REPRODUCTION

The production of new organism from the existing organism of the same species is called reproduction.

Importance of Variation
Sexual reproduction provides great scope for variation.
Variation is important for the survival of a species.
Variation helps a species to adapt to different environmental changes.

Types of Reproduction
There are two main methods of reproduction in living.

1. Asexual reproduction.
2. Sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction
The production of new organism from a single parent without the involvement of sex cells (or gametes) is
called asexual reproduction.

Sexual Reproduction
The process of production of new organism from two parents by making use of sex cells.
Methods of Asexual Reproduction (in brief)
Different methods used to develop plants which can bears fruits and flowers by vegetative propagation
are as follows:
1. Stem cutting: This involves cutting a part of the stem and planting it in the soil to allow the growth
of roots and buds into shoots.
Examples: sugarcane, pear, china rose
2. Grafting: In grafting, the stem or bud of two best quality plants is combined to form a new plant.
Examples: guava, apple, mango
3. Layering: In this, the lower branch of a plant is bent and covered with soil. Once new roots start
developing on the branch, it is cut from the parent plant and allowed to grow as an individual plant.
Examples: rose, jasmine

TISSUE CULTURE
Cells from the growing tip of a plant are separated and are grown on a nutrient medium containing all
nutrients and hormones necessary for plant growth.
These cells form a mass called callus.
The callus develops plantlets.
These plantlets are transferred to the soil and grow as new individuals.
 METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION (IN DETAIL)

(1) FISSION

In the process of fission a unicellular organism split to form two or more new organism. It is of two types.
Binary fission:
In Binary Fission , the parent organism splits to form two new organisms.
For example- Amoeba, Paramecium Leishmania, Bacteria etc. are reproduced by binary fission.
When the amoeba cell has reached its maximum size of growth, then first the nucleus of amoeba
lengthen and divide into two parts after that cytoplasm of parent amoeba divides to form two smaller
daughter amoebae.
In amoeba fission take place in any plane but in Leihsmania splitting of parent cell during fission takes
place in definite place longitudinal with respect to flagellum at its end.
Multiple Fission
In multiple fission the parent organism splits to form many new organisms at same time. For example:
Plasmodium.

Some organisms during unfavorable condition a cyst or protective wall is formed around the cell of
plasmodium. Inside the cyst the nucleus of cell splits several times to form many daughter nuclei and then
cytoplasm collect around each daughter nuclei and thin membrane are form so many new daughter cells
are form with in a cyst. When favorable conditions arrive the cyst breaks open and daughter cells are
released each farming a new organism.
2. Budding

In budding a small part of a body of parent organism grows out as a bud which then detaches and
become a new organism.
For Example: Hydra, yeast reproduce by budding.
In Hydra a small outgrowth (bud) is formed on the sites of its body by the repeated mitotic division of its
cell. This bud then grows gradually by developing mouth and tentacles and then tiny new hydra detaches
itself from parent organism and lives as a separate organism.

3. SPORE FORMATION:

In spore formation, the parent plant produces 100 of microscopic reproductive units called “spores” with in
the spore case. When the spore case burst, then the spores spread into air. When these air borne spores
land on food or soil, under favorable condition they germinate and produce new plants for example: Most
of the fungi such as Rhizopus (bread mould), mucor, bacteria, non-flowering plants, ferns and mosses.
The common bread mould plant (rhizopus) consists of thread like hyphae and thin stretch having knob like
sporangium which contains 100 of spores enclosed in spore-case. When the spore case burst, then the
spores spread into air. When these air borne spores land on food or soil, under favorable condition they
germinate and produce new plants.

4. REGENERATION:

The process of getting back off full organism from its body part is called regeneration. For example simple
animals like Hydra and Planaria show regeneration. Planaria (Flatworm) is found in freshwater ponds. If
the body of planaria somehow gets cut into number of pieces then each body piece can regenerate into
complete planaria.
it occurs by the process of growth and development. The cells of cut body part divide rapidly to make ball
of cells. The cells present in ball of cells move to their proper places and form various organs and body
parts of organisms.

Q. Why multicellular complex organism cannot show power of regeneration?

In multicellular complex organism, specialized cells makes up tissue, tissue makes up organ, organ
makes up organ system and finally organ system makes up organism. They have a high degree of
organization in their body so they cannot reproduce their body through regeneration.

Q. How will an organism benefited if it reproduce through spores?

The reproductions by spores take place in plants. Spores are covered by hard protective coat which
enables them to survive under unfavorable conditions, like lack of food, lack of water and extreme
temperature but when the conditions are favorable the spores can grow to produce new plants. Thus, the
reproduction by spores benefits the plant because by surviving under adverse conditions, the spores
make these plants live forever.

5) Fragmentation:

The breaking up of body of simple multicellular organism into two or more fragments or maturing, each of
which subsequently grows to form a new complete organism is known as fragmentation.
Spirogyra is a green filamentous algae. Spirogyra breaks into two or more fragments on maturing and
each fragment then grows into new spirogyra.
6) Vegetative reproduction (Vegetative propagation):

In vegetative propagation new plants are obtain from the parts of old plants (stem, leaves, or root) without
the help of any reproductive organ.

Natural methods of vegetative propagation:

The green grass grows in the field after rain from the dry, old stem of grass plant present in the field by
the method of vegetative propagation.
Bryophyllum plants can be reproduce by vegetative propagation by using leaves.

Plant Vegetative propogule

Potato Potato tuber (stem)
Begonia Leaves
Money plant Stem
vegetative propagation usually involves the growth and development of one or more buds present on the
old part of the plant to form a new plant.

Artificial method of vegetative propagation:

The process of growing many plants from one plant by man made method is called vegetative
propagation.
Cutting:
A small part of plant which is removed by making a cut with sharp knife is called cutting. A cut may be a
piece of stem, root or leaves. For example-The plant like rose, sugarcane, cactus are grown by cutting. It
is necessary that there are some buds on it.
Layering:
In this method a branch of plant is pulled towards the ground and a part of it is covered with moist soil
leaving the tip of branch exposed above the ground. after some time new roots develop and then it cut off
from parent plant and grows as new plant. for example- Jasmine, strawberry, hibiscus and guava etc.
Grafting:
It is the method in which the cut stem of two different plant one with root and other without root and joined
together in such a way that the two stem joint and grows as a single plant. This new plant has the
characteristics of both the plants.
The cut stem of plant having root is called stock and the cut stem of another plant is called scion. For
example- Apple, peach, apricot, pear etc.
Advantages of vegetative propagation:

1. The new plant produced by artificial vegetative propagation will be exactly like parent plant.
2. The fruit trees grown from cutting or grafting start to bear fruits much earlier.
3. Many plants can be grown from just one parent plant.
4. We can also get seedless plant by artificial propagation.

TISSUE CULTURE (MICRO PROPAGATION)

1. The production of new plants from a small piece of plant tissue removed from a growing tip of plant in a
suitable growth medium (culture or jelly like synthetic medium) is called tissue culture.
Procedure:
 The tissue is placed on a culture medium which contain nutrients and plant hormones, which make the cells
in the plant tissue to divide rapidly o form callus.
 This callus is transfer to another medium containing plant hormone which stimulates the callus to develop
roots.
 Then it is put on another medium containing another plant hormone which stimulates the development of
shoot.
 The plantlets are then transplanted into soil where they can grow to form mature plant. This technique is used
to the production of ornamental plants like orchids, carnation etc.
Advantages:
1. It is a very fast technique.
2. New plant produced by tissue culture are disease free.
3. Very little space is needed.
4. By this method plants can be grown around the year irrespective of weather or seasons.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Introduction

 The production of new organism from two parents by making use of their sex cells (called
gametes) is called sexual reproduction.

 In sexual reproduction, a male gamete fuses with a female gamete to form a new cell called
zygote. This zygote then grows and develops into a new organism in due course of time.
 The cells involved in sexual reproduction are called sex cells or gametes or germ cells.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

A flower is the reproductive organ in angiosperms.

 The plants in which the sex organs are carried within the flowers and the seeds are enclosed in a
fruit are called angiosperms (flowering plants).
 The flowering plants are reproduced by sexual reproduction method.
 The function of a flower is to make male and female gametes and to ensure that fertilization will
take place to make new seeds for the reproduction of plant.
Parts of a Flower:
The main parts of flower are:

EXPLANATION OF PARTS OF FLOWER

1. Receptacle: The base of a flower to which all the parts of a flower are attached is called
receptacle.
2. Sepals (group name calyx): Sepals are green outermost leaf-like floral organs which protect the
flower in the bud stage.
3. Petals (group name corolla): The colourful parts of a flower are called petals. The petals lie
inside the sepals.
 Petals attract insects to flowers for pollination. They also provide protection to centrally placed
reproductive organs.
4. Stamen: Stamen is the male reproductive part and it produces pollen grains that are yellowish in
colour.
The stalk of stamen is called filament and the swollen top of stamen is called anther. The anther of
stamen makes the pollen grains and stores them.
5. Carpel: Carpel is present in the centre of a flower and is the female reproductive part.
It is made up of three parts. The swollen bottom part is ovary, middle elongated part is the style and the
terminal part which may be sticky is the stigma.
The ovary contains ovules and each ovule has an egg cell.

The flowers which contain only sex organ, either stamens or carpels are called unisexual flower.
For example: papaya and watermelon plants

The flowers which contain both the sex organs, stamens as well as carpel, are called bisexual
flowers. For example: Hibiscus and mustard plants.

A new seed of the plant is formed when the male gamete in a pollen grain unites with the female
gametes present in the ovule.

POLLINATION

 The transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a stamen to the stigma of a carpel is called
pollination.
 If the transfer of pollen occurs in the same flower or another flower on the same plant, it is called
self-pollination.
 If the pollen is transferred from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on
another similar plant, it is called cross-pollination.
 Pollination is done by insects, birds, winds and water.
Fertilization occurs when the male gamete present in pollen grain joins with the female gametes
present in ovule.

 A male gamete moves down the pollen tube. The pollen tube enters the ovule in the ovary. The tip
of pollen tube bursts open and male gamete comes out of pollen tube.
 In ovary, the male gamete of pollen combines with the nucleus of female gamete or egg present in
ovule to form a fertilized egg called zygote.
 After fertilization, the zygote divides several times to form an embryo within the ovule. The ovule
develops a tough coat and is gradually converted into a seed.
 The ovary grows rapidly and ripens to form a fruit. The other parts of flower like sepals, petals,
stamen, stigma and style dry up and fall off.
A seed is reproductive unit of a plant. The seed contains a baby plant (or embryo) and food for the
baby plant.
  The part of baby plant in see which develops into shoot with leaves is called plumule and part
which develops into root is called radicle. The part of seed which contains stored food for the baby
plant is called cotyledons.
 When the seed gets suitable conditions like water, air warmth etc., it germinates and a new plant
grows out of the seed.

REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

Growth and Development

 Growth and development are gradual and irreversible processes.
 Size and complexity of the body increase gradually.
 Growth in humans is divided into the following stages:
 PUBERTY
Puberty is the period during which the reproductive system matures in boys and girls.
In girls, puberty begins at the age of 11 years.
In boys, it begins at the age of 12–14 years.
Puberty continues till the age of 18 years.

Changes Which Occur At the Time of Puberty

Changes in Boys Changes in Girls
1. Testes mature and start producing
1. Ovaries mature and start producing ovum.
sperms.
The menstrual cycle begins.
2. Pectoral girdle (shoulder girdle) grows. 2. Pelvic girdle (hip girdle) becomes broad.
3. Hair growth in the pubic region. 3. Hair growth in the pubic region.
4. Development of moustache and beard. 4. Enlargement of breasts.
5. Development of a deep voice. 5. The voice becomes shrill

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The process of fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete is called fertilization.

If Fertilization Takes Place

Fertilization occurs in the oviduct.

Implantation
 As soon as the zygote is formed, it starts developing.
 By the time it reaches the uterus, it is a mass of cells known as an embryo.
 It remains attached to the wall of the uterus throughout its development.
 The period of development of the embryo inside the uterus is called the gestation period.
 In humans, the gestation period is of 9 months, i.e. about 280 days.
 The embryo after completing three months of development is called the foetus.
 The placenta is a special tissue which provides food and oxygen to the foetus.

IF THERE IS NO FERTILIZATION
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

DIFFERENT METHODS ARE AVAILABLE IN ORDER TO PREVENT PREGNANCY

1. Hormonal Method:
Various hormonal preparations come in the form of tablets or pills, commonly called contraceptive
pills.
2. Barrier Methods:
Condoms, diaphragms and spermicidals are used.
Condoms are used by males while diaphragms and spermicidals are used by females.
3. Intra-uterine Devices (IUDs):
IUDs such as Lippe’s loop and copper – T are fitted in the uterus. They prevent fertilization.
4. Surgical Methods:
In females, the fallopian tubes are ligated. This is called tubectomy.
In males, the vas deferntia are ligated. This is called vasectomy.
5. Induced Abortion:
It is also known as Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).
If a woman becomes pregnant and the couple is not willing to have a baby, then the option of
induced abortion is chosen.