Module 3: Reading

Objectives: The objectives are to help learners:

• Improve their reading skill.
• Make them confident and equipped readers.
Expected Outcomes:
The learners at the end of this module shall be able to:
• Read and make use of texts more effectively.
• Utilize the reading skill to gain additional knowledge and confidence to improve speaking
and writing abilities.
Module Outlines:
3.1 Techniques of Effective Reading
3.2 Gathering Ideas and Information from a Given Text
3.3 Evaluating these Ideas and Information
3.4 Interpreting the Text
3.1 Techniques of Effective Reading
Reading is a part of our daily lives which cannot be ignored by any means. Reading is the skill
that helps develop the mind, discover and learn new things, develop the imagination, and
provide support when we speak or write by providing the base. The six techniques that can be
used for effective reading.
Reading is a complex process of receiving and interpreting the written word that involves both
perceptions and thought which involves both recognition and comprehension. Reading is an
active skill, it constantly involves guessing, predicting, checking and asking oneself questions.
Reding is a receptive skill. (Listening and Reading are receptive while Speaking and Writing
are productive skills) Reading is the activity of reconstructing.
 Predicting: Determine what might happen next. It involves making predictions and
guesses while reading a text. Reading is an activity filled with constant guesses that are
later either accepted or rejected. This means that one does not read all sentences in the
same way, but instead relies on a number of words - or 'cues' - to form an idea of what
type of sentence (e.g., an example, an explanation) is likely to follow. It is the ability to
predict or guess what will happen next, using grammatical, logical, and cultural clues.
 Visualizing: Picture the people and events being described. When you read, try to create
mental images of the scenes, characters, and settings. This helps make the text more
vivid and engaging. Visualizing improves comprehension because you are actively
imagining what is happening. It also aids memory and helps in recalling details later.
 Connecting: Connect what you are reading to other texts and the real world. Relate the
content of the text to your own life, experiences, or knowledge from other books and
events. Making connections deepens understanding by placing the information in a
broader context. It allows you to see patterns and themes that enhance interpretation.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
  Questioning: Ask questions about the material you are reading. Engage with the text
by asking who, what, when, where, why, and how. This keeps your mind active and
focused. It helps uncover deeper meanings and clarifies confusing parts of the text,
encouraging critical thinking.
 Clarifying: Investigate, identify main points and summarize. If something is unclear,
pause and try to understand it better—re-read or look up unfamiliar words. Identify the
central ideas and distinguish them from supporting details. Summarizing key points as
you go helps consolidate understanding.
 Evaluating: Judge the story and the actions of the characters. Reflect on the text's
effectiveness, the author’s purpose, and the characters’ choices. Form opinions about
what you read—do you agree with the decisions made? Evaluation helps develop
analytical skills and a deeper appreciation for literature.
 Skimming: Skimming is a form of rapid reading for finding the general idea, to
recognize the key sentences of a passage. This is thematic.
 Scanning: Its specific aim is to locate specific information, and often, we do not even
follow the linearity of the passage to do so. It is to locate the specific information we
need to answer the question. This is Locative.

3.2 Gathering Ideas and Information from a Given Text

Gathering Ideas and Information from a Given Text is a crucial skill in reading comprehension
that involves actively engaging with the material to extract meaningful insights. It requires
readers to identify the main idea, understand the author's purpose, and recognize the context in
which the text is written. By doing so, learners can grasp not only what is being said but also
why and how it is being communicated. Additionally, recognizing key concepts and supporting
details helps deepen understanding and supports critical thinking. This process allows readers
to analyze, interpret, and apply information effectively in both academic and real-world
settings. Learners with a reading comprehension task must identify:
1. Identify the main idea of the text: The main idea is the central point or message the author
wants to convey. It usually ties together all other information in the text. Learners must read
attentively to determine what the entire passage is mostly about. Identifying the main idea helps
in understanding the overall theme and focus of the text.
2. Identify the purpose of the text: The author writes a text with a specific purpose, such as
to inform, entertain, persuade, or explain. Recognizing this purpose helps learners interpret the
tone, language, and structure of the passage. Understanding why the text was written provides
direction for analyzing the content effectively. It also influences how the reader responds to the
material.
3. Identify the context of the text: Context refers to the background or situation in which the
text is written or set. This includes time period, location, cultural references, or social and
historical conditions. Recognizing context helps learners interpret meanings more accurately
and grasp the text’s relevance. It also provides insight into the perspectives of the author and
characters.
4. Identify the concepts mentioned: Concepts are the ideas, themes, or topics discussed in the
text. Learners must be able to pick out and understand these key notions to comprehend the
message. Identifying concepts helps link the text to broader topics or subjects and promotes
critical thinking. This also supports better discussion, analysis, and interpretation of the text.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Difference Between Content and Context
Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or
occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea, or
statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece. It
is necessary for writing to provide information, new concepts, and words to develop thoughts.
Whenever writers use a quote or a fact from some source, it becomes necessary to provide their
readers with some information about the source, to give context to its use. This piece of
information is called context. Context illuminates the meaning and relevance of the text, and
maybe something cultural, historical, social, or political.
Content is a written text, while context is a place or situation. Although a text is not a context,
content could present context within it. For example, if a statement occurs in a certain text, it
is content in its own right, but it is also the context of that statement. It would show what comes
next and what comes before that specific statement. Hence, it presents the context that is the
place, situation or even atmosphere.

3.3 Evaluating gathered Ideas and Information

1. Identify the arguments given in the text:
Evaluating a text begins with recognizing the arguments the author presents to support their
viewpoint or thesis. Evidence, examples, or reasoning often backs these arguments. Readers
must assess whether these arguments are logical, relevant, and convincing. Understanding the
structure and strength of these arguments helps in judging the overall credibility and
effectiveness of the text.
2. Identify the theories used or assumed in the text:
Many texts, especially academic or analytical ones, are built upon certain theories or
frameworks, either explicitly stated or implicitly assumed. Evaluating these requires
identifying which theoretical lens the author is using to analyze a topic. This helps readers
understand the foundation of the author’s perspective and assess how well the theory fits the
context. It also allows for critical comparison with other possible viewpoints or frameworks.
3.4 Interpret the Text
1) Understand what a text says:
Reading a text involves basic comprehension by simply following the thought process of a
discussion or narration. We focus on understanding each sentence, sentence by sentence, and
on following the thought from sentence to sentence, and paragraph to paragraph. There is no
attempt to assess the nature of the discussion and no concern for an overall motive or intent.
Reading what a text says is involved with rote learning if not for basic comprehension,
statements, or gathering information. Reading what a text says is common under many
circumstances:
 When learning the definitions and concepts of a new discipline,
 When there is agreement on the facts of a situation and their interpretation,

Dr. V. K. Sharma
  When a text is taken to offer a complete and objective presentation, or
 When the word of a specific author or source is accepted as authoritative.
Readers simply accept what a text states. When first studying any academic topic, our initial
goal should be to understand what others have discovered before us. Introductory courses ask
learners to learn terms, concepts, and data about a particular area of study. They are expected
to use their imagination and critical faculties to understand the concepts; they are not expected
to question the assertions. The goal is to learn the commonly accepted paradigm for discussing
topics in that field of study.
Finally, remember that repeating the assertions of a text need not suggest a denial of critical
thinking, merely a postponing of or preparation for critical thinking.
2) Understand what a text does:
What a text does is concerned not only with understanding individual remarks, but also with
recognizing the structure of a discussion. We examine what a text does to convey ideas. We
might read this way to understand how an editorial justifies a conclusion, or how a history text
supports interpretations of events. At the previous level of reading and restatement, we
demonstrated comprehension by repeating the thought of the text. Here we are concerned with
describing the discussion:
 What topics are discussed?
 What examples and evidence are used?
 What conclusions are reached?
We want to recognize and describe how evidence is marshalled to reach a final position, rather
than simply following remarks from sentence to sentence.
This level of reading looks at broad portions of the text to identify the structure of the entire
text or discussion. On completion, not only can we repeat what the text says, but we can also
describe in our words what the text does or conveys. We can identify how evidence is used and
how the final points are reached.
3) Understand what a text means:
What a text means infers an overall meaning. We examine features running throughout the text
to see how the discussion shapes our perception of reality. We examine what a text does to
convey meaning: how patterns of content and language shape the portrayal of the topic and
how relationships between those patterns convey the underlying meaning.
Critical Reading
Facts vs. Interpretation
To non-critical readers, texts provide facts. Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the
statements within a text.
To the critical reader, any single text provides but one portrayal of the facts, one individual’s
“take” on the subject matter. Critical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but
also how that text portrays the subject matter. They recognize the various ways in which each
and every text is the unique creation of a unique author.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
A non-critical reader might read a history book to learn the facts of the situation or to discover
an accepted interpretation of those events. A critical reader might read the same work to
appreciate how a particular perspective on the events and a particular selection of facts can lead
to particular understanding.
What a Text Says, Does, and Means: Reaching for an Interpretation
Non-critical reading is satisfied with recognizing what a text says and restating the key
remarks.
Critical reading goes two steps further. Having recognized what a text says, it reflects on what
the text does by making such remarks. Is it offering examples? Arguing? Appealing for
sympathy? Contrasting to clarify a point? Finally, critical readers then infer what the text, as a
whole, means, based on the earlier analysis.
Three Ways to Read and Discuss Texts
The following three steps or modes of analysis reflect three types of reading and discussion.
1. Restatement: What a text says – restating what the text says, talking about the original
topic, and demonstrating your comprehension by repeating the thought of the text.
2. Description: What a text does – describing what a text does, identifying aspects of
description.
 What topics are discussed?
 What examples and evidence are used?
 What conclusions are reached?

3. Interpretation: What a text means – This final level of reading infers an overall
meaning. We examine features running throughout the text to see how the discussion
shapes our perception of reality. We examine what a text does to convey meaning: how
patterns of content and language shape the portrayal of the topic and how relationships
between those patterns convey underlying meaning. It analyzes the text and asserts a
meaning for the text as a whole,

Goals of Critical Reading

Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask students to accomplish certain goals:
 to recognize an author’s purpose
 to understand tone and persuasive elements
 to recognize bias
Notice that none of these goals actually refers to something on the page. Each requires
inferences from evidence within the text:
 recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language
 recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the nature of language
choices
 recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and
language

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Critical reading is not simply close and careful reading. To read critically, one must actively
recognize and analyze evidence on the page.
Probably the single greatest key to critical reading is the realization that critical reading is not
concerned with “what the examples are,” as with “what the examples are examples of”.
“What the examples are" - Focus: This asks for a list or identification of the examples
themselves. Implied Question: Can you tell me which items are the examples?
"What the examples are examples of?" - Focus: This asks for the concept, category, or idea
the examples illustrate. Implied Question: What idea or rule do these examples represent?

For quick insight into this notion, consider the remark:

Mervin runs like a duck.

The statement uses a duck as an example to suggest how Mervin runs. To understand how
Mervin runs, we must recognize what running like a duck is an example of. After all, if ducks
ran with grace and ease, the original statement would be a compliment!
An alternative statement such as
Mervin swims like a duck.

has an entirely different meaning. The comparison takes a similar form: Mervin's actions are
compared to those of a duck. But we quickly see that the example of swimming like a duck is
an example of something very different (grace) from running like a duck (awkwardness).
Conclusion vs. Example: The Example Wins!
The impact of the choice of examples on our understanding cannot be overemphasized.
Consider what happens if a text labels someone as moral, but offers an example of that person
behaving in an immoral manner:
The candidate is a just and honourable man. He beats his wife and lies to his children.
The example
He beats his wife and lies to his children.
contradicts the claim
The candidate is a just and honourable man.
Which do you believe? The example wins. We disregard the claim and draw our own
conclusion from the evidence: the candidate is not just and honourable, he's wicked! If we do
not simply reject the passage for being contradictory, we must interpret the claim that he is just
and honourable as sarcasm. But in no case will we disregard the evidence and accept the
conclusion as offered.
When an author asserts a generalization, we, as readers, want proof. We want evidence (an
example). We want evidence that is
a). reliable (that is, accurate and truthful)
b). representative (that is, not anecdotal or an exception)
c). relevant (that is, that applies to the situation at hand)

When reading a text, we must first recognize that examples are indeed present. We must see
that certain statements offer specific support for more general remarks. We can then take the
next step and recognize what those examples are examples of. In the first instance, we describe
the use of examples by the text, what the text does. In the second instance, we infer additional

Dr. V. K. Sharma
meaning from those examples, and, in the process, test whether the text really offers support
for its conclusions.

Analysis and Inference: The Tools of Critical Reading

1. Analysis:
Analysis is a particular form of investigation. In general usage, analysis refers to any close,
careful, or systematic examination. In the discussion here, the term “analysis“is used in its more
technical meaning. Analysis is a process of investigating something by breaking it into parts
for closer examination. Complex topics are broken down into simpler ones. Intricate patterns
are broken down into less complicated elements. A problem is simplified by limiting the
amount that must be examined at any one time.
The goal of analysis is not simply to discover parts within the whole, but to understand the
whole. Once the parts are identified, analysis then seeks to determine how those parts are
related. From a recognition of the nature of the parts and the relationship between the parts. we
infer additional meaning. In the analytic model, the whole is seen as greater than the sum of its
parts. What are the parts of a text? The simplest answer is that texts are composed of words,
which form sentences, which form paragraphs, which form larger sections of the text as a
whole. Texts can also be analyzed in terms of elements or themes occurring throughout the
discussion.

The mystery of critical reading lies in what to look for (analysis ) and how to think about
what you find (inference). The first part —what to look for— involves recognizing those
aspects of a discussion that control the meaning. The second part —how to think about what
you find— involves the processes of inference, the interpretation of data from within the text.
Recall that critical reading assumes that each author offers a portrayal of the topic. Critical
reading thus relies on an examination of those choices that any and all authors must make when
framing a presentation: choices of content, language, and structure. Readers examine each of
the three areas of choice, and consider their effect on the meaning.
2. Inference: Reading Ideas as well as Words
Ideally, speakers mean what they say and say what they mean. Spoken communication isn't
that straightforward. Much of what we understand—whether while listening or reading—is
understood indirectly, through inference. Listening involves a complex mix of hearing words,
analysing sentence structure, and trying to find meaning within the context of the situation.
The situation with the written word is no different. A text does not contain a meaning. Readers
construct meaning by what they take the words to mean and how they process sentences to find
meaning. Readers draw on their knowledge of the language and conventions of social
communication. They also draw on other factors, such as knowledge of the author, the
occasion, or the audience. They infer unstated meanings based on social conventions, shared
knowledge, shared experience, or shared values. They make sense of remarks by recognizing
implications and drawing conclusions.
Readers read ideas more than words, and infer, rather than find, meaning.
Inferring Meaning
Consider the following statement:
The Senator admitted owning the gun that killed his wife.
On the face of it, we have a simple statement about what someone said. Our understanding,
however, includes much that is not stated. We find meaning embedded in the words and

Dr. V. K. Sharma
phrases. Unpacking that meaning, we can see that the Senator was married and his wife is now
dead, although this is not actually stated as such. (In fact, the sentence is about an admission
of gun ownership.) It is as though the single sentence contains several assertions:
 There is a Senator.
 He owns a gun.
 He is married.
 His wife is dead.
 That gun caused her death.
 The Senator admitted owning that gun.
Clearly, the original sentence is a clearer and simpler way of conveying all of this information.
Writers take note!
On a more subtle level, we recognize that a public figure confronts involvement in a major
crime. Our understanding need not stop there. We infer that the gun (or at least a bullet) has
probably been recovered and identified as the murder weapon—or the notion of an admission
would make little sense.
We also recognize the danger of unwarranted inferences. We recognize that we do not
necessarily know if the Senator's admission is true. We do not really know whether the Senator
is in any way responsible for his wife's death, nor do we know that she died of gunshot wounds
(she could have been hit over the head with the gun). We do not even know if it was murder—
it might have been suicide or an accident.
Are we reading things in here? Or are these meanings truly within the sentence? We are going
beyond what the text says, but not beyond what it actually means to most readers.
Inferences such as these are essential to both written and spoken communication. Writers often
only hint at what they mean, and mean much more than they actually seem to say. On the other
hand, we can see the danger (and temptation) of assuming facts or interpretations for which
evidence is not present, and recognize that a critical reader reads with an open mind, open to
many possible interpretations.
The following story may be presented as a brain twister for a reading exercise.

A man and his son are driving in a car. The car crashes into a tree, killing the father and seriously
injuring his son. At the hospital, the boy needs to have surgery. Upon looking at the boy, the
doctor says (telling the truth), "I cannot operate on him. He is my son."

How can this be? Decide on your answer before reading further.
Whether this passage is a brain twister or a reading passage, readers must assume that any lack
of understanding is not due to the story but due to their own lack of understanding. We must
work harder to think about how the story might make sense.
We quickly see that we have to explain how a doctor can have a son ("I cannot operate on him.
He is my son.") when at the same time the father is dead (“The car crashes into a tree, killing
the father”). The answer: The doctor is the boy's mother.
Implications For Reading
All reading is an active, reflective, problem-solving process. We do not simply read words; we
read ideas, thoughts that spring from the relationships of various assertions. The notion of
inference equations is particularly powerful in this regard. Readers can use the notion of
inference equations to test whether or not the ingredients for a given inferences are indeed
present.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 3. The Process of Inference:
Inference is a mental process by which we reach a conclusion based on specific evidence.
Inferences are the stock and trade of detectives examining clues, of doctors diagnosing
diseases, and of car mechanics repairing engine problems. We infer motives, purpose, and
intentions.
Inference is essential to, and part of, being human. We engage in inference every day. We
interpret actions to be examples of behaviour characteristics, intents, or expressions of
particular feelings. We infer it is raining when we see someone with an open umbrella. We infer
that people are thirsty if they ask for a glass of water.
We want to find significance. We listen to remarks, and want to make sense of them. What
might the speaker mean? Why is he or she saying that? We go beyond specific remarks to the
underlying significance or broader meaning. When we read that someone cheated on his or her
income taxes, we might take that as an example of financial ingenuity, daring, or stupidity. We
seek purposes and reasons.
Inferences are not random. While they may come about mysteriously with a sudden jump of
recognition. inferences are very orderly. Inferences may be guesses, but they are educated
guesses based on supporting evidence. The evidence seems to require that we reach a specific
conclusion.
Evidence is said to imply; readers infer. We derive a reasoned conclusion from the evidence
and inference.
The above examples imply whether everyone will reach the same conclusion. That obviously
is not the case—as the examples above suggest. The umbrella might be protection from the
sun, the request for water might indicate a need to take a pill. Here again, the line between
inference and jumping to a conclusion can be awfully thin.
Inferences are not achieved with mathematical rigour. Inferences do not have the certainty
obtained with deductive reasoning. Inferences tend to reflect prior knowledge and
experience as well as personal beliefs and assumptions. Inferences thus tend to reflect one's
stake in a situation or one's interests in the outcome. People may reason differently or bring
different assumptions or premises to bear.
More often than not, disagreements are based not on differences in reasoning, but on the values,
assumptions, or information brought to bear. The more evidence we have before us, and the
more carefully we reason, the more valid our inferences. This principle plays an important role
with reading: the more evidence within a text we incorporate into our interpretation, the more
likely we have not gone astray from any intended meaning.
1.1 Inference: Inference Equations
Inferences are not random. Inferences follow rules. Not mathematical rules, but rules based on
common experience and social conventions. We draw inferences from the relationships of
certain ideas, and can, in effect, write "equations" to suggest this process.
The overall meaning is conveyed not only by the individual assertions, the content, but also by
how the elements of the content are related to one another, the structure. We identify the nature
and relationship of parts, and infer underlying or unspoken meanings. Consider another set of
examples.

The class went to the beach and it rained.

The class went to the beach although it rained.
The class went to the beach before it rained.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
The information is the same in all three sentences:

The class went to the beach

It rained.

But the relationship of the two assertions is different in each sentence:

1. The class went to the beach [series] it rained.
2. The class went to the beach [in contrast to] it rained.
3. The class went to the beach [earlier in time than] it rained.
The meaning of each sentence is therefore different:
1. bad luck
2. perseverance or determination
3. good planning
Depending on the relationship between the two assertions, the class is portrayed as
disappointed, determined, or lucky.
1.2 Inference: Denotation
Words, it has been observed, are sneaky—they change meaning when you put them somewhere
else. Consider the term "ate" in the following examples. The word ate means different things
in each of these sentences;
The boy ate the apple in the pie. ➡Took in solid food as nourishment.
The acid ate the metal. ➡ Caused to rust or disintegrate.
His guilt ate into him. ➡ Produced worry or anxiety.
The stapler ate staples. ➡Used up.

The same sequence of letters— a t e —denotes more than one concept.

Whether we think of these various meanings of "ate" as different meanings of the same word
or as the meanings of four different words, we still have to recognize the appropriate meaning
in any given context. As we read, our brain calls up possible meanings. With barely a pause,
we infer an appropriate meaning in each of the remarks. Readers infer word meanings
consistent with the surrounding discussion. They infer meaning from contextual clues, whether
on the page or, in this case, from our prior knowledge. Examples like this make clear that we
do not simply read words, so much as interpret them.
Inference: Denotation with "broke"
 He broke the vase. ➡ Physically shattered or damaged an object.
 She broke the silence with a laugh. ➡ Interrupted or ended something.
 He broke the record in the 100m sprint. ➡ Surpassed a previous achievement.
 The news broke suddenly. ➡ Became known or was released.
Inference: Denotation with "ran"
 He ran a mile in six minutes. ➡ Moved quickly on foot.
 She ran a successful business. ➡ Managed or operated.
 The engine ran smoothly. ➡ Functioned or operated.
 The colours ran in the wash. ➡ Spread or bled due to liquid.

Ambiguity

Dr. V. K. Sharma
The fact that common words tend to have multiple meanings can lead to ambiguity, a situation
in which two or more equally legitimate readings exist. In many instances, any potential
ambiguity is easily resolved.
The kids played in the snow.
Here snow is obviously a reference to frozen water, not heroin (well, in most contexts!). When
more than one meaning of a word makes sense, we have lexical (i.e., referring to words)
ambiguity. Lexical ambiguity occurs where a single word has multiple legitimate meanings,
and the sentence could be interpreted in more than one way depending on the context:
The school had many poor students on scholarships.
Are the students on scholarship "not rich" or "not good students"? The sentence is ambiguous.

She saw the man with the telescope.

Meaning 1: She used a telescope to see the man.
Meaning 2: She saw a man who was holding a telescope.
The chicken is ready to eat.
Meaning 1: The chicken (as food) is cooked and ready to be eaten.
Meaning 2: The chicken (the animal) is hungry and ready to eat food.

Readers draw on prior knowledge and past experience to infer the appropriate meaning. They
at once "read" both the language and their knowledge of the world.

1.3 Inference: Association and Reference

When reading a text, we often need to infer meaning—that is, to understand something that the
writer does not state directly. Two common ways we do this are through association and
reference. Further, we read ideas, not words—as well as the social nature of language—can be
seen in the ways readers and authors rely on shared cultural understanding. The author assumed
readers would be familiar with the appropriate references. In so doing, the authors can imply
additional meanings, convey a sense of shared understanding, and express thoughts in a more
picturesque way. Reference and association are often used to imply acceptance or rejection,
approval or disapproval. Reference and association work in somewhat similar ways.
Association: Inference through association happens when a word, phrase, or image reminds us
of something else because of a shared idea, context, or experience. Association has to do with
‘what features are suggested to our minds about it, by the actual context or by past associations.’
Association invokes ideas and feelings through a particular reference. The meaning is
suggested, not stated outright. We associate ideas based on cultural knowledge, emotions, or
shared experiences.

Example 1: The sound of sirens brought back the memory of that night. Inference: Sirens are
associated with emergencies or trauma. The reader infers that something tragic or intense
happened "that night."
Example 2: She walked into the room, and the scent of roses filled the air. Inference: Roses
are often associated with romance, so we may infer that the room has a romantic or sentimental
atmosphere.

Reference: Inference through reference means interpreting a word or phrase that points to or
refers back to something else in the text. Reference has to do with ‘features of meaning (which)

Dr. V. K. Sharma
are in a linguistic form’. It requires the reader to connect pronouns or phrases to earlier ideas,
events, or people.
Example 1: Ravi dropped the glass. It shattered instantly. Inference: "It" refers to the glass,
even though the sentence doesn't repeat the word.
Example 2: The team was nervous before the game. This feeling was understandable.
Inference: "This feeling" refers to the nervousness of the team.

The difference between association and reference is not as important as the key similarity: both
reference and association involve inferring meaning or feelings not explicitly stated within a
text.
You do not have to be able to distinguish between reference and association. It is enough that
you infer meanings and judgments that seemingly go beyond the specific words on the page.
Rely on both your prior knowledge and your imagination.
Allusions:
A special form of reference, allusions are indirect or brief references to well-known people,
events, places, or works, especially from literature, history, mythology, religion, or popular
culture. Writers use allusions to add deeper meaning, create connections, or evoke emotion
without explaining the full background, assuming the reader will recognize the reference.
Key Features of Allusions:
 They are brief (usually just a word or phrase).
 They refer to something outside the text.
 They rely on the reader’s cultural or literary knowledge.
 They enrich the meaning by suggesting deeper ideas.
Examples of Allusions:
a) Literary Allusion: He was a real Romeo with the ladies.
Allusion to: Romeo, the romantic hero from Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet. Implied meaning:
He was charming and romantically persuasive.
b) Mythological Allusion: She opened Pandora’s box when she brought up that
topic.
Allusion to: Pandora’s box from Greek mythology, which unleashed all the world's evils.
Implied meaning: She started a situation that caused a lot of unforeseen trouble.
c) Biblical Allusion: He’s the Good Samaritan of our neighbourhood.
Allusion to: The Good Samaritan from the Bible, who helped a stranger in need. Implied
meaning: He is kind and selflessly helps others.
d) Historical Allusion: This decision might be his Waterloo.
Allusion to: The Battle of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated. Implied meaning:
This might be his ultimate failure or downfall.
Thus, Reference, association and allusions draw on shared cultural knowledge to enrich
discussion.
1.4 Inference: Figurative Language
Figurative language is when words or expressions are used in a non-literal way to create a vivid
image or deeper meaning. Figurative language can shape perception. It includes metaphors,

Dr. V. K. Sharma
similes, personification, hyperbole, etc. When we read figurative language, we must make an
inference—that is, figure out the implied meaning beyond the literal words. How do we know
statements are meant to be read figuratively? Quite simply: because the literal meaning does
not make sense and another meaning does. When the literal meaning doesn't make sense, we
try alternative understandings.
Figurative meaning is not always obvious, as with the simile
Time is like a river.
We find meaning by using imagination, reason, and trial. The meaning may be that both life
and a river go on endlessly, or that time follows a definite but wandering path. We look for a
common element.
The metaphor
Life is a game.
It is suggesting that in life, there are winners and losers, or that rules must be followed. We
must turn to the larger context to be sure.
Surfing the Web
Literal meaning: Surfing refers to the sport of riding waves on the ocean.
Metaphorical meaning: In this context, surfing the Web means browsing or navigating through
various websites and pages on the internet, moving fluidly from one to another.
Inference: Just as a surfer moves from wave to wave, a web user jumps from one link or page
to another. The metaphor suggests freedom, fluidity, and exploration in using the internet.
Cruising the Electronic Highway
Literal meaning: Cruising means driving smoothly at a steady speed, and a highway is a long
road for travel.
Metaphorical meaning: Cruising the electronic highway refers to navigating the digital world,
especially the internet or computer networks.
Inference: The metaphor likens the internet to a road system, and users are like drivers
travelling through a vast network of information. It suggests smooth access, speed, and
movement through digital spaces.

Choices: The Ingredients of Texts

All authors/readers confront three areas of choice:
 the choice of content
 the choice of language
 the choice of structure
Critical reading thus relies on an analysis of choices of content, language, and structure.
The choice of content
Dr. V. K. Sharma
Critical readers are consciously aware of the act of choice underlying the content. They
distinguish between assertions of fact, opinion, and belief. They are aware whether evidence
consists of references to published data, anecdotes, or speculation, and they evaluate the
persuasiveness of a text accordingly. Interpretation begins with recognizing patterns of content
throughout a text - patterns of references, examples, illustrations, or ideas.

The choice of language

Just as authors must choose what to say, they must choose how to say it. The choice of content
and language are closely related. How we say something is often as important as what we say.
Choices of content and language reflect and reinforce each other.
Critical readers are aware of how language is being used. They notice whether a text refers to
someone as a bean counter (no respect) or an academic statistician (suggesting
professionalism), whether some is said to have asserted a claim (with confidence, and no need
for proof) or floated a claim (without backing, as a trial balloon). And they draw inferences
from the choice of language they observe.
The choice of structure
Critical readers are aware of the structure of a discussion, both in terms of the movement of
ideas from beginning to end and in terms of the relationship of ideas throughout the discussion.
They distinguish between assertions offered as reason or conclusion, cause or effect, evidence
or illustration. They recognize patterns of contrast and distinguish whether contrasting ideas
are shown to be dissimilar, competing, or contradictory.

Forming parts is only the first step in analysis. We must then recognize how the parts are related
to each other.
a) how words are related to form phrases and sentences
b) how sentences are related to form paragraphs
c) how paragraphs are related to form complete texts , and
d) how patterns of content and language are related to shape the thought of a text as a
whole .

The second sense is in terms of the relationships between parts.

a) elements in a series: a listing of similar items, often in a distinct order, whether in
terms of location, size, importance, etc.
b) time order or chronological listing: a series of events in order of occurrence
c) general/specific relationship: examples and generalizations
d) comparison: similarity and/or difference (contrast)
e) logical relationships: reason/conclusion, cause/effect, and conditional relationship
between factors

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Dr. V. K. Sharma