•Accuracy refers to how close a measured
value is to the true value.
•Precision refers to the consistency or
reproducibility of measurements.
•Sensitivity refers to the ratio of the
change in output to the change in input.
Low resistances: ≤1 Ω.
Medium resistances: 1 Ω to 100 KΩ
High resistances: ≥100 KΩ
used to measure capacitance and
dissipation factor
The PMMC instrument has a linear or uniform scale, hence the
deflecting torque produced is directly proportional to the current.
The PMMC has a high torquetoweight ratio. The PMMC
consumes less power and has great accuracy.
the instrument can faithfully reproduce the input signal without
distortion or time lag.
•Repeatability refers to the closeness of agreement between
successive measurements of the same measurand carried out
under the same conditions of measurement.
•Hysteresis is the difference in the output of an instrument when
measuring the same point, depending on whether the input is
increasing or decreasing.
•Precision is the closeness of agreement between independent
test results obtained under stipulated conditions.
if you use the instrument multiple times to measure the
same thing, it should consistently produce similar results
•Sheet resistance is a measure of surface resistivity for thin
films.
•It is independent of the size of the square area measured.
A strain gauge is a passive transducer that converts mechanical strain
(deformation) into a change in electrical resistance
Capacitive transducer measures changes in capacitance to detect
variations in physical parameters like displacement or pressure
photovoltaic cell converts light energy into electrical energy
It is a transfer instrument. A transfer instrument is one that is calibrated with a d.c.
source and used without any modifications for a.c. measurements. It has the same
accuracy for both D.C. and A.C. measurements.
It has a uniformly divided scale because the response of the instrument is directly
proportional to the deflection of the pointer. Very easy to measure the quantity
from that instrument. It has the least power consumption (25 μW to 200 μW)
among all kinds of analog instruments. Its torque to weight ratio is high.
The purpose of damping force in an indicating instrument is to bring the
pointer to rest quickly and without oscillation at its final deflected
position
temperature difference between two
dissimilar electrical conductors or
semiconductors produces a voltage
difference between them
Piezo-electric effect describes the ability
of certain materials to generate an electric
charge in response to applied mechanical
stress, or conversely, to deform when an
electric field is applied
Magnetostrictive effect describes the property of ferromagnetic
materials to change their shape or dimensions when subjected to a
magnetic field
Inductive effect in chemistry, which is the polarization of a covalent
bond due to the electron-withdrawing or electron-donating effect of
adjacent groups or atoms
Strain gauges are sensitive to temperature variations, which can
cause changes in their resistance even without any applied strain
pulses (like frequency, duration, or
number)
Digital transducers provide a digital
output
Active transducers require an external power source to
operate
Analog transducers produce an analog output signal, which is
continuous and varies proportionally to the measurand
A shunt resistance is connected in parallel with the ammeter to
extend its range. This allows a large portion of the total current to
bypass the ammeter, thereby protecting the ammeter's sensitive
galvanometer and enabling it to measure larger currents
Q meter measures the quality factor (Q) of a coil or a capacitor by utilizing
the characteristics of a series resonant circuit, where at resonance, the
voltage across the capacitor or inductor can be significantly higher than the
applied voltage, and this voltage magnification is directly related to the Q
factor
primarily produced by the interaction of the magnetic field of the instrument
with the current flowing through its coils or the magnetic material within it. This
magnetic interaction creates a force that results in a deflecting torque,
causing the pointer to move and indicate the measured value.
A Megger, or megohmmeter, is an instrument used to measure very
high electrical resistance, typically in the range of megohms. It
essentially combines a high-voltage DC source (often a hand-cranked
or battery-operated generator) with a meter to measure resistance
Meter constant = No. of revolution by meter/Energy consumed
As per Blondel’s theorem, if neutral
is not present for ‘n’ wire system,
then ‘n1’ number of wattmeter’s
are required for ‘n’ wire system.
Digital instruments, especially those based on CMOS or
MOSFET technology, are known for their very high input
impedance
Digital instruments typically have input impedances in the order
of megaohms (MΩ) or even gigaohms (GΩ)
ratio of the fractional change in resistance (ΔR/R)
to the fractional change in length (strain,ΔL/L)
Swamping resistance is a high resistance material with a very low-
temperature coefficient, typically manganin. It is connected in series with the
moving coil (meter) of the ammeter to minimize the effect of temperature
variations on the instrument's resistance, thereby reducing temperature-
induced errors in current measurement
A continuous balance type Digital
Voltmeter (DVM) is a type of digital
voltmeter that uses a servo mechanism to
continuously balance a potentiometer
against an input voltage
The dual slope type Digital Voltmeter (DVM) converts the input analog
voltage into a time interval, which is then measured digitally to display
the voltage value
A Successive Approximation Type Digital Voltmeter (DVM) works by
repeatedly approximating the unknown input voltage through a series of
comparisons and adjustments
Integrating type digital voltmeter (DVM): It measures the voltage in digital
domain. It is possible to do so using voltage to frequency conversion.
The function of the Schmitt trigger is to convert any regular or irregular
shaped input waveform into a square wave output voltage or pulse. Thus, it
can shape a wave and also called as a squaring circuit and can be used as
square wave generator.
An oscilloscope primarily indicates the Peak to peak value of a
waveform.
The turn-off time of an LCD is typically in the order of
milliseconds.
Moving iron instruments can operate on either the principle of attraction or
repulsion, or a combination of both. In the attraction type, a piece of soft
iron is attracted towards a coil carrying current. In the repulsion type, two
pieces of soft iron, one fixed and one movable, are repelled from each
other when current flows through the coil, causing the movable iron to
deflect
•Maxwell's bridge is commonly used for
measuring inductance, particularly for coils
with a wide range of Q-factors (quality
factors).
•Wien bridge is primarily used for
measuring frequency.
•Schering bridge is used for measuring
capacitance and dielectric losses.
•De Sauty's bridge is used for comparing
two capacitances
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter
by connecting a very high resistance in the series
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a
shunt resistance parallel to it
1. Rochelle salt (Potassium sodium tartrate) is a well-known ferroelectric
material and is used in piezoelectric transducers due to its strong
piezoelectric effect.
2. Lithium sulphate is also known to exhibit piezoelectric properties and
is used in certain transducer applications.
3. Dipotassium tartrate is another material that shows piezoelectric
characteristics and can be used in transducers.
4. Tungsten oxide primarily finds applications in areas like
electrochromic devices, catalysts, and gas sensors, but it is not
commonly known or used as a piezoelectric material for transducers.
1. Headphones are commonly used as detectors in AC bridges, particularly at
audio frequencies ranging from 250 Hz to about 3 or 4 kHz. Since 2 kHz falls
within this range, headphones are suitable.
2. Vibration Galvanometers are also used as detectors in AC bridges,
especially for lower frequencies.
3. Tunable Amplifiers can be used in conjunction with other detectors to
increase sensitivity or to filter out unwanted frequencies, making the null
detection more precise.
RTDs change their resistance based on temperature, and this change in
resistance needs to be measured by an external circuit (like a Wheatstone
bridge) to convert it into a usable electrical signal, thus classifying it as a
passive transducer
Thermo-electric emfs (electromotive forces) can arise at the junctions of
dissimilar metals in the circuit, which can introduce errors in the resistance
measurement, especially when dealing with very low resistances. By
reversing the current and taking an average of the two readings, these
spurious voltages can be effectively cancelled out, leading to a more
accurate measurement of the resistance.
Capacitive transducers are widely used for both static and dynamic
measurements due to their ability to measure changes in capacitance, which
can be related to various physical quantities like displacement, pressure, or
force. They also inherently act as high-pass filters because their impedance
decreases with increasing frequency, allowing higher-frequency signals to
pass more easily while attenuating lower-frequency signals
Vibration, stray magnetic field, and the extra voltage across the
potential coil are also responsible for the creeping. The creeping error
occurs because of excessive friction.
Creeping in the induction type energy meter is the phenomenon in which the
aluminum disc rotates continuously when only the voltage is supplied to the
pressure coil and no current flows through the current coil. It is the kind of
error in which the energy meter consumes a very small amount of energy even
when no load is attached to the meter.