Lithosphere study Notes
1. What is the Lithosphere?
• “Lithos” = rock (Greek).
• Lithosphere: solid outer part of Earth.
• Made up of the crust + upper mantle.
• Studied in lithology.
2. Internal Structure of the Earth
• Crust (Lithosphere) – outer layer, thin and solid.
• Mantle (Mesosphere) – thick layer of semi-solid rock.
• Core (Barysphere) – inner layer, mostly iron and nickel.
3. Core Characteristics
• Deepest part of Earth.
• Divided into inner (solid) and outer (liquid) core.
• Made of NIFE (Nickel + Iron).
• Extremely hot (~1927°C), under high pressure.
4. Mantle Characteristics
• Below crust, above core (~2900 km thick).
• Made of dense rock like olivine.
• Contains convection currents that move plates.
5. Crust Characteristics
• Thinest layer (5–48 km).
• Two types:
o SIAL – continental (silica + aluminum).
o SIMA – oceanic (silica + magnesium).
6. Continental Drift Theory
• Proposed by Alfred Wegener.
• Earth once had one continent: Pangaea.
• Surrounded by Panthalasa ocean.
• Split due to convection currents.
7. Stages of Continental Drift
• 225 mya (Permian): Pangaea whole.
• 200 mya: Pangaea splits.
• 135 mya: Continents drift apart.
• Present: Continents still drifting.
8. Evidence for Continental Drift
• Jigsaw fit of continents (e.g., Africa & South America).
• Same rocks/fossils found on different continents.
• Paleomagnetism: similar magnetic patterns in rocks.
• Climatic evidence: coal in cold places.
9. Weaknesses of the Theory
• No clear cause of movement.
• Fossils could be spread by wind/ocean.
• Unclear how continents “drift” through ocean crust.
10. Plate Tectonics Theory
• Earth’s crust = plates floating on mantle.
• Plates move due to mantle convection currents.
• Plates: continental (light) or oceanic (heavy).
11. Types of Plate Boundaries
• Constructive: Plates move apart → crust forms.
• Destructive: Plates collide → crust destroyed.
• Conservative: Plates slide past → earthquakes.
12. Plate Movements & Features
• Spreading/Divergence → ridges, rift valleys.
• Convergence → trenches, mountains, islands.
• Transform/Sliding → earthquakes.
13. Tensional vs Compressional Forces
• Tensional: Pulls crust → Rift valleys.
• Compressional: Pushes crust → Block mountains.
14. Folding
• Folding = bending of rock layers by pressure.
• Types:
o Simple fold
o Asymmetrical fold
o Overfold
o Overthrust fold
15. Fold Mountain Formation
1. Sediments deposited.
2. Layers compressed and folded.
3. Layers uplifted.
4. Mountains form (e.g., Himalayas).
16. Types of Mountains
• Fold Mountains – from folding (e.g., Alps).
• Residual Mountains – leftover after erosion.
• Block Mountains (Horsts) – formed by faulting.
• Volcanic Mountains – formed by lava.
17. Volcanism
• Movement of magma from mantle to surface.
• Magma = molten rock underground.
• Lava = magma on surface.
• Volcano forms when lava builds up.
18. Types of Lava
• Acidic Lava: Thick, steep cones, violent.
• Basic Lava: Thin, flows easily, gentle eruptions.
19. Types of Volcanoes
• Active: Frequently erupting.
• Dormant: Not erupting now but might.
• Extinct: Hasn’t erupted in history.
20. Volcanic Features
• Intrusive (inside crust):
o Batholiths
o Sills
o Dykes
• Extrusive (on surface):
o Lava plains
o Volcano cones
21. Effects of Volcanism
• Destructive:
o Deaths, destruction (e.g., Krakatoa 1883).
• Constructive:
o Fertile soils, minerals, tourism, hot springs.
22. Earthquakes
• Sudden shaking of Earth’s crust.
• Caused by:
o Plate movement (especially at boundaries)
o Volcanic activity
• Focus = underground origin.
• Epicenter = point on surface.
23. Effects of Earthquakes
• Ground cracks, landslides.
• Tsunamis.
• Building damage.
• Fires, disease outbreaks.
24. Types of Rocks
• Igneous: From cooled magma (e.g., granite).
• Sedimentary: From compacted sediments (e.g., sandstone).
• Metamorphic: Changed by heat & pressure (e.g., marble).
25. Rock Cycle
• Rocks change form due to temperature, pressure, weathering:
o Igneous → Sedimentary → Metamorphic → Magma → Igneous
26. Weathering
• Breakdown of rocks on surface.
• Physical:
o Freeze-thaw
o Temperature changes
o Root action
• Chemical:
o Solution
o Oxidation
o Hydration
o Hydrolysis
27. Summary
• Earth's surface is shaped by internal and external forces.
• Landforms result from tectonics, weathering, and erosion.
• Rocks are important to human life (minerals, building, soil).
Review Questions (Practice)
1. What is the lithosphere?
2. Name and describe Earth’s 3 internal layers.
3. Explain continental drift and plate tectonics.
4. Describe the types of plate boundaries and movements.
5. Name features formed by plate movements.
6. What are folds? List types.
7. How do fold mountains form?
8. What is volcanism? Give effects.
9. Describe intrusive and extrusive volcanic features.
10. What causes earthquakes? Effects?
11. List 3 rock types and how they form.
12. Explain the rock cycle.
13. Describe 2 physical and 2 chemical weathering types.
14. Difference between hot springs and geysers?