 .Hence the set B for which f is surjective
is B =  y  : y  4.5 .

Composite functions
Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. The composition of f and g , denoted g0 f is a
function defined by
( g0 f ) ( x) = g ( f ( x) ) x  A .
NB:
➢ The Range of f is the domain of g .
➢ f 0 g in the context of the definition above does not exist.
Inverse function
Let f : X → Y be a bijective function. The inverse of f, denoted f −1 , is a function
f −1 : Y → X that assigns to each element y  Y an element x  X . f −1 is called a left inverse if
f −10 f = 1x or f 0 f −1 = 1y where 1x and 1y are the identity functions on X and Y respectively.

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Examples
Let f , g :  →  be defined by f ( x) = x 2 x  and g ( x) = 2 x − 1x  .Find

(a) ( f 0 g ) ( x) (b) ( g0 f ) ( x) (c) ( g 0 f ) ( x) (d) ( f 0 g ) ( x ) (e) ( f −10 g −1 ) ( x) (f) ( g −10 f −1 ) ( x)

−1 −1

Solution
(a) ( f 0 g ) ( x) = f ( g ( x ) ) = f ( 2 x − 1) = ( 2 x − 1) .
2

( )
(b) ( g 0 f ) ( x) = g ( f ( x) ) = g x 2 = 2 x 2 − 1.
1 1
 y +1 2  x +12
(c) Let ( g 0 f ) ( x) = y. Then y = 2 x − 1  x =    ( g 0 f ) ( x) = 
2 −1
 .
 2   2 
(d) Exercise
1 1
(e) Let f ( x) = y  y = x 2  x = y 2  f −1 ( x) = x 2 . Also let
y +1 x +1
g ( x) = y  y = 2 x − 1  x =  g −1 ( x) = . Now
2 2
1
 x +1   x +12
(f) ( f −10 g −1 ) ( x) = f −1 ( g −1 ( x) ) = f −1  =  . 8Exercise
 2   2 
(g) Compare the results obtained in (d) and (f).

NB:
➢ ( g0 f )
−1
= f −10 g −1

Theorem
Let f : X → Y and g : Y → Z . If f and g are bijective, then g0 f is also bijective.

Proof
We need to use the hypothesis that f and g are bijective to show that g0 f is bijective. We first
show injectivity and then surjectivity.
Injectivity
Let x1 and x2 two distinct elements in X i.e. x1 , x2  X . Then f ( x1 )  f ( x2 ) since f is 1-1.
f ( x1 ) , f ( x2 )  Y = D( g )  g ( f ( x1 ) )  g ( f ( x2 ) ) since g is also [Link]
g ( f ( x1 ) ) = ( g0 f ) ( x1 ) and ( g0 f )( x2 ) = g ( f ( x2 ) ) implying that
x1  x2  ( g0 f ) ( x1 )  ( g0 f )( x2 ) .Hence g0 f is injective …………………………..(*)

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Surjectivity
Let z0  Z .Then there exists a y0  Y such that since g is onto. f is also onto implying that for
every y0  Y there exists an x0  X such that f ( x0 ) = y0 .Thus g ( y0 ) = g ( f ( x0 ) ) = z0 .But

g ( f ( x0 ) ) = ( g0 f ) ( x0 ) .Hence for every z0  Z there exists an x0  X such that

( g0 f ) ( x0 ) = z0 implying that g0 f is onto. …………………………(**)
(*) and (**) implies that g0 f is bijective.