Ashish Zope

SQL Interview
Questions
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SQL Interview Questions by Ashish Zope

1. Write a Query to Find Duplicate Rows in a Table

Answer:
To find duplicate rows in a table, group by the columns that define a duplicate and use the HAVING clause to
filter groups with more than one occurrence.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called employees with columns first_name, last_name, and email. To find
duplicates based on first_name and last_name:

SELECT
first_name,
last_name,
COUNT(*) AS duplicate_count
FROM
employees
GROUP BY
first_name,
last_name
HAVING
COUNT(*) > 1;

Explanation:

GROUP BY groups rows with the same first_name and last_name.

COUNT(*) counts the number of occurrences for each group.
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1 filters only those groups that have duplicates.

Tip: Adjust the columns in the GROUP BY clause to match the definition of a duplicate in your specific
table.

2. Explain the Difference Between INNER JOIN and OUTER JOIN with
Examples
Answer:
INNER JOIN returns only the rows that have matching values in both tables.
OUTER JOIN returns all rows from one or both tables, filling in NULLs where there is no match.

Example:
Suppose you have two tables: employees and departments.

employees(employee_id, name, department_id)

departments(department_id, department_name)

INNER JOIN Example: Returns only employees who belong to a department.

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SELECT
[Link],
d.department_name
FROM
employees e
INNER JOIN
departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

OUTER JOIN Example (LEFT OUTER JOIN): Returns all employees, including those who do not belong to
any department.

SELECT
[Link],
d.department_name
FROM
employees e
LEFT OUTER JOIN
departments d ON e.department_id = d.department_id;

Explanation:

INNER JOIN includes only rows with matching department_id in both tables.
LEFT OUTER JOIN includes all rows from employees, and fills department_name with NULL if there is
no matching department.
You can also use RIGHT OUTER JOIN or FULL OUTER JOIN to include all rows from the right table or
both tables, respectively.

Tip: Use INNER JOIN when you need only matching records, and OUTER JOIN when you want to
include unmatched rows as well.

3. Write a Query to Fetch the Second-Highest Salary from an

Employee Table
Answer:
To get the second-highest salary, you can use the ORDER BY and LIMIT clauses, or use a subquery to exclude
the highest salary.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called employees with a column salary.

Using LIMIT/OFFSET (works in MySQL, PostgreSQL):

SELECT
DISTINCT salary
FROM
employees
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ORDER BY
salary DESC
LIMIT 1 OFFSET 1;

Using Subquery (works in most SQL dialects):

SELECT
MAX(salary) AS second_highest_salary
FROM
employees
WHERE
salary < (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employees);

Explanation:

The first query orders salaries in descending order, skips the highest, and fetches the next one.
The second query finds the maximum salary that is less than the overall maximum, effectively giving the
second-highest salary.
DISTINCT ensures duplicate salaries are not counted multiple times.

Tip: If there are multiple employees with the same second-highest salary, both queries will return that
value. Adjust the query if you need all employees with the second-highest salary.

4. How Do You Use GROUP BY and HAVING Together? Provide an

Example.
Answer:
The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the same values in specified columns into summary rows. The
HAVING clause is used to filter groups based on a condition, typically involving aggregate functions.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called orders with columns customer_id and order_amount. To find customers
who have placed more than 2 orders:

SELECT
customer_id,
COUNT(*) AS total_orders
FROM
orders
GROUP BY
customer_id
HAVING
COUNT(*) > 2;

Explanation:

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GROUP BY groups the rows by customer_id.

COUNT(*) counts the number of orders for each customer.
HAVING COUNT(*) > 2 filters the groups to include only those customers with more than 2 orders.

Tip: Use HAVING to filter groups after aggregation, while WHERE filters rows before grouping.

5. Write a Query to Find Employees Earning More Than Their

Managers
Answer:
To find employees who earn more than their managers, you typically need a table where each employee has a
manager_id referencing another employee's employee_id. You can use a self-join to compare each
employee's salary with their manager's salary.

Example:
Suppose you have an employees table with columns employee_id, name, salary, and manager_id.

SELECT
[Link] AS employee_name,
[Link] AS employee_salary,
[Link] AS manager_name,
[Link] AS manager_salary
FROM
employees e
JOIN
employees m ON e.manager_id = m.employee_id
WHERE
[Link] > [Link];

Explanation:

The table is joined to itself: e represents employees, m represents their managers.

The WHERE clause filters for employees whose salary is greater than their manager's salary.

Tip: Make sure manager_id is not NULL to avoid comparing employees without managers.

6. What is a Window Function in SQL? Provide Examples of

ROW_NUMBER and RANK.
Answer:
A window function performs a calculation across a set of table rows that are somehow related to the current
row. Unlike aggregate functions, window functions do not collapse rows; they return a value for each row in
the result set. Common window functions include ROW_NUMBER, RANK, DENSE_RANK, SUM, and AVG used with
the OVER clause.

Example:
Suppose you have an employees table with columns employee_id, name, and salary.
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ROW_NUMBER Example: Assigns a unique sequential number to each row within a partition, ordered by
salary descending.

SELECT
employee_id,
name,
salary,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS row_num
FROM
employees;

RANK Example: Assigns a rank to each row within the result set, with gaps for ties.

SELECT
employee_id,
name,
salary,
RANK() OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) AS salary_rank
FROM
employees;

Explanation:

ROW_NUMBER() gives each row a unique number based on the specified order.
RANK() assigns the same rank to rows with equal values, but leaves gaps in the ranking sequence for
ties.
The OVER (ORDER BY salary DESC) clause defines the window for the function, ordering employees
by salary from highest to lowest.

Tip: Use window functions when you need to perform calculations across rows related to the current
row, such as ranking, running totals, or moving averages.

7. Write a Query to Fetch the Top 3 Performing Products Based on

Sales
Answer:
To find the top 3 performing products based on sales, you can aggregate the sales data by product, order the
results by total sales in descending order, and then limit the output to the top 3 products.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called sales with columns product_id and sale_amount, and a products table
with product_id and product_name.

SELECT
p.product_name,

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SUM(s.sale_amount) AS total_sales
FROM
sales s
JOIN
products p ON s.product_id = p.product_id
GROUP BY
p.product_name
ORDER BY
total_sales DESC
LIMIT 3;

Explanation:

JOIN combines the sales and products tables to get product names.
SUM(s.sale_amount) calculates the total sales for each product.
GROUP BY groups the results by product name.
ORDER BY total_sales DESC sorts products from highest to lowest sales.
LIMIT 3 returns only the top 3 products.

Tip: Adjust the LIMIT value to fetch a different number of top-performing products as needed.

8. Explain the Difference Between UNION and UNION ALL

Answer:
UNION and UNION ALL are used to combine the results of two or more SELECT queries. The key difference is
that UNION removes duplicate rows from the result set, while UNION ALL includes all rows, even duplicates.

Example:
Suppose you have two tables, customers_2023 and customers_2024, both with a customer_id column.

Using UNION: Removes duplicates.

SELECT customer_id FROM customers_2023

UNION
SELECT customer_id FROM customers_2024;

Using UNION ALL: Includes duplicates.

SELECT customer_id FROM customers_2023

UNION ALL
SELECT customer_id FROM customers_2024;

Comparison Table:

Feature UNION UNION ALL

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Duplicates Removes duplicates Keeps all rows, including duplicates

Performance Slower (due to duplicate removal) Faster (no duplicate check)

Use Case When you want unique results When you want all results, including duplicates

Explanation:

UNION combines result sets and removes any duplicate rows.

UNION ALL combines result sets and includes all rows, even if they are duplicates.
Both require the same number of columns and compatible data types in each SELECT statement.

Tip: Use UNION ALL for better performance when you are sure there are no duplicates or you want to
keep them.

9. How Do You Use a CASE Statement in SQL? Provide an Example.

Answer:
The CASE statement in SQL allows you to perform conditional logic within your queries. It works like an IF-
THEN-ELSE statement, letting you return different values based on specified conditions.

Example:
Suppose you have an employees table with a salary column, and you want to categorize employees as
'High', 'Medium', or 'Low' earners based on their salary.

SELECT
name,
salary,
CASE
WHEN salary >= 100000 THEN 'High'
WHEN salary >= 50000 THEN 'Medium'
ELSE 'Low'
END AS salary_category
FROM
employees;

Explanation:

CASE checks each condition in order and returns the corresponding value for the first true condition.
If none of the conditions are met, the ELSE value is returned.
The result is a new column (salary_category) that classifies each employee based on their salary.

Tip: Use CASE for conditional transformations, custom groupings, or to replace IF/ELSE logic in your
SQL queries.

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10. Write a Query to Calculate the Cumulative Sum of Sales

10. Write a query to calculate the cumulative sum of sales.

Answer:
To calculate the cumulative sum (running total) of sales, you can use the SUM() window function with the
OVER clause, ordering by the relevant column (such as date or transaction ID).

Example:
Suppose you have a table called sales with columns sale_date and sale_amount.

SELECT
sale_date,
sale_amount,
SUM(sale_amount) OVER (ORDER BY sale_date) AS cumulative_sales
FROM
sales;

Explanation:

SUM(sale_amount) OVER (ORDER BY sale_date) calculates the running total of sale_amount up to

the current row, ordered by sale_date.
This provides a cumulative sum for each row in the result set.
You can partition the results (e.g., by customer or product) using PARTITION BY if needed.

Tip: Cumulative sums are useful for tracking running totals, trends over time, or progress toward goals.

11. What is a CTE (Common Table Expression), and How Is It Used?

Answer:
A Common Table Expression (CTE) is a temporary result set defined within the execution scope of a single
SQL statement. CTEs make complex queries easier to read and maintain by allowing you to break them into
logical building blocks. They are defined using the WITH keyword and can be referenced like a table or view
within the main query.

Example:
Suppose you want to find employees who earn more than the average salary. You can use a CTE to calculate
the average salary first, then reference it in your main query.

WITH avg_salary_cte AS (
SELECT AVG(salary) AS avg_salary
FROM employees
)
SELECT
name,
salary
FROM

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employees,
avg_salary_cte
WHERE
[Link] > avg_salary_cte.avg_salary;

Explanation:

The WITH clause defines a CTE named avg_salary_cte that calculates the average salary.
The main query selects employees whose salary is greater than the average, referencing the CTE as if it
were a table.
CTEs can simplify queries, especially when you need to reuse a subquery or perform recursive
operations.

Tip: Use CTEs to improve query readability and maintainability, especially for complex or multi-step
data transformations.

12. Write a Query to Identify Customers Who Have Made

Transactions Above $5,000 Multiple Times
Answer:
To find customers who have made transactions greater than $5,000 more than once, filter the transactions
above $5,000 and group by customer_id, then use the HAVING clause to select those with a count greater
than 1.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called transactions with columns customer_id and transaction_amount.

SELECT
customer_id,
COUNT(*) AS high_value_transactions
FROM
transactions
WHERE
transaction_amount > 5000
GROUP BY
customer_id
HAVING
COUNT(*) > 1;

Explanation:

WHERE transaction_amount > 5000 filters for transactions above $5,000.

GROUP BY customer_id groups the results by customer.
COUNT(*) counts the number of high-value transactions per customer.
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1 selects only those customers who have made such transactions more than
once.

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Tip: Adjust the threshold or grouping as needed to match your business requirements.

13. Explain the Difference Between DELETE and TRUNCATE

Commands
Answer:
Both DELETE and TRUNCATE are used to remove data from a table, but they differ in how they operate and
their effects on the table and its data.

Comparison Table:

Feature DELETE TRUNCATE

Removes specified rows (can use Removes all rows (cannot use WHERE
Removes Rows
WHERE clause) clause)

Transaction Row-by-row logging (slower for large

Minimal logging (faster for large tables)
Logging tables)

Yes, in most databases if used within a

Can Be Rolled Back Yes, if used within a transaction
transaction

Resets Identity
No Yes
Column

Triggers Activates DELETE triggers Does not activate DELETE triggers

Explanation:

DELETE is used when you need to remove specific rows and can be filtered using a WHERE clause.
TRUNCATE quickly removes all rows from a table and resets identity columns, but cannot be used to
delete specific rows.
Use DELETE for selective removal and TRUNCATE for fast, complete data removal.

Tip: Use TRUNCATE with caution, as it cannot be used if the table is referenced by a foreign key
constraint.

14. How Do You Optimize SQL Queries for Better Performance?

Answer:
Optimizing SQL queries involves improving their efficiency to reduce execution time and resource usage. This
can be achieved through indexing, query rewriting, and analyzing execution plans.

Example Strategies:

Use Indexes: Create indexes on columns used in WHERE, JOIN, and ORDER BY clauses to speed up data
retrieval.

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Write Selective Queries: Retrieve only the columns and rows you need using specific SELECT and
WHERE clauses.
Avoid SELECT *: Specify only required columns to reduce data transfer and processing.
Use Joins Efficiently: Prefer appropriate join types and ensure join columns are indexed.
Analyze Execution Plans: Use tools like EXPLAIN to understand how queries are executed and identify
bottlenecks.
Optimize Subqueries: Replace correlated subqueries with joins or CTEs when possible.
Limit Result Sets: Use LIMIT or TOP to restrict the number of rows returned.

Explanation:

Indexes help the database find data faster, especially for large tables.
Efficient queries reduce unnecessary data processing and network load.
Reviewing execution plans helps identify slow operations like full table scans.

Tip: Regularly monitor query performance and update indexes or rewrite queries as your data grows
and changes.

15. Identify Customers with Consecutive Months of Purchases

Answer:
To find customers who have made purchases in consecutive months, use window functions to compare each
purchase month with the previous one for the same customer. If the difference is 1 month, it indicates
consecutive purchases.

Example:
Suppose you have a table called purchases with columns customer_id and purchase_date.

SELECT
customer_id,
purchase_date,
LAG(purchase_date) OVER (PARTITION BY customer_id ORDER BY purchase_date) AS
prev_purchase_date
FROM
purchases

To identify consecutive months, filter where the difference between purchase_date and
prev_purchase_date is exactly 1 month:

SELECT
customer_id,
purchase_date,
prev_purchase_date
FROM (
SELECT
customer_id,
purchase_date,

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LAG(purchase_date) OVER (PARTITION BY customer_id ORDER BY purchase_date)

AS prev_purchase_date
FROM
purchases
) t
WHERE
prev_purchase_date IS NOT NULL
AND DATE_PART('month', AGE(purchase_date, prev_purchase_date)) = 1
AND DATE_PART('year', AGE(purchase_date, prev_purchase_date)) = 0;

Explanation:

LAG() gets the previous purchase date for each customer.

The WHERE clause checks if the current and previous purchases are exactly one month apart in the same
year.
This identifies customers with purchases in consecutive months.

Tip: Adjust the date difference logic for your SQL dialect (e.g., use DATEDIFF or TIMESTAMPDIFF in
MySQL).

16. Calculate Average Order Value (AOV) by Month

Answer:
To calculate the Average Order Value (AOV) by month, group your orders by month and divide the total order
amount by the number of orders in each month.

Example:
Suppose you have an orders table with columns order_id, order_date, and order_amount.

SELECT
DATE_TRUNC('month', order_date) AS order_month,
AVG(order_amount) AS average_order_value
FROM
orders
GROUP BY
DATE_TRUNC('month', order_date)
ORDER BY
order_month;

Explanation:

DATE_TRUNC('month', order_date) extracts the month from each order date (syntax may vary by SQL
dialect).
AVG(order_amount) calculates the average order value for each month.
GROUP BY groups the results by month.
ORDER BY sorts the results chronologically.

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Tip: Adjust the date truncation function for your SQL dialect (e.g., use FORMAT(order_date, 'yyyy-
MM') in SQL Server or TO_CHAR(order_date, 'YYYY-MM') in Oracle).

17. Rank Sales Representatives by Quarterly Performance

Answer:
To rank sales representatives by their performance each quarter, aggregate sales by representative and
quarter, then use a window function like RANK() or ROW_NUMBER() to assign rankings within each quarter.

Example:
Suppose you have a sales table with columns rep_id, sale_date, and sale_amount, and a
representatives table with rep_id and rep_name.

SELECT
r.rep_name,
DATE_TRUNC('quarter', s.sale_date) AS quarter,
SUM(s.sale_amount) AS total_sales,
RANK() OVER (
PARTITION BY DATE_TRUNC('quarter', s.sale_date)
ORDER BY SUM(s.sale_amount) DESC
) AS sales_rank
FROM
sales s
JOIN
representatives r ON s.rep_id = r.rep_id
GROUP BY
r.rep_name,
DATE_TRUNC('quarter', s.sale_date)
ORDER BY
quarter,
sales_rank;

Explanation:

DATE_TRUNC('quarter', s.sale_date) extracts the quarter from each sale date.

SUM(s.sale_amount) calculates total sales per representative per quarter.
RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY quarter ORDER BY total_sales DESC) ranks representatives within
each quarter based on their total sales.
ORDER BY ensures results are sorted by quarter and rank.

Tip: Adjust the date truncation function for your SQL dialect (e.g., use QUARTER(sale_date) in MySQL
or TO_CHAR(sale_date, 'YYYY-Q') in Oracle).

18. Find the Month with the Highest Revenue in Each Year
Answer:
To find the month with the highest revenue for each year, aggregate sales by year and month, then use a

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window function to rank months within each year by total revenue. Select the top-ranked month for each
year.

Example:
Suppose you have a sales table with columns sale_date and sale_amount.

SELECT
year,
month,
total_revenue
FROM (
SELECT
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM sale_date) AS year,
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM sale_date) AS month,
SUM(sale_amount) AS total_revenue,
RANK() OVER (
PARTITION BY EXTRACT(YEAR FROM sale_date)
ORDER BY SUM(sale_amount) DESC
) AS revenue_rank
FROM
sales
GROUP BY
EXTRACT(YEAR FROM sale_date),
EXTRACT(MONTH FROM sale_date)
) ranked
WHERE
revenue_rank = 1
ORDER BY
year;

Explanation:

Aggregate sales by year and month using SUM(sale_amount).

RANK() assigns a rank to each month within a year based on total revenue.
Filter for revenue_rank = 1 to get the month(s) with the highest revenue per year.
Adjust EXTRACT or date functions for your SQL dialect as needed.

Tip: If multiple months tie for highest revenue in a year, all will be shown. Use ROW_NUMBER() if you
want only one month per year.

19. Identify Items with Stockouts

Answer:
To identify items that have experienced stockouts (i.e., inventory levels dropped to zero), query the inventory
or stock movement table for records where the stock quantity is zero.

Example:
Suppose you have an inventory table with columns item_id, item_name, stock_date, and quantity.

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SELECT
item_id,
item_name,
stock_date
FROM
inventory
WHERE
quantity = 0;

Explanation:

This query selects all items and dates where the quantity on hand is zero, indicating a stockout event.
If you want only the most recent stockout per item, use a window function or subquery to get the latest
stock_date where quantity = 0.

Tip: Adjust the table and column names as needed. For ongoing stock status, check the latest
inventory record per item.

20. Calculate Average Time Between Orders by Customer

Answer:
To calculate the average time between orders for each customer, use window functions to find the difference
between consecutive order dates, then average those differences per customer.

Example:
Suppose you have an orders table with columns customer_id and order_date.

SELECT
customer_id,
AVG(days_between) AS avg_days_between_orders
FROM (
SELECT
customer_id,
order_date,
LAG(order_date) OVER (PARTITION BY customer_id ORDER BY order_date) AS
prev_order_date,
EXTRACT(DAY FROM order_date - LAG(order_date) OVER (PARTITION BY
customer_id ORDER BY order_date)) AS days_between
FROM
orders
) t
WHERE
prev_order_date IS NOT NULL
GROUP BY
customer_id;

Explanation:

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LAG(order_date) gets the previous order date for each customer.

EXTRACT(DAY FROM ...) calculates the number of days between consecutive orders.
Rows without a previous order are excluded from the average.
AVG(days_between) gives the average interval between orders for each customer.
Adjust date difference logic for your SQL dialect (e.g., use DATEDIFF in SQL Server/MySQL).

Tip: This metric helps analyze customer purchase frequency and can inform retention strategies.

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 Ashish Zope

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