URINARY SYSTEM

Introduction
All living cells produce metabolic wastes from the chemical reactions that are required to keep us alive. Excretion rids the
body of these metabolic wastes.

 EXCRETION: removal of metabolic wastes (i.e. excess water and salts, carbon dioxide and urea) from the body. The
removal of wastes from the body is part of the maintenance of homeostasis.

At this point, it is helpful to remember that the term defecation (or egestion) and not excretion, is used to refer to the
elimination of feces from the body. Excretion is the removal of potentially harmful wastes from the body. Egestion (or
defecation) is the removal of undigested food via the anus that was never actually in the body.

Nitrogenous Wastes:
Ammonia (NH3) arises from the deamination or removal of amino groups from amino acids. Ammonia is extremely toxic. In
our body, deamination occurs in the liver, where ammonia is converted to a much less toxic substance: urea.

Molecule of urea:

The kidneys are the primary excretory organs, but other organs also function in excretion:

1. SKIN:
- Sweat glands excrete __________________________, which is a solution of water, salt, and urea.

2. LUNGS:
- Expiration removes _______________________________ from the body.
-The air we exhale also contains moisture, or _____________________ vapor.

3. LIVER:
-The liver excretes __________________________, which are derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin, and
incorporated into bile, which is stored in the gallbladder until it is excreted into the duodenum.

4. KIDNEYS:
-The kidneys produce _______________________, which ordinarily contains water (95 %) plus nitrogenous wastes
and inorganic salts.

Anatomy of the Urinary System

The kidneys are the major organs of the excretory system.

- They are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist.
- They are located on either side of the vertebral column in back of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.
- The kidneys are held in position by tough connective tissue and protected by a layer of fat.

The kidneys receive blood from the ___________________ ______________, remove wastes from it, and return the
“purified blood” to the circulatory system through the renal ________________.
The ureters (one from each kidney) are muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder by
___________________________.
The urinary bladder, which can hold up to 600 mL of urine, is a hollow,
muscular organ that gradually expands as urine enters. When the urinary
bladder is filled, the urination response is triggered (stretch receptors
inside send nerve impulse to the CNS). This causes the urinary bladder to
contract and the sphincters to relax so that urination is possible.

The urine is released from the body as it flows along the single urethra.
The urethra in males is about 20 cm long and in females about 4 cm long.
This difference in length explains why females are more prone to bladder
infections than males.

The cross-section of the kidney shown to the right shows the three main
sections of a kidney:

i) ________________________________ =
the outer layer.

ii) ________________________________ =
the middle layer.

iii) ________________________________ =
the inner collecting area.

ANATOMY OF THE NEPHRON

Microscopically, the kidney is composed of over one million nephrons.

NEPHRON = the functional unit of the kidney that is responsible for the formation of urine. In mammals it extends from the
renal cortex to the renal medulla. The renal pelvis receives the urine from the nephrons, (refer to diagram).

Each nephron is made up of urinary tubules and associated blood

vessels:

a) URINARY TUBULES:

The tubular portion of the nephron consists of:

- Bowman's capsule - proximal convoluted tubule
- descending loop of Henle - ascending loop of Henle
- distal convoluted tubule

The distal convoluted tubules of several nephrons drain into a

collecting duct. This duct carries urine to the renal pelvis.
 STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Name Process
Bowman's capsule Glomerular or Pressure - Due to higher blood pressure in the
Filtration glomerulus, water and other molecules are
collected into the nephron. This fluid is
known as the glomerular
____________________________.

Proximal convoluted Selective (Tubular) - Diffusion and active transport return

tubule Reabsorption molecules (water, glucose, amino acids,
some salts, etc.) to __________________.

Descending loop of Reabsorption of water - This part is permeable to water. Water by

Henle osmosis leaves the tubule to the interstitial
fluid and back into the blood.

Ascending loop of Henle - This part is permeable to ___________

but impermeable to ________________
Salt is actively and passively transported into
the medullar tissue fluid creating an osmotic
gradient.

Distal convoluted tubule Tubular Secretion - Active transport moves molecules that the
body does not need (hydrogen ions,
ammonia, urea, drugs, etc.), from the blood
into the tubule.

Collecting duct Excretion - Final reabsorption of water and excretion

of ____________________.

b) ASSOCIATED BLOOD VESSELS:

Each nephron has its own blood supply, including two capillary regions:

- the glomerulus which is a ball of capillaries inside the Bowman's capsule

- and the peritubular capillary network which surrounds the rest of the nephron

Urine formation requires the movement of molecules between the capillaries and the nephron.

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Afferent arteriole Brings arteriolar blood (_________________) to the glomerulus from the renal
artery

Glomerulus Ball of _______________________ surrounded by Bowman's capsule

Efferent arteriole Takes arteriolar blood away from the glomerulus to the peritubular
capillary network
Peritubular capillary Surrounds tubules of the nephron and reabsorbs useful materials back to the
network renal vein (deoxygenated)
- site of oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange.
Urine Formation
As your blood passes through your kidneys, it is cleaned and filtered. Useful materials are kept
in (retained) or returned to the blood and potentially harmful wastes are removed (excreted).
These wastes form urine.

The formation of urine is divided into these following 5 steps:

1. ______________________________________
= Occurs at the Bowman's capsule.
- Since the afferent arteriole entering a glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole
leaving it, the blood in the glomerulus is under pressure.
- This pressure forces plasma fluid to filter out through pores in the capillary walls and collect in the Bowman's
capsule.

- This GLOMERULAR FILTRATE (not urine yet!) contains: __________________________________________________

__________________________________________ but NOT ______________________________________________
____________________________________ which are too large to pass through the capillary wall (= NON-FILTERABLE
COMPONENTS).
Substance Amount Filtered Amount Excreted Reabsorption
(per Day) (per Day) (%)
-Small molecules that escape being filtered and
the non-filterable components leave the Water (L) 180 1.8 99.0
glomerulus by way of the efferent arteriole. Sodium (g) 630 3.2 99.5

-Blood passes through the kidneys at a rate of Glucose (g) 180 0.0 100.0
0.25 L per minute. In other words, all the blood in Urea (g) 54 30.0 44
the human body passes through the kidneys once
every 30 minutes.
- A total of about 188 liters of water are filtered per day along with a considerable amount of small molecules. If the
composition of urine was the same as this glomerular filtrate, the body would continually lose water, salts, and nutrients -
death from, dehydration, starvation, and low blood pressure would soon follow.

Therefore, we can conclude that the composition of the filtrate must be altered as this fluid passes through the remainder
of the nephron.

2. _________________________________________________

= This is the beginning of "useful" materials being returned to the blood and occurs
primarily at the
____________________________________________________________.
-Tubular re-absorption occurs as molecules and ions are both actively and passively
reabsorbed from the proximal, convoluted tubule, to the blood in the peritubular
capillary network.

-The cells that line the proximal convoluted tubule are specially designed so as to
pump these needed materials back into the capillaries that surround them (also lined
by microvilli creating an increased surface area for reabsorption and have many
mitochondria for ATP production).

a) ACTIVE REABSORPTION:
= Active re-absorption involves active transport, and this accounts for the large energy needs of the kidneys (lots of
mitochondria!).

- Re-absorption by active transport utilizes specific CARRIER PROTEINS that selectively carry only molecules that they
recognize across the cell membrane into the blood of the peritubular capillary network. This accounts for the homeostatic
ability of the kidney to reabsorb only molecules needed by the body.

-Molecules like ______________________________________________ are actively reabsorbed

b) PASSIVE REABSORPTION:
= Passive re-absorption involves passive transport, which is the diffusion of molecules from the area of high concentration
in the filtrate (proximal convoluted tubule) to the area of low concentration-in the blood (peritubular capillary network).

-Passive re-absorption involves particularly the movement of most WATER molecules by OSMOSIS.

Two factors aid this process:

(i) The non-filterable proteins that weren't filtered through the Bowman's capsule during glomerular filtration remain in the
blood and travel from the efferent arteriole to the peritubular capillary network. This creates an __________________
___________________________ (high solute and lower water concentration in the blood compared to tubule), which
causes water to diffuse from the proximal convoluted tubule back into the peritubular capillary network.

(ii) Following the active re-absorption of sodium (Na+), chlorine (CI-) follows passively because, being a negative ion, it is
attracted to the positive charge of sodium. Water then follows passively because the re-absorption of sodium and chlorine
ions increases the osmotic pressure of blood.

REABSORBED FILTRATE COMPONENTS (return to blood):

 ___________________________- passive re-absorption (osmosis!)

 ___________________________ - (i.e. glucose and amino acids = active re-absorption)
 __________________________________ -(i.e. Na+ = active re-absorption; Cl- = passive re-absorption)
NONREABSORBED FILTRATE-COMPONENTS (stay in filtrate):

 __________________________

 __________________________________________ (i.e. urea; uric acid)

 _____________________________

3. __________________________________________: (adding more substance to the glomerular filtrate)

= Tubular secretion is a second way by which substances are removed FROM the BLOOD and added to the TUBULAR FLUIDS.
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT ('EXOCYTOSIS’) moves molecules from the blood of the peritubular capillary network, into the DISTAL
CONVOLUTED TUBULE. In this way they are "secreted" from the body.

 ________, __________________, _________________, and drugs such as _______________________ are some of

the substances that move from blood into the distal convoluted tubule.

- In the end, urine contains

substances that underwent
glomerular filtration and substances
that underwent tubular secretion.

4. _______________________________________________
- Water is reabsorbed along the whole length of the nephron, but the excretion of hypertonic urine (urine that is more
concentrated with metabolic wastes and has less water than blood) is dependent upon the reabsorption of water from the
LOOP OF HENLE and the COLLECTING DUCT.

 LOOP OF HENLE:
-Made up of a DESCENDING LOOP (going down) and an ASCENDING LOOP (going up), which extend down into the renal
medulla.

-The walls of the descending loop of Henle are ________________ to water but relatively IMPERMEABLE to salt (Na+/Cl-)

-The walls of the ascending loop of Henle are ____________________ to water but permit some movement of salt (Na+/Cl-)

-In the lower portion (inner medulla) of the ascending loop of Henle, salt (Na+/Cl-) passively diffuses out of the tubule.
- In the upper portion (outer medulla) of the ascending loop of Henle, carrier proteins actively transport negatively charged
chloride ions (Cl-) out of the tubule, into the surrounding tissue fluid: Positively charged sodium ions (Na+) follow passively
by diffusion, maintaining electrical balance. This is the reverse of salt transport in the proximal convoluted tubule, but the
effects are the same - salt is pumped out of the tubule and enters the surrounding tissue fluid. As a result, large quantities
of sodium and chloride ions accumulate in the tissue fluid bathing both loops of Henle and the collecting duct, creating an
osmotic gradient.

 Because of the osmotic gradient within the renal medulla, water leaves the descending loop of Henle (freely
permeable to water) along its length, creating a HYPERTONIC fluid within the tubule.

 However, as this urine travels through the ascending loop of Henle (impermeable to water), the large quantities of
salt being pumped out of the tubule cause the fluid within the tubule to become HYPOTONIC in relation to the
blood plasma. In humans, it remains hypotonic during its passage through the distal convoluted tubule.

 COLLECTING DUCT:
-Fluid entering the collecting duct comes from the distal
convoluted tubule and is _________________________.

-However, the fluid must again pass through the zone of

high salt concentration (osmotic gradient) in the renal
medulla, as it flows down the collecting duct.

 Therefore, water diffuses out of the collecting duct

into the renal medulla, and the fluid within the
collecting duct, now called __________________,
becomes hypertonic to blood plasma.

-As will be discussed in the next section, the

________________________________________ (ADH),
regulates the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule
and the collecting duct, and therefore the tonicity of urine.

5. ________________________________________:

= Urine, the composition of which is listed on a previous

page, now passes out of the collecting duct into the renal
pelvis of the kidney.

- Urine contains all the molecules that were not reabsorbed

as well as those that underwent tubular secretion at the
distal convoluted tubule.
SUMMARY:

 Contrast the blood in the renal artery and in the renal vein with respect to urea and glucose content

(unfiltered) (filtered)
RENAL ARTERY RENAL VEIN
(Oxygenated) (Deoxygenated)
Urea

Glucose
 Hormonal Control of Kidney Function

There are two major hormones responsible for maintaining blood volume and therefore _____________________.
They do this by regulating ________________ and ______________________ levels in the blood:

1. ______________________________________ - maintains blood volume by stimulating the reabsorption of water

at the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.

Diuresis: ____________________________________________________________________________________
Antidiuresis: ________________________________________________________________________________

i) ADH is produced in the _______________________ ; ii) travels down axons to axon endings in the
___________________________________ where it is stored; iii) until stimulated to be secreted into the
__________________________________.

-Osmoreceptors (located in the Hypothalamus) are sensitive to the

___________________ (concentration of solute) of the blood.
-When these osmoreceptors determine that the blood is too
concentrated (not enough water), ADH is released into the
bloodstream.
- When ADH is present, more water is reabsorbed from the distal
convoluted tubule and collecting duct (ADH makes them more
permeable to water by opening channel proteins), and therefore, there
is a decrease amount of urine produced (antidiuresis).
- As the blood becomes dilute from the reabsorption of water, ADH is
no longer released.
  This is an example of control by ____________________________________ because the effect of ADH (to (to dilute
blood by reabsorbing water) acts to shut down the release of the hormone ADH.

Summary:
Increase in ADH

Decrease in ADH

2. __________________________________
= secreted by the adrenal cortex that primarily maintains sodium ion (Na+) potassium ion (K+) balance. It causes
reabsorption of sodium ions into the blood and the excretion of potassium ions at the distal convoluted tubule.

Control of Aldosterone Secretion:

Blood pressure is constantly monitored by the afferent arteriole cells
within the _________________________________ apparatus. This
apparatus is a region of contact between the afferent arteriole and
the distal convoluted tubule. When blood volume (and thus blood
pressure) is low (not sufficient to promote glomerular filtration), the
juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes the enzyme
___________________ which changes the protein
_______________________________________ into
____________________________. Angiotensin I travels through the
circulatory system to the lungs, where it is changed to angiotensin II
by an enzyme called
____________________________________________________.
Angiotensin II is a powerful _________________________________
(constricts vessels and therefore raises blood pressure directly), that also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release
_____________________________, resulting in more reabsorption of sodium ions and more secretion of K+ in the distal
convoluted tubules. Now the water volume and blood pressure rises as a result of vasoconstriction and water reabsorption.
Refer to figure 13.6 page 418

Diuretics:
Diuretics are agents that increase the volume of urine: (= diuresis)
- Drinking alcohol causes diuresis because it inhibits the secretion of ADH, and therefore water cannot be reabsorbed.
- Caffeine is a diuretic because it decreases tubular reabsorption of Na+.
- High blood pressure medications are also examples of diuretics.

Disorders
Transplants and Artificial Kidneys: If kidney function is limited the body will build up the waste products usually removed by
them. A few alternatives are available. The preferred is a kidney transplant but unless a suitable donor can be found,
rejecting of the immune system of the recipient is a possibility. The kidney dialysis machine (refer to page 422; figure 13.11)
removes dissolved salts as the blood flows through the machine. As this can take several hours several times a week, the
patient is restricted to the bed.
HUMAN URINARY TRACT AND KIDNEYS

Label the parts of the human urinary system, in the diagram below. Give the function of each part.

A. KIDNEYS ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________
B. ADRENAL GLANDS____________________________________
___________________________________________________
C. URETER ____________________________________________
___________________________________________________
D. URINARY BLADDER ___________________________________
___________________________________________________
E. URETHRA ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________
F. RENAL ARTERY ______________________________________
___________________________________________________
G. RENAL VEIN _________________________________________
___________________________________________________
H. CORTEX_____________________________________________
___________________________________________________
I. MEDULLA ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________
J. RENAL PELVIS________________________________________
___________________________________________________
K. INFERIOR VENA CAVA _________________________________
___________________________________________________
L. AORTA _____________________________________________
___________________________________________________

Kidneys are the “filters” of the _________________________ system. They remove nitrogenous wastes, water,
urea, and excess ___________________ from the blood. The liquid waste produced, ______________, is collected
by the kidneys and passes through the ________________ to the _________________ ___________________. The
urinary bladder is a strong, muscular organ that stores the urine until it can be excreted via the
_____________________.
 Name: ______________
Date: ______________
Excretory System Review
1. The removal of metabolic wastes from the body is called __________________. The primary excretory organ of the
body is the _______________, but other excretory organs include the _____________, __________ and the
__________.

2. The gross structure of the kidney, when cut lengthwise, shows three regions. The outermost portion is granular and
is called the __________________________. It dips down between a radially striated inner layer called the
____________________________, which consists of cone-shaped tissue masses termed _____________________.
The ______________________________ is a central space continuous with the ureter. Microscopically, the kidney
is composed of over one million __________________.

3. Label the following parts of the nephron in the diagram shown below.

a. ___________ ___________ b.

4. The structure of each part of the nephron suits its function. The inner layer of the glomerular capsule is composed
of squamous epithelial cells called __________________ that have long processes forming pores for filtration. The
cells of the proximal convoluted tubule have numerous ____________________ that increase the surface area for
tubular reabsorption. The descending limb of the loop of the nephron allows water to leave, but the
___________________________ limb is impervious to water. The cells of the distal convoluted tubule have
numerous __________________ that provide energy for active transport in tubular secretion.

5. The process that is used to divide the blood into the filterable and nonfilterable components is called
_____________________________________. The process that transports molecules from the nephron tubules
into the surrounding capillaries is called tubular ___________________. In tubular __________________,
molecules are removed from the blood and added to the tubular fluids.
6. Complete the following table to illustrate what takes place in different parts of the nephron. For the heading
Molecules, use the following terms: protein, blood cells, water, glucose, salt, urea, amino acids, H+ and ammonia.

Nephron Structure Major Event (Process) Molecules (present, to be

removed, to be added)

Glomerulus
Glomerular capsule
Proximal convoluted tubule
Loop of the nephron
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct

7. The ________________________________ apparatus helps to maintain blood volume by releasing renin from the
___________________ arteriole cells whenever there is decreased blood volume or blood pressure. Renin, an
enzyme, converts ___________________________ into angiotensin I, which in turn, is converted to angiotensin II
by the ____________________________________ enzyme in the lungs. Angiotensin II constricts blood vessels,
thereby increasing blood pressure, and stimulates the adrenal cortex to release __________________. This
hormone promotes the reabsorption of __________ ions into the blood at the distal convoluted tubule, followed by
increased __________ reabsorption, which leads to increased blood volume and blood pressure.

8. Another hormone that regulates blood volume is __________ released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary
gland. If an individual does not drink much water on a particular day, ADH is released and more water is reabsorbed
from the renal tubules into the surrounding peritubular capillaries, which means a(n) _____________________
(increased/decreased) urine volume. ADH secretion is inhibited by __________________.

9. For questions 1 – 10, match the following terms to each of the descriptions below.
a. urea b. creatinine c. uric acid d. bile pigments e. urochrome
f. renin g. aldosterone h. angiotensin converting enzyme
i. antidiuretic hormone j. atrial natriuretic hormone

_____1. hemoglobin
_____2. heme
_____3. CO2 + ammonia
_____4. nucleotides
_____5. creatine phosphate
_____6. inhibits secretion of rennin and aldosterone
_____7. promotes water reabsorption, decreased urine
_____8. converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II
_____9. converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
_____10. promotes Na+ reabsorption in distal tubule
Name: ___________________
Date: _________ Blk: _____
Excretory System Review Worksheet
Part A: Define the following terms in your own word. Be clear and concise!
excretion
ammonia
urea
uric acid
creatinine
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
cortex
medulla
pelvis
nephrons
Bowman’s capsule
proximal convoluted tubule
distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
glomerulus
peritubular capillary network
pressure filtration
filtrate
selective reabsorption
tubular excretion
antidiuretic hormone

Part B - Short Answers

1. Urea is a waste product from __________ __________ metabolism and is made in the __________ and excreted by
the __________.
2. The primary type of waste found in urine is __________ waste.
3. The outermost portion of the kidney is called the __________. The middle layer is called the __________. Urine
collects in the cavity called the renal __________.
4. Arrange the following in the correct sequence in which they function in urine formation:
collecting duct distal convoluted Bowman’s Capsule proximal convoluted loop of Henle
tubule tubule

5. Name a substance that is filtered, maximally reabsorbed, and still in urine. __________ or __________.
6. Glucose is not normally found in the urine; it is reabsorbed totally by means of __________ __________.
7. When ADH is present, urine production __________.
8. If the blood is acidic, __________ ions are excreted in combination with __________, while __________ and
bicarbonate ions are reabsorbed.
9. The functional units of the kidneys are called __________. Each kidney has about one __________ of them.
10. Label the following parts on the diagram of the nephron.

a. d.
k.
b.

f. i.
e.
c.
j.

g. L.

h.

11. Using the letters from the above, indicate the location or locations that best fit the description:
a) Glucose is reabsorbed? b) Impermeable to H2O
c) Impermeable to salt d) responsible for hypotonic urine
e) site of pressure filtration f) place where pH is adjusted
g) releases Renin to increase blood pressure h) contains dissolved proteins
I) ADH primarily acts here j) site of selective reabsorption
k) site of tubular excretion l) bicarbonate ions actively reabsorbed here
m) region with the “saltiest” cells n) H2O reabsorbed here
o) penicillin would be excreted here p) contains urine
q) cells here would have a lot of mitochondria r) wastes leave the blood here

12. If the blood is alkaline, fewer __________ ions are excreted and fewer __________ and bicarbonate ions are
reabsorbed.
13. One end of the nephron is shaped into a double-layered, cup-like structure which may be called a __________.
14. Many collecting ducts join together to empty into the __________.
15. The duct that carries urine from the bladder to the outside is the __________.
16. The ureter carries urine from the __________ to the __________.
17. The solution produced when blood is filtered through the walls of the glomerulus and the nephric capsule is called
the __________.
18. The force that causes filtration is __________ __________.
19. The organs of excretion most responsible for ridding the body of CO2 are the __________.
20. Aldosterone is a hormone that is produced in the __________ of the __________ glands.
21. Aldosterone regulates the levels of __________ ions and __________ ions in the blood. It causes the nephron to
__________ more sodium back into the blood and __________ more potassium from the blood into the urine.
22. The renal vein would carry blood that is __________ in oxygen and __________ in urea.
23. The renal artery would carry blood that is __________ in oxygen and __________ in urea.
24. List five organs of excretion:

25. True or false: The solution in a kidney dialysis machine should contain glucose. __________________