Anatomy & Physiology Revision Guide
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Erika Syamim Binti Samsu AmbiaAnatomy & Physiology Revision Guide
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Erika Syamim Binti Samsu AmbiaCommon questions
Powered by AIFetal heart circulation features consist of the ductus arteriosus and foramen ovale, which allow blood to bypass the lungs, as they are non-functional in the fetus. In adults, these structures close after birth, directing blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs for oxygenation. In adults, the presence of pulmonary and systemic systems leads to more efficient oxygen exchange and distribution .
In the CNS, myelination is carried out by oligodendrocytes, which can extend their processes to multiple axons, creating a myelin sheath. In contrast, the PNS has Schwann cells, which wrap around a single axon. These differences underpin functional divergences, such as regenerative capacity, where the PNS exhibits greater regeneration potential than the CNS .
Mid-brain activation is crucial for integrating sensory information and coordinating responses. It involves structures such as the superior colliculi for visual processing and the inferior colliculi for auditory processing. For example, reflexive head turning towards a sudden sound is a function of mid-brain activation, highlighting its role in processing multisensory inputs and triggering reflexive actions .
The cardiac cycle involves systole and diastole phases. During systole, the heart contracts, ejecting blood from the ventricles into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. In diastole, the heart muscle relaxes, allowing the ventricles to fill with blood from the atria. This cycle maintains continuous blood circulation through the body .
Age-related changes in the renal system include reduced kidney mass and glomerular filtration rate, as well as decreased renal blood flow. These changes contribute to decreased efficiency in waste elimination, electrolyte balance, and acid-base regulation. Additionally, the kidney's ability to concentrate urine diminishes, increasing the risk for hyponatremia and dehydration .
Myelinated axons have a sheath of myelin wrapped around them, which increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction through saltatory conduction, allowing impulses to 'jump' between Nodes of Ranvier. Unmyelinated axons lack this sheath and conduct impulses more slowly in a continuous wave along the axon. Myelinated axons are common in the CNS and PNS where rapid response is necessary, while unmyelinated axons are often found where slow and steady conduction suffices .
The reticular formation plays several critical roles in the nervous system. It regulates the sleep-wake cycle and levels of alertness and consciousness, filters incoming stimuli to discriminate irrelevant background information, modulates pain, controls cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and influences motor control and coordination .
The renin-angiotensin system regulates blood pressure and fluid balance by releasing renin from the kidneys in response to low blood volume or sodium. Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which is then converted into angiotensin II. Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction and stimulates aldosterone release, increasing sodium and water reabsorption to elevate blood pressure .
In the central nervous system (CNS), neuroglia include astrocytes, which maintain the blood-brain barrier and support neurons; oligodendrocytes, which create the myelin sheath; microglia, which provide immune defense; and ependymal cells, which produce cerebrospinal fluid. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), Schwann cells form myelin, and satellite cells support sensory neuron cell bodies .
The urinary system performs several vital functions: it removes waste products from the bloodstream, regulates blood volume and pressure, controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulates blood pH. It consists primarily of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra .