SPEED MEASUREMENT

Speed - the rate of change of position of an object in any direction. Speed is measured as the
ratio of distance to the time in which the distance was covered.
There are two types of motion for which the speed can be measured:-
 Linear motion - involves an object moving from one point to another along a path.
Measured in metres per second (m/s). when direction is considered, the rate of movement
is known as velocity.
 Circular/ rotational motion - involves an object rotating about an axis i.e. how fast an
object is turning. Measured in revolutions per minute (rpm) or degrees/rad per second
(angular velocity).

Types of speed measuring devices

1. Tachometers
The tachometer is a measuring instrument used for measuring the angular (rotary) velocity of a
rotating object. They measure rotational speed in revolutions per minute (RPM). It is important
to measure the rotating speed of machines in various industrial applications, automobiles, etc.
which can be done by tachometers.
The tachometers can be of two types mechanical and electrical type. The mechanical tachometer
directly measures the angular velocity in rpm. While the electrical tachometers convert angular
velocity into a proportional electrical signal (voltage).
 i. Electrical Tachometers
By measuring the electrical voltage with help of measuring instruments the rotational speed or
angular velocity can be determined. The electrical tachometers are classified into two different
types. They are:-
 DC tachometer generator
 AC tachometer generator.
These type of tachometers consists of ac or dc generators that convert the rotational or angular
speed into dc or ac voltage. The electrical voltage developed in the conductor is due to the
relative perpendicular motion between the magnetic field and the conductor. The magnitude of
the voltage which is developed in the conductor is proportional to the angular velocity of the
conductor.

 DC Tachometer Generator
It consists of a permanent magnet and a small armature/winding. The armature is placed between
the poles of the magnet. The rotating shaft whose rotating speed or whose angular speed/velocity
is to be measured is coupled to the armature. The figure below shows a dc tachometer generator.

So, when the shaft rotates the armature also revolves in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet. As the armature is made up of a conducting material, its rotation results in the
generation of an e.m.f. The current flowing in the armature is collected through commutator and
brushes and thus voltage is generated which can be measured using a moving coil voltmeter. In
the case of a short circuit, the current from the generator is limited by series resistance.
The generated e.m.f in the armature is proportional to the rotating speed of the shaft coupled to
the armature and the polarity of induced emf gives the direction of rotation. Therefore, the
measure of the voltage generated gives the unknown speed and its direction of rotation.
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Advantages of DC Tachometer Generator :
 The generated emf is directly proportional to speed.
 The direction of rotation of armature is known by the polarity of generated voltage.
 The range of output voltage is about 10mV/rpm and it can be measured by means of a
moving coil voltmeter that contains a uniform scale.
 The presence of a series resistor limits the current from the generator in case of a short
circuit on the output side.
 The relationship between input (speed) and output (voltage) is linear.
Disadvantages of DC Tachometer Generator :
 Maintenance of brushes and commutator has to be done frequently in order to avoid
errors that may be produced due to any change in the contact resistance between brushes
and commutator.
 Large values of armature current result in distortion of the field of the permanent magnet.

 AC Tachometer Generator

The drawbacks of dc tachometers due to the presence of the commutator are not present in ac
tachometers. Because in ac tachometers the coil is wound on the stator and the magnet is allowed
to rotate. The rotating magnet can be either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet.
The machine whose angular speed is to be measured is connected to the rotating magnet. When
the magnet rotates the flux lines are cut by the stationary coil and thus according to the
electromagnetic induction law an emf is induced in the stator coil. The amplitude or frequency of
the induced voltage gives the measure of speed as both the parameters are proportional to the
speed of rotation.
The circuit shown above is used when it is required to measure speed in terms of the amplitude
of the induced voltage. The voltage generated by the ac tachometer generator is rectified and
smoothened before it is measured by moving coil voltmeter.
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Advantages of AC Tachometer Generator :

 The amplitude and frequency of voltage induced in stator winding are proportional to
speed.
 The unknown speed can be measured in two ways. One is by measuring the amplitude
and the other is by measuring the frequency of the induced voltage.
 The rectified output voltage can be measured by means of a moving coil voltmeter that
contains a uniform scale.
 The problems of the dc tachometer generator due to the presents of the commutator are
absent.
 The relationship between input (speed) and output (amplitude and frequency of voltage)
is linear.
Disadvantages of AC Tachometer Generator :
 Under low-speed conditions, the resulting output voltage frequency is low.
 Under high-speed conditions impedance of coils increases along with frequency. So in
order to have good linearity, the input impedance of the display device should be high
compared to the impedance of coils.

ii. Mechanical Tachometers

 Hand speed indicator:
The indicator has an integral stop watch and counter with automatic disconnect. The spindle
operates when brought in contact with the shaft, but the counter does not function until the start
and wind button is pressed to start the watch and engage the automatic clutch. Depressing of the
starting button also serves to wind the starting watch. After a fixed time interval (usually 3 or 6
seconds), the revolution counter automatically gets disengaged. The instrument indicates the
average speed over the short interval, and the dial is designed to indicate the rotational speed
directly in rpm. These speed measuring units have an accuracy of about 1% of the full scale and
have been used for speeds within the range 20,000 to 30,000 rpm.

 Slipping clutch tachometer:

The input shaft is connected to the slipping clutch through a frictional material. The spiral spring
is placed between slipping clutch and indicator shaft. The input shaft rotates and causes the
slipping clutch to rotate which then twists the spiral spring. This causes the indicating shaft to
move which then moves the pointer on the calibrated scale. The pointer position gives a measure
of the shaft speed.
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 Vibrating reed tachometer

Tachometers of the vibrating reed type utilize the fact that speed and vibration in a body are
interrelated. The instrument consists of a set of vertical reeds, each having its own natural
frequency (frequency at which a system operates when not subjected to repeated force i.e. only 1
force) of vibration. The reeds are lined up in order of their natural frequency and are fastened to
a base plate at one end, with the other end free to vibrate. When the tachometer base plate is
placed in mechanical contact with the frame of a rotating machine, a reed tuned to resonate with
the machine vibrations responds most frequently. The indicated reed vibration frequency can be
calibrated to indicate the speed of the rotating machine
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 Centrifugal force tachometer

The device operates on the principle that centrifugal force is proportional to the speed of rotation.
Two flyballs (small weights) are arranged about a central spindle. Centrifugal force developed by
these rotating balls works to compress the spring as a function of rotational speed. A grooved
collar or sleeve attached to the free end of the spring then slides on the spindle and its position
can be calibrated in terms of the shaft speed. Through a series of linkages, the motion of the
sleeve is usually amplified and communicated to the pointer of the instrument to indicate speed.
Certain attachments can be mounted onto the spindle to use these tachometers for the
measurement of linear speed.
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2. Stroboscopic Method of Speed Measurement

A stroboscope or strobe is an instrument that works on the phenomenon of stroboscopic effect.
It creates a stop motion effect of a rotating object by flashing a high-intensity light on it. This
appearance of a moving object to be stationary can be used to study rotating, oscillating or
vibrating objects.
Hence, a stroboscopic instrument can be used for the measurement of rotational speed or rotary
motion or angular velocity (RPM) of a motor or any rotating object. Angular speeds ranging
between 600 to 20000 rpm can be measured with the help of a stroboscope tachometer. A
stroboscope tachometer uses a variable frequency flashing light called strobotron.

Stroboscope Tachometer
A stroboscope or stroboscopic tachometer is also called a flashlight stroboscope used for the
measurement of angular velocity or rotational speed by the stroboscopic method. It consists of a
flashing light of variable frequency in which the flashing frequency of the stroboscope light can
be adjusted. A variable frequency oscillator is employed to control the flashing frequency of the
light. By adjusting the oscillator frequency the angular speed can be measured.

In order to measure the angular velocity of a shaft or any rotating body, a disc with distinctive
marks is mounted to the rotating shaft whose angular velocity is to be measured. The stroboscope
is provided with a neon gas discharge bulb. The stroboscope is adjusted such that the light
flashes directly on the reference marks.
The frequency of these flashes is varied and adjusted by means of a frequency adjustment knob
until the reference marks on the disc appear to be stationary. This occurs when the frequency of
the flash lamp is equal to the speed of rotation of the reference marks on the disk and hence the
shaft. Thus, the frequency of flashing light of stroboscope gives the angular velocity or speed
when calibrated in terms of speed.
Advantages of Stroboscope Tachometer
 In this method, the angular velocity can be measured without making any physical
contact with the shaft i.e., without imposing any load on the shaft.
 The method is best suited where physical contact with the rotating shaft is not possible.
Disadvantages of Stroboscope Tachometer
 It is difficult to measure angular velocity if the available light in the environment or
ambient light is more than a particular level.
 The accuracy in the measurements gets affected if the frequency of the oscillator is not
stabilized to give a fixed frequency.
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3. Pitot Tubes
Pitot tube is basically defined as a device which is used for measuring the velocity of flow at any
point in the pipe or a channel. It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation - If the velocity
of flow at a point decreases, pressure will be increased at that point due to the conversion of
kinetic energy in to pressure energy.

It consists of two hollow tubes that sense pressure at different places within the pipe. These
hollow tubes can be mounted separately in a pipe or installing together in one casing as a single
device. One tube measures the stagnation or impact pressure (Total Pressure) and another tube
measures only static pressure usually at the wall of the pipe.
 Working Principle
When a solid body is kept centrally and stationery in a pipeline with flowing fluid, the velocity
of the fluid starts reducing and the pressure fluid increases due to the conversion of kinetic
energy into pressure energy (Bernoulli’s Principle) due to the presence of the body. At directly
in front of the solid body, the velocity becomes zero. This point is known as the stagnation point.

The fluid flow can be measured by measuring the differences between the pressure at the
normal flow line (static pressure) and the stagnation point (Stagnation/Total pressure).
The difference between the stagnation/total pressure and the static pressure is known as the
dynamic pressure which is related to the velocity of the fluid.
The equation of velocity is derived by applying Bernoulli’s principle; the final equation is

Velocity 𝑉 = √2𝑔ℎ
g = acceleration due to gravity
h= height difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure
Pitot tubes are used in the measurement of speed aircrafts, boats and fluid flows
 4. Accelerometers
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that is used to measure acceleration forces.
Such forces may be static like the force of gravity or, they may be dynamic/vibrations as in the
case of mobile devices.
An accelerometer comes in the form of a simple circuit for a large electronic device. The
accelerometer is made of different parts and works in many ways, two of which are
the Piezoelectric Accelerometer and the Capacitance Accelerometer.
i. Piezoelectric accelerometers
Piezoelectric accelerometers use the piezoelectric effect (piezoelectric materials generate
electricity when put under physical stress) to detect change in acceleration.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
For instance, quartz is a piezoelectric crystal and when it is attached to a mass, the movement of
the accelerometer causes the mass to squeeze the crystal, in turn producing a tiny electric
voltage. Such accelerometers are usually used in vibration and shock measurement.
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ii. Capacitive accelerometers

Capacitive accelerometers are those that use capacitors to measure force. So if a moving mass
changes the distance between two metal plates, measuring the change in their capacitance
indicates the amount of acting force. The accelerometer translates this capacitance into voltage
for interpretation.
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Applications
 Accelerometers in laptops protect the hard drive from damage. If the laptop were to fall
while in use, the accelerometer would detect the fall and immediately turn off the hard
drive to avoid hitting the reading heads into the hard drive platter.

 Accelerometers in cars are used to detect car crashes and deploy airbags immediately.

5. Optical Speed Measuring devices

Optical sensors are usually known as encoders and incremental position sensors for measuring
angular and linear position and speed. Main components are an LED, a optical disk with a
reference mark, and as a photo sensor with a squaring circuit. A generated light beam provided
by the LED is shone through a grating of the optical disk. The resulting light is measured by a
photo sensor and is automatically converted into a digital output.

They use phototransistors to convert light pulses to digital electrical signals.