River
Landscapes River Erosion Landforms
Floodplain – wide, flat area of Levee – raised river bed found alongside a river in
marshy land on either side of a its lower course.
river.
Formed by flooding over many years and a ridge
of deposited sediment natural builds up the
Mainly made of alluvium, a levees.
sediment deposited by a river when
it floods. This areas is very fertile so
used for farming.
Meanders migrate across floodplain
due to lateral erosion. When they
reach the edge of the floodplain
they erode the valley side. This is
Estuaries – transitional zones between river and
why floodplains are wide. coastal environments.
They are affected by wave action as well as river
processes. During a rising tide, river water is
unable to be discharged into the sea. The velocity
falls and sediment is deposited. At low tide, these
deposits form mudflats.
Characteristics of a levee
- Raised river banks (2-8
metres high)
- Composed of gravel, stones
and alluvium
- Steep sided
- Fairly flat top – can be
covered in grass
Characteristics of a floodplain
• Large area of flat land
• It is a river prone to flooding
Mudflats
• Mudflats form in sheltered areas where tidal
water flows slowly
• Layers of mud is built up called mudflats
• Will be covered at high tide, but exposed at
low tide
River
Landscapes River Landforms – River Tees
The River Tees is a river in the north east of England. Its
source is in the Pennine Hills (893m) and flows for
around 128km to reach the North Sea (mouth).
High Force Waterfall and Gorge
• High Force waterfall is located close to Forest-in-
Teesdale in the upper course of the river.
• River drops around 20m.
• Continues through a gorge (700m).
• Water was formed due to a hard band of igneous
rock called dolerite.
• Underlying rock is limestone which is weaker than
dolerite.
• As the rive plunges over the waterfall, it undercuts
the limestone to form an overhang.
• Collapses and waterfall retreats.
River Tees
River Tees
floodplain
meander
High Force Waterfall
Hydrological cycle
Tuesday, 13 May 2025
Image result for hydrological cycle
Are there any
words in the
photo that you
don’t understand?
LO1: To be able to identify the main features of the hydrological cycle
The water cycle
How does the water cycle work? Read below
• Energy from the Sun heats the surface of the Earth.
• Water is evaporated from oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.
• The warm, moist air rises because it is less dense.
• Condensation occurs when water vapour is turned back
into water droplets as it cools down. Clouds are formed.
• Precipitation occurs as water droplets get bigger and
heavier they begin to fall as rain, snow and sleet, etc.
Evapotranspiration
Hydrological Cycle Interception
Vegetation, particularly trees, intercepts some
When water loss from the ground surface precipitation on its way to the ground. Water is then
to the atmosphere (evaporation), lost back into the atmosphere by evapotranspiration.
combines with water given off from plants The intercepting plants also use some water for
(transpiration) to form the main output growth. Vegetation reduces and slows down water
from the system. transfer.
Key Soil Moisture
Precipitation The water held in
The source of moisture Input the soil layer. Clay
reaching the ground, e.g. soils can be very wet
rain, snow, frost. or boggy (leading to
Store
overland flow),
whereas sandy soils
Flow tend to be much
Surface Storage drier, so they absorb
Water held on the
Output much more
ground e.g. in puddles. precipitation
Surface Run-Off Groundwater flow.
This is a rapid form of Water flowing through
water transfer over the the rock layer parallel
surface of the ground. It to the surface. This is
is likely to occur during a very low process.
periods of heavy rainfall,
or when the soil has
become fully saturated.
Evaporation
Water lost from the
Infiltration ground.
This involves water
moving from the ground
surface into the soil.
Groundwater
Throughflow Percolation River Channel Water stored in
This is the deeper transfer of The river itself is an important store the rock.
This is the downhill
water into the rocks of water. It also forms the ‘exit’ for
transfer of water through
water transferred through the
the soil layer to the river.
drainage basin.
Will be able to identify how water moves around the hydrological cycle.
How does water move around the
hydrological cycle?
Input: Water coming into the system.
Output: Water leaving the system.
Storage: Water stored in the system.
Flow/Transfer: Water moving from one
place to another.
Challenge
Which flow will deliver water to the river the quickest and
why?
River
Landscapes Factors Increasing Flood Risk
Flooding – where land that is not normally underwater becomes
inundated (overwhelmed) with water.
River floods occur when a river channel can no longer hold the
amount of water flowing through it. Water breeches the banks and
floods the floodplain.
Floods usually occur after a long period of rainfall, often in the
winter. Volume of water steadily increases until the channel can no
longer cope.
Flash flood – sudden flood after a torrential storm.
Geology
The type of rock found in mountains is usually
impermeable rock such as slate, which does not
allow water to pass through. The rock is often bare
with thin soils and little vegetation to intercept the
rain.
Low lying areas often contain an impermeable clay
soil. It usually has vegetation on it, however the soil
is so compacted that it is difficult for infiltration to
occur.
Flooding is much less likely in areas of permeable
rock such as chalk and limestone, as water passes LO1: To be able to
through these rocks. describe the physical
and human causes of
flooding.
Impermeable rock- rock that wont allow water to pass through.
Compacted- soil that is tightly bound together L02: To be able to
Intercept- when the leaves of trees catch rainwater. explain the physical
Infiltration- when the water goes into the soil layer of the ground. and human causes of
flooding.
Relief
Relief is the height and slope of the land. Steep
slopes mean that surface run-off occurs on
mountainsides before rain has had time to infiltrate
the soils.
A valley floor with steep sides such as the Llanberis
Pass in Snowdonia therefore has a high flood risk.
Low lying, flat flood plains also have a high
flood risk as there is not enough gradient to
remove the water. The flood risk is increased
further by the impermeable clay soils. The
low-lying flat relief of Surrey is prone to
flooding.
Impermeable- rock that wont allow water to pass through.
Surface run off- when water runs off the top of the land
Gradient- the steepness of the ground.
Infiltration- when the water goes into the soil layer of the
LO1: To be able to L02: To be able to explain
ground. describe the physical the physical and human
Floodplains- the area of land around a river. and human causes of causes of flooding.
flooding.
LO1: To be able to
New infrastructure and houses describe the physical and
human causes of
flooding.
With the increased demand for houses in the UK,
thousands of new homes are built each year many of L02: To be able to explain
the physical and human
greenfield sites. Between 2001-2011 there was an causes of flooding.
increase of 72% in the average density of new dwellings in
England. Property developers are squeezing several
dwellings into a plot where there was formally only one
house.
There are strict planning controls regarding building on
floodplains, but even so 7% of new dwellings in England
in 2011 were build in high areas of flood risk. Large areas
of floodplains are now covered with impermeable tarmac
roads and concrete pavements. Cities therefore have few
natural areas in which to store excess water. Water runs
Greenfield sites- areas of
off quickly through gutters, drains and culverts and this land that are ‘green’
leads to a speedy rise in a river discharge- hence the Density- how many houses
increased flood risk. in one area
Dwellings- places where
people live
Urbanisation leads to the growth of towns and cities. As Impermeable-surface that
the UK’s population increases new roads, shopping don’t allow water through
Discharge- how much
centres, schools and leisure centres are built. The
water is in a river
greater the area covered by buildings and roads with Urbanisation- the growth of
impermeable surfaces, the greater potential flood risk. towns and cities.
Disappearing gardens
Impermeable-surface that
The growth of impermeable surfaces is becoming worse in don’t allow water through
our large cities, where people pave over back gardens to
save mowing the lawn; this is often seen in rented LO1: To be able to
describe the physical
accommodation. and human causes of
flooding.
Parking is also a problem. A Direct Line survey in 2013
L02: To be able to
revealed that 47% of UK households have two cars. With explain the physical
an absence of garages and little on road parking in inner and human causes of
flooding.
cities, many households have concreted over their front
gardens to accommodate cars.
Farming
Since the First World War hedges have been ripped
out to make way for huge fields that are more
efficient for highly mechanised arable farming. Loss
of hedges means less interception.
Farming has become more intensive and there has
been a further increase in arable farming at the
expense of pastoral farming. Once crops have been
harvested they leave the soil bare in winter. This
means there is no vegetation to intercept the water.
When fields are ploughed up and downhill, the
furrows create channels for water to flow down
easily. More soils is transported into rivers, raising
their beds and therefore decreasing the amount of LO1: To be able to
water they can hold, increasing the flood risk. describe the physical
and human causes of
flooding.
Mechanised- using a tractor to farm.
Arable farming- Growing crops
Pastoral farming- raising cattle for meat L02: To be able to
Vegetation- plants, trees etc. explain the physical
and human causes of
Intercept- when the trees catch the rain. flooding.
Forestry
Felling trees reduces the interception and roots no
longer take water from the soil. The impact of felling
could be considerable, as a dense forest uses up to
40% of any precipitation.
After felling the soil soon gets saturated, run off
occurs, river discharge increases quickly and so the
risk of flooding increases.
Felling trees also causes exposed soil to wash into
rivers, building up their beds. This reduces the
capacity of channels, so rivers are more likely to
flood.
LO1: To be able to
describe the physical
Felling- the chopping down of trees and human causes of
Precipitation- rain, hail, sleet and snow flooding.
Saturated- when the ground can no longer hold anymore water
Discharge-how much water is in a river L02: To be able to
Interception- when the trees catch the rain explain the physical
Capacity- how much water a river can hold and human causes of
flooding.
Disappearing fields
Fields intercept rainfall and soak up excess water through
infiltration. Just as UK gardens are disappearing so too are
fields. Some fields near towns may be sold off to property
developers, while others may be converted to riding
stables. As large scale factory farming increases fields
have also been replaced by huge sheds and concrete
yards. Pastures have been over-grazed. This has
compacted soil and degraded pastures, resulting in muddy
run-off into rivers and an increased risk of flooding
Additionally to extend the growing season of fruit and
salad crops, vast areas of polythene like those near
Hereford cover the fields of crops. While there may be
some interception and evaporation from the polytunnels,
the ability of the area to soak up water is reduced.
LO1: To be able to
describe the physical
and human causes of
Interception-when rainwater is caught by leaves flooding.
Infiltration- when the rain goes into the soil
Pastures- areas of green fields L02: To be able to
Run-off- when water runs off the top of the soil explain the physical
Polytunnels- plastic tunnels used to protect crops and human causes
of flooding.
How does precipitation link to
discharge?
• River discharge is the volume of water flowing
through a river channel. This is the total
volume of water flowing through a channel at
any given point and is measured in cubic
metres per second (cumecs). The discharge
from a drainage basin depends on
precipitation, evapotranspiration and storage
factors.
• More precipitation = greater the discharge
Hydrographs
Hydrograph – graph that plots river discharge after a storm.
It shows how discharge rises after a storm, reaches its peak and then returns to the normal
rate of flow.
Time Lag – time (hours) between highest rainfall and highest discharge.
This shows how quickly water is transferred into river channel and is a key factor in flood risk.
Short time lag = greater risk of flooding.
Characteristic Short lag time, high peak Low hydrograph, low peak
Basin Size Small basins = rapid water Large basins = slow water transfer
transfer
Drainage High density speeds up water Low density has a slower water transfer
Density transfer
Rock Type Impermeable rocks = rapid Permeable rocks encourage slow transfer
overland flow by groundwater flow
Land Use Urbanisation encourages rapid Forests slow down water transfer because
water transfer of interception
Relief Steep slopes = rapid overland Gentle slopes = slow down water transfer
flow
Soil Moisture Saturated (wet) soil = rapid Dry soil soaks up water and slows water
overland flow transfer
Rainfall Heavy rain may exceed Light rain will transfer slowly and will soak
Intensity infiltration capacity of mostly into the soil
vegetation and lead to rapid
overland flow
Managing Floods – Hard Engineering
Hard engineering can be very expensive, but it is the preferred method of
protecting land, homes, railway lines and water treatment works. The costs have
to be weighed against the benefits in each case.
Managing Floods – Hard Engineering
Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
Channel Involves cutting • Water flow sped up • May increase
Straightening through meanders to • Protects vulnerable flood risk
create a straight areas from flooding downstream.
channel. Some sections • Concrete prevents • Problem isn’t
may be lined with banks from solved, just
concrete. collapsing shifted
elsewhere.
• Very unattractive
• Can damage
wildlife habitats
Embankments A raised river bank. • River channel can • Can be ugly
hold more water • Banks often not
before flooding built high enough
occurs
• Used often by towns
to protect expensive
property
• Relatively cheap and
sustainable
Managing Floods – Soft Engineering
Soft engineering aims to slow the movement of water into a river channel to help
prevent flooding.
Managing Floods – Soft Engineering
River restoration
Image result for river restoration
When the course of a
river has been changed
artificially, river
restoration can return it
to its original course.
River restoration uses
the natural processes
and features of a river,
such as meanders and
wetlands to slow down
river flow and reduce
the likelihood of a major
flood downstream.
LO2: To be able to
explain the four
different types of soft
engineering
Strategy Benefits Costs
Flood Plain à By restricting building on the active à This approach has limited impact
zoning flood plain, local authorities do not as many UK cities have already
increase impermeable surfaces, so the sprawled over the active flood plain.
risk of flooding is reduced. à It is very difficult to get planning
à It is low-cost, only administration permission to extend or rebuild
costs are involved. homes in the flood plain.
à Traditional water meadows by a river à There is a housing shortage in the
are protected from development. In UK. Restricting building makes the
some meadows, cows may graze there problem worse. Restricted supply will
when it is not flooded inflate house prices.
à By conserving the flood plain, à Habitats are destroyed due to
planners provide a welcome green increased building on other
space in UK towns. greenfield sites.
Flood à This is a very cheap way of à Flood warnings are only effective if
warnings and protecting people and their property, people listen and take action.
preparation as it is largely dependent on Education is needed: not everyone
communication via the internet. The listens to, or has access to, the media
EA’s personalised flood warning option or the internet.
makes people feel more secure and à It does not help people living in
more in control areas prone to flooding. The clear-up
à if people are warned in advance of a operation is distressing, people may
flood, then they protect their valuables have to move or temporary
earlier accommodation, their insurance
à it is a way of ensuring people’s safety costs will increase and their houses
without having to invest in high-cost will be difficult to sell.
hard engineering
Planting trees à reduces water flowing downstream à Changed appearance: countryside
as shelter belts of broad-leaf trees can wooded rather than open grass,
reduce surface runoff arguably artificial looking and less
à more carbon dioxide is absorbed aesthetically pleasing.
à Adds variety to the landscape and à loss of potential grazing land
new habitats. Increases biodiversity
à Relatively inexpensive as there are
EU grants available.
River à creates new wetlands habitats and à possible loss of agricultural land
restoration increases biodiversity e.g. damselflies and flooding of crops near the river
à Increased water storage areas à can be expensive: the initial cost of
reduce risk of flooding downstream- restoring River Quaggy was
the River Quaggy scheme has estimated at £1.1 million
protected 600 homes and businesses à Not always the most effective or
from flooding. practical strategy.
à Aesthetically pleasing- visitor
numbers to Sutcliffe Park have
increased
Managing Floods – Jubilee River,
Windsor
• It opened in 2002
• 11.7km wide and 50m wide Why was the scheme needed?
• UK’s largest artificial channel • Thames flood plain is low lying so
• Designed to look like a natural
prone to flooding
channel, so has meanders and
shallow reed beds to provide
• Contains the royal settlement of
habitats Windsor, which attracts
• It has 5 weirs (large dams) that international visitors
control the flow rate • Protects Eton, home of a
• Only two of the weirs (dams,) can prestigious public school
be used by paddle craft • Impermeable surfaces of the built
• The river diverts water from the up areas have historically resulted
River Thames, protecting in flooding
southeast Maidenhead, Eton and • High property value in the area
Windsor
What measures were taken?
The Jubilee River was created to take overflow water
from the River Thames in time of high discharge
following heavy rainfall.
What issues arose from the scheme?
Social
• Three thousand properties were protected in
affluent Eton and Windsor, but to the detriment of
the less wealthy settlement of Old Windsor and
Wraysbury downstream.
• The Thames at Old Windsor now suffers from a
much higher discharge due to the merging of the
two channels just upstream. The scale of the
problem came to light in 2014, when the area
suffered its worst floods since 1947.
• Paddle boaters had been promised a navigable
(easy to move down) river. However, on two weirs
they have to carry their boats around them, and
Taplow Weir is considered too dangerous to cross.
What issues arose from the scheme?
Economic
• The Jubilee River Scheme is the most expensive flood-relief
scheme in the UK. Yet, one year after its completion, the weirs
were damaged by floods. The initial repair bill for Slough Weir
alone was £680,000. Maintaining the channel is a huge
economic burden.
• Funded by the EA and cost £110 million.
• Jubilee River was one of 4 flood relief channels planned for
the lower course on the Thames, but they ran short of funds.
• Until a solution is found, small businesses such as shops stand
to lose money, as they cannot open when their premises are
flooded.
• Insurance costs are high.
• Business insurance costs for Wraysbury alone were around
£500 million in 2014. This will causes future insurance
premiums to increase.
What issues arose from the scheme?
Environmental
• In 2014, there was extensive flooding immediately
downstream from where the flood-relief channel
rejoined the Thames. The built environment suffered
from flooded roads and buildings. Fields were
inundated and habitats were disturbed.
• The concrete weirs are rather ugly, especially under
normal flow conditions, when more concrete is
exposed. Ongoing repair work has made the matter
worse, such as at Manor Farm Weir.
• There is also the problem of algae collecting behind
the weirs. This disrupts the natural ecosystem.