Modern physics

-MOHOSINA RAHMAN MARIAM

 Some Convertion
[Link]

kg to MeV/c^2 [Link]

Electron volt in short eV is the unit of energy. Joule is a derived unit of energy in the International System of
units or SI units.
❖ Describe the interferometer that was used in Michelson- Morely
experiment
What modification were done by them in the interferometer?
Sol:
Ether is a hypothetical medium prevading the universe in which light waves were supposed to occur . Every wave
motion has something that waves. Sound waves have air and waterwaves have water. It was, therefore,argued
that light waves must involve the waving of something, even in free [Link] then the medium is named ether.

Compensation plate
❖Michelson –Morely experiment:

Note: we have to use

l1 &l2 as shown in the
figure which is
provided by mam
where l1 and l2 are
written as maintaining
similarity to M1 &M2
❖ Explanation of negative result of Michelson experiment.
Soln:
To conclude why the negative result has come can simply say that the
measured speed of light that is c is the same for all directions in every
inertial system. thus light traveled with the same speed in two
directions in Micelson- Morley experiment and if the two arms of the
interferometer are equal this will lead to Dell N=0 .The negative
result Had two consequences. first it showed that the Ether does not
exist and so there is no such thing as absolute motion relative to Ether
.All motion is relative to specified frame of reference not two universal
one. Second it suggested a new physical principal that the speed of
light in free space is same everywhere regardless of any motion of the
source or the observer
What we have to read in next->
Special theory of relativity:
There are two postulates in special theory of relativity
❖ First postulate :(the relativity postulate)
The laws of Physics at the same for observer in all
inertial frame

❖ Second postulate:( the speed of light postulate)

The speed of light in a vacuum as the same Values c in
all directions and in all inertial reference frame

Inertial reference frame:

The reference frame where the Newton's first and second law holds true is a
inertial reference frame.
Galilean transformation
❖Why Lorentz transformation is important in relativistic
mechanics?

From Galilean transformation

x’=x-vt
y’=y
z’=z
t’=t

And from velocity

transformation

Vx’=Vx-v
Lorentz transformation
Relativistic velocity transformation
SOME MATH PROBLEM
relative velocity
bolle seta muloto
V’x
 Simultanity :
❖ What do you mean by simultaneity? With a suitable example show that simultaneity is a
relative concept.[Term final]
Soln:
Two events are defined to be simultaneous if an observer measures them as occurring at the
same time (such as by receiving light from the events). Two events are not necessarily
simultaneous to all observers .Simultaneity is not an absolute concept but rather a relative
one, depending on the motion of the observer.
It can be demonestrate by an example using the theory of relativitie’s
second postulate:
Two observers, Sally and Sam, are stationed on two long spaceships, SS
Sally and SS Sam, which serve as inertial reference [Link] two
observers are stationed at themidpoints of their [Link] relative
velocity of Sally with respect to Sam being v.
Two meteorites(উল্কা) strike the ships, setting off red and blue flares.
Sam finds that the expanding wavefronts from the two events reach him
at the same [Link] Sally and the expanding wavefront from event Red
are moving toward each other, while she and the expanding wavefront
from event Blue are moving in the same direction. Thus, the wavefront
from event Red will reach Sally before the wavefront from event Blue
does.
In here both observers are correct, as the relativity of simultaneity is
demonstrated. Two events are not necessarily simultaneous to all
observers . .Simultaneity is not an absolute concept but rather a relative
one, depending on the motion of the observer.
OR
The relativity of simultaneity is a concept from Einstein's
theory of special relativity, which states that whether Imagine two lightning bolts striking at different locations
two events occur at the same time is not an absolute (A and B) simultaneously as seen by an observer
fact—it depends on the observer's frame of reference. standing exactly midway between the two points:
Explanation:
[Link] View (Pre-Relativity): Observer at Rest (Midpoint): This observer sees the light
In classical (Newtonian) physics, time is universal. This from both strikes at the same time and concludes the
means if two events are simultaneous for one observer, events were simultaneous.
they are simultaneous for all observers, regardless of Moving Observer: Another observer moving toward
their motion. point B and away from point A will see the light from the strike at B first
(because they are moving toward it) and the light from A later. They
[Link] View: conclude that the strike at B happened before the strike at A.
In special relativity, time is not universal. Instead, time is Key Implications:
relative, and observers in different states of motion may No Absolute Simultaneity: There is no universal agreement on
simultaneity. It depends on the relative motion of observers.
disagree on whether two events occurred at the same
Time and Space Are Interconnected: Events that seem simultaneous in
time. one frame of reference may occur at different times in another,
Why It Happens: illustrating the interconnected nature of space and time (spacetime).
•Special relativity introduces the concept that the speed Causality Is Preserved: While simultaneity is relative, causality (cause and
effect) remains intact in all frames of reference.
of light is constant for all observers, regardless of their Applications:
motion. Modern Physics: The relativity of simultaneity is fundamental in
•Because light takes time to travel and observers may be understanding spacetime and phenomena like time dilation and length
contraction.
moving relative to the events being observed, the order
Technology: Relativity corrections are crucial in GPS systems, where
and timing of events can appear different depending on satellites in motion and on Earth must account for differences in time.
the observer's frame of reference.
 Time dilation
By demonastrating an experiment this time dilation can observed .Let’s assume
Sally conducts an experiment with her equipment while traveling in a train at a constant velocity v relative to a station. Her
equipment includes a light source, a mirror, and a clock. In the experiment, a pulse of light leaves the light source (event 1),
moves vertically upward, is then reflected vertically downward by the mirror, and finally returns to the source (event 2.
Sally measures a certain time interval t0 between the two events, related to the distance D from source to mirror by
Sam is standing on the station platform as the train passes. Since the equipment moves with the train during the travel time of
the light, Sam observes the path of the light differently. As a result, the two events occur at different places in his reference
frame. To measure the time interval between events, Sam must use two synchronized clocks (C1 and C2), one at each event.
According to Einstein’s speed of light postulate, the light travels at the same speed (c) for Sam as for Sally. However, in Sam's
frame of reference, the light travels a distance of 2L between events 1 and 2. Consequently, the time interval measured by
Sam between the two events can be expressed as:

From pithagorus
 Length contraction
Length contraction is a direct consequence of time [Link] once more our two observers. This time, both Sally,
seated on a train moving through a station, and Sam,again on the station platform, want to measure the length of
the platform. Sam, using a tape measure, finds the length tobe L0, a proper length because the platform is at rest with
respect to him. Sam also notes that Sally, on the train,moves through this length in a time t= Lo/v, where v is the speed of
the train; that is,

Lo= v t (Sam).

This time interval t is not a proper time interval because the two events that define it.

ঘটনা চলন্ত অবস্থায় থাকলল

সে প্রকৃ ত েময় সেখলব, আর
spaceship এর প্রকৃ ত দেঘ্য
স্থস্থর অবস্থায়
প্রকৃ ত দেঘ্য মাপলব।
The length of an evacuated tube is 15 m which is at rest. A 1 MeV electron moves along the axis of that
tube. What length of the tube would be measured by the observer moving with the electron?
Some math from resnic haliday
❖ Important math
related to relativity in
giasuddin 376 page
must do those maths
Relative Accelaration:
Energy and different
parameter
 Energy & Mass

Very Important
things for exam
now try to be
addressed ,So be
cautious about
All of it
 Mass & Energy
❖ Derive an expression for the relativistic kinetic energy of a particle and also obtain an expression relativistic
❖ energy (E) of a particle having rest mass mo and relativistic momentum (P).
❖ Kinetic Energy when v<<c:
Energy & Momentum :
❖Conservation factor of mass and Energy
❖ Math
related to
E=m0 c^2
.(c) The elementary particle known as the positive kion (k+) has, on average, a lifetime of 0.1237 us when
stationary, that is, when the lifetime is measured in the rest frame of the kion. If positive kion with a speed of
0.99c relative to a laboratory reference frame are produced, how for can they travel in that frame during their
lifetime?(8)[
❖ Important math
related to relativity in
giasuddin 404 page
must do those maths
Compton Effect
Giasuddin theke halka theory er lekha :
 Not affected by incident
wavelenght only dependent on phi

The Compton wavelength is defined as thechange in wavelength

associated with a photon scattered by an individual particle.
• Draw a schematic diagram to describe the Compton effect. Why quantum theory is necessary to explain
this? 19-20
1st question answer -Uporer bekkha ta likhe dite hobe figure soho.
Explanation:

Incident Photon: A high-energy photon (X-ray or gamma ray) strikes a free or loosely bound electron.
Photon-Electron Interaction: The photon interacts with the electron, transferring some of its energy to the
electron.
Scattered Photon: The photon is scattered at an angle, losing energy and increasing its wavelength.
Recoil Electron: The electron recoils with the gained kinetic energy.
2nd answer:
Why Quantum Theory is Necessary:
Particle-like Behavior of Light: Classical wave theory cannot explain the discrete energy exchange
between photons and electrons. The quantum theory treats light as particles (photons) with quantized
energy.

Wavelength Shift: The observed wavelength shift depends on the scattering angle, a result predicted by
quantum mechanics and not by classical physics.

Energy and Momentum Conservation: Quantum mechanics allows precise calculations of energy and
momentum conservation during the interaction, aligning with experimental observations.
Explanation and Quantum Theory Necessity:
Energy and Momentum Conservation: The Compton effect can be described by the conservation of energy and momentum. Since
classical wave theory cannot account for the particle-like nature of light, quantum mechanics becomes necessary to explain this.

The key equation derived from the Compton effect is:

θ is the scattering angle of the photon.

Classical Physics Failure: Predicted unchanged wavelength of scattered X-rays.

Photon as a Particle: The quantum theory suggests that light is not just a wave, but also behaves as a particle (photon), which has
energy and momentum. The interaction between the photon and electron follows the principles of quantum mechanics, where
energy and momentum are transferred between the particles.

Wave-Particle Duality: Classical wave theory could not explain the observed shift in wavelength of the photon. The quantum theory
of light (wave-particle duality) is essential here because photons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties, which are crucial
to understanding the energy transfer during the collision.

Thus, the Compton effect is one of the key experiments that demonstrates the necessity of quantum theory, showing that light can
behave as discrete particles (photons) that interact with matter. This quantum nature explains the scattering of photons by electrons
and the resulting change in wavelength.
➢ Math from Beiser:
➢ Kinetic energy of the Electron:
❖ Important math
related to relativity in
giasuddin 528 page
must do those maths
Giasuddin
math:
Photo Electric Effect

[Link]

[Link]
Key components:
•Light Source: Emits photons of light onto the metal surface.
•Metal Plate The surface where the light strikes and electrons are
ejected.
•Collector Plate Attracts the ejected electrons, creating a current.
•Vacuum Tube: Encloses the setup to prevent air molecules from
interfering with electron flow.
•Power Supply: Provides a variable voltage to control the
potential difference between the cathode and anode.
•Ammeter: Measures the electric current generated by the flow
of electrons.
❑ Explanation of photoelectric emission.
❑ Explanation of photoelectric emission.
What should you mention if this came in exam:
Please write:
 Intensity frequency
Intencity increase will
increase number of The frequency of the light determines the
energy of each photon.
photo electron eject It dictates whether a photon has enough
from the metal,so energy to eject an electron, but it doesn't
affect the number of electrons [Link]
more intensity means frequency is increased energy of per
more electron will electron will increase and maximum
ejected from metal kinetic energy increase ,that mean;s
and the tendency of Higher frequency results in
hitting electron will photoelectrons with higher
increase ,then kinetic energy that will increase
photocurrent will higher stopping potential but
increase,but it does not affect the number of
doesn’t increase electrons [Link] current will
energy per same
electron,or stopping
potential
 Two new term:from this graph
❑Describe the graph of Photo
Saturation current :saturation current refers to the maximum
current Vs Applied potential. value of the photoelectric current that can be achieved for a
given intensity of incident light.
In here the graph :
Stopping potential:The minimum negative potential of the
There is two axis :X =potential /voltage & y= anode(mam er slide cathod) at which the photoelectric
photo current .to describe this we have to current stops.
describe every case of the possibilities of
voltage and then it’s corresponding
photocurrent.

1st =Voltage in collector/cathod is

increased positively
2nd= Voltage in collector Zero
3rd = Voltage in the collector is
increased negatively/retarding
potential is increased.
 ❑ From which equation Threshold frequency and plank constant can get?

=
From Einstein’s photoelectric equation we can get the graph of stopping potential Vs frequency
graph and hence from the graph we can get Threshold frequency and plank constant

X axis intercept

From slope of curve

Intercept at y axis
From giasuddin:
❑Why is quantum theory necessary to explain the photoelectric
effect[huge important question]

Must Check giasuddin 419 to 433 more easy:

Difference between Compton and Photo Electric effect
Chatecterstics photoelectric Compton
• Why quantum theory is necessary to explain photoelectric effect and Compton scattering?
Define Einstein's photoelectric effect equation. Show that it represents characteristic curve of
different metal surfaces,[18-19]
Why quantum theory is necessary to explain photoelectric effect and Compton scattering?
Quantum theory steps in where classical physics just couldn't cut it. Let's break it down:

Photoelectric Effect
Classical physics predicted that light, viewed as a continuous wave, should cause electrons to be emitted
from a material regardless of light frequency. However, experiments showed that this was not the case.
Only light above a certain threshold frequency could kick electrons out, and increasing the intensity
(brightness) of the light didn't help if the frequency was too low.

Enter quantum theory: It introduced the idea that light is made up of particles called photons. These
photons carry discrete packets of energy (quanta). When a photon hits an electron, it transfers its energy
to the electron. If this energy is sufficient (i.e., the photon has a high enough frequency), it can knock the
electron out of the material. This explained why increasing intensity couldn’t cause the effect; it’s the
energy of individual photons that matters, not their collective brightness.
.
Math gias,bieser
❑Math from beiser:
(b) Light of wavelength 3500 Å is incident on two metals A and B. Which metal will yield more photoelectrons if
their work functions are 5 eV and 2 eV, respectively? [Given that I Å = 10-10 m]
(c) A certain metal has a threshold wavelength of 6000 A. Find the stopping potential when
the metal is irradiated with
(8)
(i) monochromatic light of wavelength 4000 A.
(ii) light having twice the intensity and frequency[17-18]
❖ Important concept related to
photo in giasuddin 419-433
& 445-464 for math
pages must do those maths
Wave-Particle duality
De Broglie Wavelength
❖ Important giasuddin 633-
debrogli proof page must
do those maths
• If an electron and a proton are traveling at the
same speed, which one has the shorter de Broglie
wavelength?

Short Answer:
The proton has the shorter de Broglie wavelength
when both the electron and proton are traveling at the
same speed. This is because the mass of a proton is
greater than the mass of an electron, and the de
Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the
mass of the particle.
❖ Important concept related to
de brogli in giasuddin 638-
643 for math pages must do
those maths
NUCLEAR
PHYSICS
❖ Important concept related to
in giasuddin 780 ,beiser 402
for math pages must do
those maths
• Show that the density of nuclear matter is independent of mass number. Obtain an estimate of the
nuclear density.(10)[17-18]

Experiments such as electron scattering and measurements of nuclear charge distributions show that nuclei
have nearly spherical shapes, and their size increases with the mass number AAA (the total number of protons
and neutrons in the nucleus.
Exam e jodi bole Oxygen er radius
-16, Aluminium er koto?
Tokhon
Beiser’s Book:
Stable Nuclei: Not all combinations of protons and neutrons make stable nuclei.

Neutron-Proton Ratio: In lighter nuclei, the number of protons (Z) is roughly equal to the number of neutrons (N). However, as the
nucleus gets heavier, the number of neutrons tends to be greater than the number of protons.

Nuclear Energy Levels: Protons and neutrons occupy specific energy levels within the nucleus. These levels can each hold a
maximum of two particles with opposite spins.

Stability and Filled Levels: Nuclei with completely filled energy levels are more stable.

Even Numbers: Nuclei with an even number of protons and an even number of neutrons (even-even nuclei) are the most stable.

Odd-Even and Even-Odd Nuclei: Nuclei with either an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons (even-odd) or an
odd number of protons and an even number of neutrons (odd-even) are also relatively stable.

Odd-Odd Nuclei: Nuclei with both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons (odd-odd) are the least stable.

In Summary: The stability of a nucleus depends on the balance of protons and neutrons, the arrangement of these particles in
energy levels, and the overall number of protons and neutrons.
Mass defect:
• Binding energy per neucleon curve:
• (b) Sketch the curve of the binding energy per nucleon for the most stable nucleus against the corresponding
mass number and discuss its nature. What information can you obtain from this curve?(17)[17-18]
The binding energy per nucleon curve is a graph that plots the average energy holding a nucleon in the nucleus
(binding energy per nucleon,)A of nuclei. Below is a description of the curve's shape, its features, and the
information it conveys.
Beiser’s Math :
❖ Important concept related to
Binding energy in giasuddin
791-794 for math pages must
do those maths
Radioactive disintegration
Positron=e^+
Electron=e^-
Half life,Mean life
Half-life :
Math
Beiser’s Math :
c) A piece of wood weighs 50 grams and shows C activity of 320 disintegrations per minute. Estimate the length
of time which has elapsed since this piece of wood was part of a living tree. Assume that a living plant shows a
"C activity of 12 disintegrations per minute per gram. Half life of "C is 5730 years.17-18]
❖ Important concept related to
Nuclear reaction in
giasuddin 819-823 for math
pages must do those maths
Radioactive decay
What are Radioactive Series?

A radioactive series is a chain of radioactive decays where one unstable isotope (parent nuclide)
undergoes a series of decays (alpha and beta) to ultimately form a stable, non-radioactive isotope
(daughter nuclide).
The Four Series:

The image lists four distinct radioactive series, each characterized by a specific pattern in the mass
numbers of the isotopes involved:
Thorium Series (4n): Mass numbers of isotopes in this series are multiples of 4.
Neptunium Series (4n+1): Mass numbers are one more than a multiple of 4.
Uranium Series (4n+2): Mass numbers are two more than a multiple of 4.
Actinium Series (4n+3): Mass numbers are three more than a multiple of 4.
Key Points:

Alpha Decay: Reduces the mass number by 4.

Beta Decay: Increases the atomic number (number of protons) by 1.
Neptunium Series: Not found naturally on Earth due to its short half-life compared to the age of
the solar system.
• In spite of its negative charge, why beta (β) particles emits form a
positively charged nucleus?
Beta decay is driven by the need for the nucleus to become more stable. If a
nucleus has an excess of neutrons, it can undergo beta decay to achieve a more
balanced ratio of protons to neutrons.

Not from the Nucleus: It's crucial to understand that the beta particle is not
directly from the nucleus in the sense of pre-existing there. It's created during
the neutron conversion process.

The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and neutrons. Both are collectively called nucleons. The
protons are positively charged species and the neutrons are neutral species having no charge.
A nucleus becomes positively charged in two ways. The first one is due to the removal of electrons from an
atom which leads to more number of protons in the nucleus as hence the nucleus becomes positively
charged.
The second way is related to the subject of radioactive emission. In this case an unstable nucleus undergoes
radioactive decay either by itself or by attack by a fast moving neutron leads to release of electrons in the
form of beta decay to stabilize the atom.
❖ Important concept related to
Radioactive series in
giasuddin 715 for math must
do those maths
Nuclear reaction
❑ If 198 MeV energy is released form each
fission process of 235U, find the power
output of a reactor that consumes 500 g of
235U in 15 days.[19-20]
Nuclear
reactor:
1. Introduction

A nuclear reactor is a device designed to initiate and control a chain reaction involving nuclear fission.
Fission is the process where a heavy nucleus (like uranium) splits into smaller nuclei, releasing a large
amount of energy.
2. Essential Components of a Nuclear Reactor

Fissionable Material (Fuel): This is the substance that undergoes fission, such as uranium-235, uranium-238,
plutonium-239, plutonium-240, plutonium-241, and thorium-232.
Moderator: Slows down the fast neutrons produced during fission to thermal energies. Common
moderators include graphite, heavy water (D2O), and beryllium.
Neutron Reflector: Reduces the loss of neutrons from the reactor core by reflecting them back in. Good
reflector materials have high scattering cross-sections and low absorption cross-sections for neutrons.
Cooling System: Removes the heat generated during fission. Coolants like water, steam, helium, carbon
dioxide, and molten metals are used to transfer heat.
Control and Safety System: Controls the rate of the chain reaction using control rods made of neutron-
absorbing materials like cadmium or boron. Safety systems protect the reactor and its surroundings from
excessive radiation.
3. Energy Production:
Nuclear reactors produce energy through a process called nuclear fission. Here's a simplified breakdown:

Fissionable Material: The reactor core contains a fissionable material like uranium-235.

Neutron Absorption: A neutron strikes the uranium-235 nucleus, causing it to become unstable.

Nuclear Fission: The unstable nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei (called fission fragments), releasing a
significant amount of energy in the form of heat and kinetic energy of the fission fragments.

Neutron Emission: The fission process also releases several neutrons.

Chain Reaction: These released neutrons can then strike other uranium-235 nuclei, causing them to undergo
fission as well. This creates a self-sustaining chain reaction, where the process continues to generate energy.

Heat Removal: The heat generated by the fission process is removed from the reactor core using a coolant
(such as water or liquid sodium).

Energy Conversion: The hot coolant is then used to heat water and produce steam, which drives a turbine to
generate electricity.
Key Points:

Energy Release: The energy released during fission is due to the difference in binding energy between
the original heavy nucleus and the lighter fission fragments.
Chain Reaction: The ability to sustain a chain reaction is crucial for the efficient operation of a nuclear
reactor.
Safety: Controlling the chain reaction is essential to prevent accidents and ensure the safe operation of
the reactor.
Fission reactions generate heat within the reactor core.
The heat is transferred to a coolant (like water).
The hot coolant is used to boil water and produce steam.
The steam drives a turbine, which generates electricity.
4. Key Points

Nuclear reactors are highly efficient energy sources, producing a significant amount of energy from a
small amount of fuel.
Controlling the chain reaction is crucial for safe and efficient operation.
Safety systems are essential to prevent accidents and protect the environment.
Nuclear
fisson:
Nuclear fisson:
a significant amount of energy can be released by breaking a large nucleus into smaller ones. This is
because the binding energy per nucleon is higher for lighter nuclei. However, splitting a nucleus isn't
straightforward.
Nuclear Fission: Meitner and Frisch proposed that the uranium nucleus, upon absorbing a neutron,
undergoes a process called "fission" – splitting into two lighter nuclei (in this case, barium and krypton).
This term was inspired by the process of cell division in biology.
4. The Fission Process

Neutron Capture: The process begins with a uranium nucleus capturing a slow-moving neutron.
Compound Nucleus Formation: This creates a short-lived "compound nucleus" with a higher mass and
atomic number.
Nuclear Split: The compound nucleus then splits into two (roughly equal) smaller nuclei, releasing a
significant amount of energy.
Fission Fragments: The resulting smaller nuclei are called "fission fragments."
5. Key Points:

Energy Release: Fission releases a substantial amount of energy due to the difference in binding energy
between the original heavy nucleus and the lighter fission fragments.
Neutron Emission: Fission typically also releases additional neutrons. These neutrons can then induce
fission in other uranium nuclei, leading to a chain reaction.
Importance: Nuclear fission is the principle behind nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.