Introduction

And so Phototutorial becomes an e-book...

Our site started about three years ago, with the intention of publishing concise articles aimed at those
wished to familiarize themselves with the basic concepts of photography. Over time the articles
Availability has increased, as have our loyal readers. Phototutorial is, in the meantime,
become a complete basic photography course.

To give an additional gift to our readers, we have decided to collect a large part of our
tutorial, reworking them and turning them into a compact e-book. In this way our photography course
It will always be accessible on your mobile device.

Of course, we will always continue to update our site with new articles and new tutorials, and
We already have initiatives planned that you will find very interesting. So keep following us,
regularly visiting the [Link].

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stay updated on our initiatives.

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See you soon.

Luigi Calabrese

Canio Colangelo

Note on copyright:

This e-book is a free product distributed exclusively through the website

[Link] rights are reserved. Duplication and partial copying are prohibited.
Anyone who detects the unlawful dissemination on other websites, sharing programs, etc. is
Please kindly notify the authors at the email addresscontatti@[Link].

Photography Course - [Link] - PDF Edition - 2013

Photography course [Link]

Chapter 1 The Camera

Almost two hundred years have passed since the invention of the first tools capable of recording.
images but it can be said that the camera is made up of the same basic elements as
Then.

A daguerreotype from 1839 and a current mirrorless digital camera. Obviously, in

As for the dimensions, the proportions are not respected.
The essential components still present in all cameras today are:

The objective
The objective is an optical device consisting of a set of glass or plastic lenses in
degree of bending light. It serves to project the image onto the plane of the sensor or
of the film that will record it.

Graphic processing of a Sigma 120-300 f/2.8 EX DG OS HSM lens, with the diagram
overlapping optic.

In its simplest form, the target can consist of a simple little hole,
called pinhole. Some photographers like to apply a pinhole to reflex cameras.
digital to experience the thrill of 'primitive' photography. Pinhole adaptors for reflex cameras
They can be purchased in many photography stores, also online, for just a few dozen euros.

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A pinhole cap to use on a current reflex.

The focusing device

The focusing device is a mechanism that slightly moves a group of
lenses inside the lens moving it a few millimeters from the plane of
sensor in order to "focus" that is to make the detail sharp in the image
which interests the photographer. Modern devices have an autofocus system that activates
pressing the shutter button in the intermediate position. Of course, however, the cameras
reflex and mirrorless cameras allow for manual focus adjustment to be made
through the rotation of the focus ring. Also many bridges and some
compact, with different modes, allow for manual focusing.

The shutter
The shutter prevents light from reaching the sensitive medium until it is
pressed the shutter button. However, it mainly serves the function of controlling the duration.
of the time during which light hits the photosensitive element. The exposure times
On reflex or mirrorless cameras, shutter speeds can generally vary from 30 seconds to 1/4000 of a second.
second (1/8000 for the more refined models). Of course, on this type of cameras is
It is also possible to set the so-called 'B pose', which keeps the shutter open as long as it is
pressed the shutter device. The times are set via a ring or from the menu
of the camera.

The diaphragm
The diaphragm is the adjustable opening that controls the amount of light that enters the
camera through the lens.

The diaphragm and the shutter thus control the two main parameters that contribute
the correct exposure: the amount of light that will reach the sensitive support and the
exposure time to light. Naturally, two factors are related to each other: for
to achieve the correct exposure one can opt for a smaller aperture related to a
longer exposure time, or to a wider aperture, with a time of
shorter exposure.

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The sight

In order to take a photograph, it is necessary to be able to frame it, that is, to see through a viewfinder.
the image that will then be reproduced in the photograph. Through the viewfinder, it is also visualized.
where the focal point falls, at least in rangefinder devices, in those with
reflex sights and those equipped with electronic sights.

The sensitive material

It was once made up of light-sensitive plates, then films, and today it consists of
electronic sensor. While the film serves both the function of capturing the photograph and
that of 'memorizing it', and therefore it must be continuously replaced, the sensor must
limits acquiring the image, which is then saved on an electronic medium, a card of
flash memory, while the sensor is immediately ready to record new images.

Which camera is right for me?

The digital photography market offers thousands of models. How to navigate through it?
Fundamentally, the cameras on the market can be divided into four.
large groups: compact, bridge, reflex and mirrorless.

Compact
These cameras are characterized by very small sizes, often pocket-sized.
Such a feature makes it convenient and practical to use, as it is very easy to carry them.
behind in every occasion. They are also very economical. Depending on the model and
the offers of shopping centers their price ranges from 80 to 400 euros. Usually they
they find good models in a price range from 150 to 250 euros. The quality of
Images obtained with these cameras are generally good for major amateur uses.
Unfortunately, the many advantages are offset by some disadvantages that limit their use.
among the most conscious photographers and enthusiasts.

The compact camera Olympus SH-50 iHS.

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These disadvantages are essentially:

the lack of manual controls that allow direct intervention on

main parameters of photography (however, there are some high-class models equipped with
manual controls);

2) the impossibility of using external accessories, primarily specific lenses, then

optical accessories, external flashes, etc...;

3) the sensor dimensions, too small to compete, in terms of image quality, with
the reflex (the small sensor size greatly limits the ability to play
with the depth of field).

Bridge
The so-called 'bridge' cameras are characterized by being a halfway point between the
compact and reflex. These cameras are usually equipped with all the controls.
manuals necessary to achieve the desired photographic effects (aperture settings,
exposure time setting, sensitivity setting, etc...
It's usually also possible to mount an external flash. In fact, years ago, when the cost of
digital reflexes were still prohibitive, several professional photographers used bridge cameras to
their work.
Compared to the SLR, the main disadvantage is that with bridge cameras you cannot change.
the lens. Usually, they are equipped with a zoom that covers the main focal lengths used in
photography. But, for all its good quality, this zoom will not be able to compete with the
best lenses available for a reflex. Also the bridge cameras, with some exceptions,
they are equipped with sensors much smaller than those of reflex cameras. As a result, the images,
As good as they may be, they will not be able to compete with these last ones. Still due to
from the small sensor, it won't even be possible to creatively intervene on the depth
in the field.

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A Nikon Coolpix bridge camera.

In comparison to compacts, the main disadvantage is that bridges are very

bulkier. Although smaller than reflex cameras, they certainly do not reach the comfortable
pocket-sized dimensions of compacts.

Reflex
DSLRs are the most used cameras by professionals and enthusiasts.
of photography. They are indeed the most versatile cameras, those that allow you to achieve the
better image quality and finding a solution to any photographic need
may arise. Much larger sensors than those of bridge and compact cameras are mounted.
dimensions range from the 22.5 x 13.5mm of the Four Thirds sensor to the classic 36 x 24mm of the
so-called Full Frame sensor), and this allows for a very high image quality.
superior.

The Canon 650D.

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The name (reflex) comes from the particular vision system: the image traced by the lens
is sent to the sight through a tilted mirror, while a system of mirrors
the defined pentaprism ensures its straightening. In this way, we can observe
exactly what the objective frames, without errors.

The great advantage of DSLRs is that they allow you to change lenses and use
so specific optics for each need.

Mirrorless
The latest market proposal regarding cameras is mirrorless.
(literally 'without mirror'). These are cameras that do not have a mirror.
reflex and of the pentaprism, being equipped only with an electronic viewfinder. At the same time however
they have maintained the fundamental characteristic of reflex cameras: the ability to change
The goal. The elimination of the pentaprism allows for significantly reducing the dimensions.
Mirrorless cameras are generally significantly more compact and lighter than DSLRs. Furthermore,
thanks to the low pull allowed by the disappearance of the pentaprism and the
tiltable mirror, even the lenses can be much more compact.

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The Fujifilm X-Pro1: a high-class mirrorless.

The importance of sensor size

A factor to consider when choosing a camera is the
sensor size. It will be the sensor, in fact, that captures the image, and therefore its
dimensions are of considerable importance. Often the question that the photographer most
the expert feels flattered when someone asks for information about his trusty car
Photographic, perhaps a latest generation reflex, is: 'how many megapixels does it have?'. The latest
the time I answered "14 megapixels," the reply was, with a hint of pride: "even the
"It has 14 megapixels," and there the interlocutor pulled out his pocket compact.
Probably in his mind the fact that a compact and a bulky reflex have
both have a 14-megapixel sensor, which means that both can provide photos of
same quality. Unfortunately, this is not the case. For a variety of reasons, a compact camera does not
it can compete with a reflex. The most important of these reasons is precisely due to the
sensor sizes. Compact cameras have a much smaller sensor than
that of the reflex.

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The sizes of the sensors in comparison. The sizes of the

sensor of a compact. With all the other colors, the dimensions are represented of
sensors of the main existing reflex systems.

This means that the 14 million pixels of a latest generation compact camera are
extremely small dimensions compared to the 14 million pixels, arranged on a sensor of
dimensions 24mmx36mm. The larger pixels are more sensitive and therefore guarantee a
better signal. Smaller sized pixels, packed into a sensor that is also
very small dimensions tend to produce a lot of noise. In other words, with the exception of
technological advancements that occur with each generation of cameras, increasing the
number of pixels, but reducing its size risks losing all the noise
what is gained in resolution.
Furthermore, to get the most out of so many millions of pixels packed onto a sensor of size
so small, it would be necessary for the zoom mounted on the reflex to have a resolution
enormous. However, this clashes with the need to keep costs acceptable. In fact
achieving a high-class goal has enormous costs in terms of design and
materials used to build the lenses.
It is also necessary to take into account diffraction, an optical phenomenon that affects the target.
aperture closing. Light, to pass through the aperture, must change its
propagation angle, and this leads to a reduction in the lens's ability to resolve the
details. When the resolution of the lens becomes lower than that of the sensor,
the image appears blurred, less sharp. This phenomenon is significantly
accentuated by the number of pixels. The camera resolution is limited by the
diffraction of the lens.
In short, apart from advertising, and aside from the technological progress that allows for
always pushing further, generally more reflective users notice that the new
a 12-megapixel compact camera often takes less sharp photos than the old 5-megapixel one, perhaps
early retired.
In other words, the advantage of digital reflex systems, compared to compact ones, begins from
sensor size. It can also be said that, with equal technology, the larger it is
the better the sensor, the higher the quality of the images produced by the camera.

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Obviously, this quality comes at a price: the cost of so-called Full Frame reflex cameras, with a
sensor with dimensions equal to those of the old film 24mmx36mm, is generally
considerably superior to that of reflex with a smaller sensor: the FourThirds of
Olympus and Panasonic, or the APS-C of Canon, Nikon, Pentax, and Sony.

The various types of reflexes

The most widely used camera by hobbyist photographers who wish to have full control.
creative about their own images is definitely the digital reflex. The market really offers a
a wide range of options, so much so that it sometimes becomes difficult to navigate. Reflex cameras in general
they are classified based on a criterion of 'professionalism' that is not always shareable.
By adopting this criterion in the market, we find:
Professional reflexes
Semi-professional reflex
Reflex entry-level
Let's try to navigate this world to choose the most suitable camera.
to us.

The 1D-x, the latest super professional DSLR offered by Canon.

What distinguishes the professional reflex from the entry-level? Mainly a whole series of
features that make it more comfortable (one could say convenient, simple) to obtain
photography.

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Let's try to list them:

• Construction quality: professional DSLRs are more robust, featuring sturdy structures
internally made of very refined metal alloys, as well as particularly
resistant and lightweight.
• Many professional reflexes are tropicalized, meaning they are made in such a way
that they do not fear humidity or use under heavy rain (it must be considered that
to ensure a secure seal against weather agents, the goal must also be
tropicalized.
• Professional reflex cameras are equipped with a better pentaprism compared to the
entry-level, which provide a wider view of the framed scene and
comfortable, with 100% coverage, meaning the scene seen through the viewfinder corresponds
exactly that which will then be captured in photographs.
• The professional reflex cameras are then equipped with a dual control ring (one for
adjust the diaphragms, the other to adjust the timings), and a series of function buttons
customizable (that avoid going through the menu for many adjustments)
• Professional DSLRs usually have a faster shooting burst, memory buffer
wider, autofocus and more sophisticated exposure meter, more efficient shutter
more refined construction, and many other small and large technical refinements.
All these things make professional reflex cameras tools that meet everything and for
all the expert photographer.
Entry-level reflexes are characterized by a lower build quality compared to those
of a higher class. They use, for example, less valuable plastic materials. This does not
it means that they are of poor quality, quite the opposite: only that they are aimed at a less
specialist, who is assumed to use them less intensively compared to a professional,
are somewhat "budget-friendly". However, one should not believe that entry-level DSLRs
offer performance, in terms of image quality, that are inferior. Current DSLRs can
all offer a very high level of image quality.

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The Nikon D5100. A very complete entry-level.

The entry-level reflex, precisely because they are also designed for beginners, have a
a series of functions that make it easier to get good photographs even for those who are not
particularly skilled. Specifically, the presence of preset programs, suitable for the
diverse situations of recovery, allows you to get good photographs even if you don't know how
interpret and resolve a particular 'photographic situation'.
Defining semi-professional reflexes is a bit more difficult. Let's say they are positioned midway.
road, both in terms of equipment and price, between entry-level and professional. They possess
some of the characteristics of professional DSLRs, but not all.
For example, all semi-professional DSLRs have dual control rings. In fact,
Among the equipment listed above for professional DSLRs, the one that the photographer
the expert will feel the absence more, taking pictures with an entry-level reflex camera.
it will probably be the lack of the double adjustment ring. When you
work manually or when you want to intervene directly on the main parameters
of photography (primarily exposure time and aperture) the possibility of
directly control such parameters, without having to resort to menus, function keys or
keyboard shortcuts, it is very very important.

The Pentax K5. An interesting proposal in the semi-professional sector.

So how do you choose the reflex that best suits your needs?
One must carefully evaluate their approach to photography. If one does not have much
experience from a photographic point of view, and one is not sure if they want to dedicate much time to
learning, probably the best thing is to go for an entry-level reflex. The aforementioned
The presence of predefined programs will make life much easier, especially at the beginning.
On the other hand, a semi-professional or professional reflex camera can be very useful as
learning tool, as the lack of preset programs "forces"
to learn to manage on one's own. Naturally, however, even if one has an entry-level,
if you want to learn, just pretend that such programs do not exist, and decide to act
on their own with times and diaphragms.

Entry-level reflex cameras are excellent tools for starting to cultivate your passion for photography.

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photography at prices that are accessible to many. The current ones have characteristics such that,
from the point of view of performance and image quality, to be able to accompany
a photographer for years, without the danger of early obsolescence, as was the case
until a few years ago.
Alternatively, if the budget is limited but you are leaning towards a semi-professional DSLR, you can
you can turn to the second-hand market. With a little attention, it is indeed possible to purchase at
great prices for cameras that are one or two years old, perhaps barely used.

The choice of the mirrorless

The word mirrorless is becoming increasingly common in discussions on photography forums and in
chats among photography enthusiasts. There are many photography companies that have one or
more mirrorless cameras and there are more and more that decide to enter this
new niche of market.
Let's take a look at the main characteristics, the advantages, and the disadvantages of this recent type of
camera intended, according to some, even to replace the reflex.

The Samsung NX200, a recently released mirrorless camera.

When we talk about mirrorless cameras, we generally refer to those cameras that
they have these main characteristics:
• absence of reflex system
• interchangeable objectives

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• sensor of larger size and higher quality than compact ones (this is not
always true)

In this image, it is noticeable how mirrorless cameras lack the mirror system.
tiltable just like DSLRs. You can also appreciate the reduced pull.

Main advantages of mirrorless cameras compared to DSLRs

Absence of moving mechanical parts: the absence of the complex tilting mirror,
pentaprism and eyepiece ensure absence of induced vibrations, greater silence and
greater robustness. Moreover, the absence of mechanics can give producers the opportunity
to build a camera with high burst shooting.
Short pulling: since there is no need to leave space for the mirror, the pulling
of such machines can be very short. This allows for mounting on the
mirrorless any optics designed for reflex or rangefinder cameras
any format: from APS-C, to 35mm, to medium format. Lenses can be mounted
through the various adapters on the market, even though using 'adapted' optics results in loss
naturally the automatic focus and exposure settings. With almost all the
it is still possible to use aperture priority exposure as long as
the goal we want to adapt should be equipped with the appropriate ring or that it is
present on the adapter.
Compactness: a mirrorless can really be compact while maintaining a sensor
the size of what can be found on an APS-C or Four Thirds reflex.
paired with a compact fixed lens (often called a pancake) the dimensions are

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they remain slightly higher than those of a high-end compact.

The Panasonic GX1 with its 14mm lens remains very compact.

100% sight: the electronic sight (or the rear monitor) allows you to view the
100% of the scene that will be recorded by the sensor. Furthermore, it will be visible, albeit with
a bit of trailing effect, even in low light conditions, a situation in which the viewfinder of a
reflection becomes practically dark. Another advantage is the possibility of having superimposed to
scene that we are framing a multitude of information, from the histogram of levels to
aid grids for composition highlighting overexposed or underexposed areas.
These last ones are common advantages also to reflex cameras that have the ability to operate in
live view.

In this image, it is evident how even with a very low amount of light the
the monitor continues to show the framed scene. The difference in ambient light in the two
Images can be deduced not only visually but also from the exposure time indicated by the
machine. Also note the amount of information displayed on the screen. Of course it is
It is possible to choose which tools to display.

Main disadvantages compared to reflex cameras

The electronic sight is not always present: under bright light it can be difficult to use it.
rear LCD screen. Even when it is present, many still prefer to
the naturalness of viewing through a reflex viewfinder. It should be noted that electronic viewfinders are in

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continuous improvement and there are already excellent quality ones.

Objectives not compact enough: even using the standard zoom provided with it,
the compactness of the machine is nullified. If then bright zooms are started to be used or
with telephoto lenses, the size difference compared to a traditional reflex camera is greatly reduced.

The Panasonic GF1 with a 14-42mm zoom. The size of the lens, especially when
at maximum extension, they nullify the compactness of the machine

AF speed: the contrast autofocus present on these machines can hardly

to compete with that of DSLRs, especially when considering semi-pro models. However
significant progress is being made in this field and there are already machines
mirrorless with a sufficiently fast and reliable AF for almost all uses.

Lack of professional systems: There are still no mirrorless systems that can be
consider professional for quality and quantity of objectives and accessories. The number of
the quality objectives are quite limited as well as professional flash and accessories
such as the battery grip.

Lastly, it should be noted that some mirrorless systems use a sensor of size
lower than that of both APS-C and FourThirds reflex cameras. Fall into this category the
Nikon 1 system that has a 1" sensor (referred to by Nikon as "CX") and the Pentax Q system.
which has a back-illuminated CMOS sensor of 1/2.3". This in itself is neither a
a flaw nor an advantage since it is true that the quality of images moves away from
on the other hand, with reflex cameras one can rely on a set of camera and lenses of
truly pocket-sized dimensions. If the compromise between performance and portability is
It will be up to the individual photography enthusiast to decide based on their own needs.

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The Pentax Q system is very compact, but the camera uses a sensor of the same
dimensions like that of most compact ones, even if backlit.

APPENDIX

The tropicalization
A camera is called weatherproof when in its design certain features have been included.
measures aimed at making it resilient against difficult climatic situations, those
note that could be encountered in tropical climates, such as very high rates
of humidity, high temperatures, torrential rains, etc...
The tropicalization of a camera essentially consists of inserting a
its interior, at the most exposed points (along the coupling joints, beneath buttons
and the seals made of rubber or neoprene, which prevent water, sand
and other external elements from penetrating inside the camera. Additionally, cameras
tropicalized have a body made of magnesium or magnesium and aluminum alloy, because they are
more stable materials, less subject to deformation with temperature variation, and therefore in
degree of ensuring the durability of seals over time.

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The image shows the gaskets inserted inside a Nikon D3x that make this
tropicalized reflex.

If you plan to use the camera in difficult environments and situations, such as those that
they meet nature or travel photographers, but also simply in the rain or on
a beach, in the opinion of the writer, one should seriously consider purchasing a
tropicalized model.
Unfortunately, there are two factors to consider. One is that they are generally tropicalized.
only the most professional and expensive reflex models. The other is that no manufacturer
declares that its tropicalized camera refers to international regulations, nor
to the tropicalization standards of Japanese industries, and does not even specify that
the type of use is permitted and what should be avoided instead. This in short means that if the
the camera suffered damage caused by intense exposure to humidity, very
these damages will probably not be recognized as repairable under warranty.

That said, there is no doubt that a weather-sealed camera ensures a

greater tranquility when photographing in the rain, snow, by the sea (think of
how deleterious salt is for electronic devices) and in many other circumstances.
We remember that to ensure real protection, the tropicalized reflex must be
also equipped with a tropicalized objective. The o-ring on the device is particularly important.
connecting bayonet, which allows for protection at the most delicate point, that of
coupling between camera and lens.

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The o-ring (red) on the bayonet of a tropicalized lens.

The need for weather-sealed cameras increases as more and more people
they combine photography with sports and hobbies that are practiced in contact with nature, from
mountain excursions to trips to exotic places. Camera manufacturers
they seem to be responding to this market demand by lowering the price range
in which this useful feature is offered.
Pentax, for example, has just introduced a camera, the K30, which, in light of a
entry-level price, it is tropicalized, therefore resistant to dust and humidity.

The Pentax K30, entry-level weather-sealed reflex camera.

A final warning: tropicalization does not mean waterproofing. The camera

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tropicalized is not underwater. So do not try to immerse it in water because the

seals will not hold and the camera will be irreparably damaged.

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Chapter 2 The objectives

The focal length and the concept of normal lens

The lenses are named according to their focal length, expressed in millimeters (mm).
What is the focal length? Let's imagine that a lens is made up of a single lens.
The focal length would be the distance between this lens and the focal plane (that is to say
the plane of the sensor or film) when the lens is focused on infinity. Since
the objective is made up of many lenses, to determine the focal length one considers the
optical center of the lens, that is, it is considered in any case, virtually, as a lens
unique. Therefore, the focal length is the distance between the optical center of the lens and the plane of
focus.

One considers the normal focal length for a certain photographic system, that which
corresponds more or less to the diagonal of the frame. At the same time, this focal length
corresponds roughly to the field of view captured by the human eye, about 43-45
grades.
For example, in the classic Leica 35mm film format, also known as 135, from
dimensions of 24x36mm, the diagonal is 43.27 mm. The "normal" lens for the format
Leica (now commonly known as Full Frame) is therefore the 43mm.

The Pentax FA 43mm limited f/1.9: the quintessential 'normal' lens for the Leica format.

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In reality, for a series of reasons, including the possibility of adopting an optical scheme.
simple, the normal target for the 24x36mm system has always been considered, for
approximation, the 50mm. For years, in fact, before the advent of zooms, the "fifty"
it has been the goal accompanying reflexes. Over time, companies have tried
in the production of lenses from 40mm to 55mm which, with the necessary approximations, are
consider normal objectives in the 24x36 format.
They are therefore considered 'normal' objectives that frame a field angle.
ranging from 45° to 60°.
It follows that the focal length of the 'normal' lens changes according to the system.
used.
On medium format cameras, those that use 120 films, whose frame has
dimensions of 6x6cm, an 80mm lens is considered normal.
On Full Frame digital reflex, which have a sensor the same size as that of
Leica frame, 24x36mm, the 50mm continues to be the "normal" lens.
Due to the crop factor caused by the smaller sensor, on APS-C digital SLRs
currently, the classic 50mm is no longer a normal lens, as it does not come close to the
diagonal of the sensor, nor to the field angle captured by the human eye. The angle of
the field of a 50mm on APS-C, depending on the different formats, varies between 31 and 32 degrees,
roughly that of a 75-80mm on Leica format. It therefore becomes a medium telephoto, suitable for,
for example, for half-length or environmental portraits.
The objectives considered "normal" on APS-C are those ranging from 28mm to
35mm.
As for Four Thirds format DSLRs, those that are standard lenses are
They have a focal length between 20 and 25mm.

The Olympus Zuiko 25mm f/2.8 'Pancake': a 'normal' for the Four Thirds system
Tailor.

Objectives and crop factor

For decades, the most used photographic system has been the Leica 35mm system, also known as 135.
which is based on a frame size of 36x24mm, now adopted by reflex cameras
digital so-called Full Frame. For this reason, when talking about lenses, one relates to
, more or less consciously, to that system.
In the Leica system, the classification of lenses is, with some approximations, the

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next:
Super wide-angle: focal lengths from 12mm to 21mm.
Wide-angle: focal lengths from 24mm to 35mm.
Normal: focal lengths from 40mm to 55mm.

Telephoto lenses from 60mm to 200mm.

Supertelephoto: focal lengths from 300mm and up.

Sensor dimensions.

Due to the fact that most digital SLRs currently sold have a
smaller sensor, it is necessary to review the division mentioned above, taking into account
of the crop factor of 1.5x – 1.6x for APS-C systems and 2x for the Four Thirds system.
For this reason, when talking about the lenses mounted on these cameras, it is often ...
prefers to also indicate the equivalent focal length.
Therefore, it is read or heard that a 300mm, mounted on an APS-C Nikon reflex (such as
for example the D300), is equivalent to a 450mm, or that a 400mm is equivalent, on the same
camera, with a 600mm. On Canon APS-C DSLRs, the crop factor is 1.6x. So
It is commonly said that a 300mm is equivalent to a 480mm, and that a 400mm is equivalent to
a 640mm. As noted, for those who use long telephoto lenses, the APS-C sensor offers
notable advantages, as it provides greater magnification for the same focal length used.
For the same reason, however, wide-angles are penalized. A 14mm, which is a
a respectable wide angle on 24x36mm film or sensor is equivalent to only a
Modesto 21mm mounted on APS-C.
In fact, with the advent of digital technology and the spread of APS-C sensors, companies have produced
of wide-angle lenses starting from 10mm, and now also from 8mm (equivalent to a 12mm)
on APS-c with a crop factor of 1.5x.
On the APS-c system, we can therefore classify the lenses as follows:
Super wide-angle: focal lengths from 8mm to 15mm.
Wide-angle: focal lengths from 16mm to 24mm.
Normal: focal lengths from 28mm to 35mm.
Medium telephoto: focal lengths from 40mm to 150mm.

Supertele: focal lengths from 200mm and up.

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The Sigma 8-16mm f/4.5-5.6 DC HSM: the most advanced super wide-angle zoom designed
for APS-C reflex cameras.

For the QuattroTerzi system, a dichroic factor of 2x is generally considered, even

the different proportions of the frame (4:3 instead of 3:2) should lead to doing
some slightly different considerations that are omitted here.
Therefore, in the QuattroTerzi system, the objectives can be divided as follows:
Super wide-angle: focal lengths from 7mm to 11mm.
Wide-angle: focal lengths from 12mm to 20mm.
Normal: focal lengths from 21mm to 27mm.

Medium telephoto lenses from 30mm to 100mm.

Supertele: focal lengths of 150mm and above.

Even for compact cameras, we talk about equivalent focal lengths. In fact, often
on the objective, in addition to the effective focal length (or instead of it), the equivalent one is indicated in
Leica format. So, for example, it's easy to find compacts that have on the lens the
written "24-105mm eq.", where "eq." indicates that the indicated focal lengths are those
equivalents, such as the angle of view, to the Leica 24x36mm format.

From wide-angle to telephoto

The goals that have a field angle similar to that returned are defined as 'normal'.
from the human perspective, those that frame an angle between 45° and 60°.
Wide-angle lenses are defined as those that have a focal length shorter than
to the goal considered 'normal' for a given system, that is, those that allow
to frame a wider portion of the scene. Therefore, all those are wide-angle lenses
Objectives that allow framing a field portion greater than 45°.
Telephoto lenses are defined as lenses that have a focal length longer than
the 'normal', frame a portion of the field less than 45°, thus creating a
magnification compared to human vision.
The photographs below provide an idea of the effect returned by the different
focal lengths. Observe them carefully, also consulting the captions.
specifically reflect on how the increase in focal length decreases the field angle

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framed. It's the same scene, captured at different focal lengths.

Wide angle

The scene is captured with an APS-C DSLR - with a crop factor of 1.5x - with a lens of
focal length 12mm, which on this system delivers a field angle of 99.6°.
The equivalent focal length on Full Frame (24x36mm) is 18mm.

A 15mm (equivalent on FF to 22.5mm) has a field angle of 86.8°.

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At 18mm (equivalent focal length on FF 27mm), the field of view is 76.5°.

At 24mm (equivalent focal length on FF 36mm), the field of view is 61.2°.

it is about a slightly wide-angle view.

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Normal

28mm (equivalent focal length on FF 42mm). The field of view is 53.8°. The field
The framing and the perspective rendering are very similar to those of human vision.

35mm (equivalent focal length on FF 52mm). The field of view is 44.1°. We are
still within the scope of the 'normal'.

Telephoto lenses

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70mm (equivalent to 105mm in FF). Field of view equal to 22.9°. It is a medium.

tele.

100mm (equivalent focal length on FF 150mm). Field angle equal to 16.2°.

Mediocre classic.

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200mm (equivalent focal length on FF 300mm). Field angle equal to 8.1°. We are in the field
of the supertele.

400mm (equivalent focal length on FF 600mm). Field angle equal to 4.1°. We are in the field
of the supertele.

The zooms

Zoom objectives are defined as all those objectives that allow the focal length to vary.
within a certain range of values. While often involving compromises, in

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In terms of quality, compared to equivalent fixed focal objectives, zooms have prevailed.
on the market due to their versatility and practicality. Furthermore, thanks to the development of
Technology, nowadays even budget zooms often offer excellent optical quality.
respect. So much so that currently fixed focal length objectives are relegated to applications and
specific photographic genres that are purchased almost exclusively by professionals and by
more demanding photographers.

The zooms on compact cameras

Almost all compact cameras and bridges are equipped with a zoom lens. It is about
variable focal length lenses, which usually range from modest wide-angle to medium
tele. Thinking in terms of equivalent focal lengths, generally the zoom of compact cameras covers a
focal range that goes from 24-28mm in wide-angle position to 200-300mm in position
tele. Since such cameras do not offer the option to change the lens, one tries to
offer the buyer a range of focal lengths suitable for covering all normal needs of a
photo enthusiast.

The Panasonic Lumix DMC-ZS7. As indicated on the camera body, it is equipped

a 12x zoom lens that starts from an equivalent focal length of 25mm. It is therefore
a 25-300mm equivalent. The focal lengths within this range are the most commonly used.
used by photographers. A zoom lens like this therefore allows to cover the majority of
part of the photographic situations.

On reflex cameras
Entry-level reflex cameras are normally sold
zoom lens with a zoom18-50mm or 18-55mm. The equivalent focal lengths of which
Available are those ranging between 27-28mm and 75-80mm. Therefore, it goes from
moderate wide-angle at the modest average television. It is immediately noticeable that a
The newly purchased reflex is, in some respects, less versatile than a compact or a ...
bridge.

Economic medium-tele zoom

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To address this problem, manufacturers often offer kits with two lenses: the
18-50mm classic plus a 50-200mm, therefore a medium telephoto zoom, which greatly expands.
the photographic possibilities.

The Sony 55-200mm f/4-5.6 is an affordable telephoto zoom suitable for 'completing the kit'.

Zoom tails are obviously also available for separate purchase and constitute a way
easy to expand one's range of focal lengths, and consequently the possibilities
photographic, spending little. Usually, the cost of such zooms stays below 300-
350 euros.

The Nikon Nikkor 70-300mm f/4.5-5.6 VR. A lens with good performance that, as indicated by the
The acronym VR is also stabilized.

All-round zoom

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For those who wish to equip their reflex with a single all-purpose lens, perhaps because
they do not love changing perspective, there are comfortable 18-200mm or 18-250mm
versatile, although often with obvious compromises in terms of optical quality.

The Nikon 18-200 VR (that is, stabilized). A versatile zoom lens that ranges from wide-angle
moderately to the pushed screen, for those who do not like to change perspective.

If you want to further expand your photography equipment and possibilities

expressive, there are obviously zoom lenses available for all tastes. The only limit is
made up of the amount of their own spending budget.

Here are some examples.

Wide angle zoom

Wide-angle zoom lenses cover focal lengths ranging from 8mm to 24mm, if designed for the
APS-C system, and from 12 to 35mm if designed for the Full Frame system (24x36mm).
usually they don't have a large aperture, they are limited to f/4, because with wide angles the risk
the chance of obtaining blurry photographs is lower (the safety time, at 10mm, on the system
APS-c is equal to 1/15 seconds.

The Sony DT 11-18 mm f/4.5-5.6: a zoom lens that covers wide-angle focal lengths.

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Normal bright zooms

They are lenses that cover focal lengths between 16 and 55mm for the APS-C format and between 24 and 70mm.
for the Full Frame format. They differ from the zooms that come as standard equipment for
to be much brighter. In fact, they have a fixed aperture throughout the entire focal range of f/2.8
while the accompanying zoom lenses are f/4-5.6.

The Nikon Nikkor AF-S 17-55mm f/2.8 G IF-ED DX: a bright 'standard' zoom.

What is the difference, in practical terms? Well, a bright lens, with an aperture of f/2.8,
first of all allows to better balance the depth of field, better blurring the
background as needed, very useful in many photographic genres, such as for example the
portrait. The large apertures then allow for setting faster speeds, minimizing the
danger of turbulence. The scene displayed in the viewfinder also appears brighter. Moreover,
Since these are products designed for professional users, the f/2.8 aperture zooms are
generally designed to ensure uncompromised optical performance.
Of course, these advantages also come with some disadvantages. First of all, the price.
The 16-50 f/2.8 can cost from 800 to 1500 euros, while a kit lens 18-55 f/4-5.6 costs
around 100-150 euros, often even less if bought together with the camera. Secondly
place the dimensions and the weight.

Medium-bright telephoto zoom

There are also professional zoom lenses for telephoto lenses. The most
the classic is the 70-200 f/2.8.
Obviously, in this case, the advantage compared to objectives with focal lengths
similar but with an aperture of f/4 or f/5.6, it mainly depends on the brightness. However, since
These are professional objectives, in which producers invest the best of their abilities.
Project and technical, these objectives exhibit an exceptional optical quality.
Obviously, such quality comes at a high price. Prices range between 800-900 euros for the
universal producers and the 2000 euros or more of the most famous brands.

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The Canon 70-200 f/2.8 II. A bright stabilized medium telephoto lens with extraordinary optical performance.

Medium-telephoto lenses are primarily used for portrait photography (in which the wide
Aperture allows you to blur the background and, in general, complete control.
on depth of field), for photography in low-light places, for photography of
ceremony, without neglecting landscape photography and, at times, that of wild animals.
The difference in brightness obviously leads to a significant difference in terms of
dimensions and weight, as can be seen in the following photo. The bright tele zooms
They are also quite heavy.
Zoom tele
They are variable focal length objectives that cover long focal lengths, for example from 80mm to
400mm, or from 150mm to 500mm, low light (usually have a diaphragm opening
variable between f/5 and f/7.3.
They are often used by beginners to start practicing more demanding genres and
specialized in photography, such as sports photography (consider football matches, sailing, to the
motor racing tracks or motocross tracks), and that of animals in the wild
wildlife

The Sigma 150-500 f/5-6.3 HSM OS is a stabilized telephoto zoom that allows you to get closer.
with a still fairly contained expenditure in the world of supertele and photographic goods,

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such as wildlife photography, which requires long focal lengths.

These are photographic genres that will soon require the use of telephoto lenses.
fixed, from the wide opening, expensive and heavy, but to start getting familiar with
yes, perhaps while waiting to understand if it is a type of photography that really interests us,
the purchase of a telephoto zoom, with a still manageable cost and weight, could be a
good initial solution.

The macro objectives

A branch of photographic recovery that is certainly very fascinating, both for those who
practice that for photo observers, it consists of moving the point of
view of a microcosm that surrounds us and of which we are often unaware
invaders but almost never attentive spectators: those of insects, flowers, drops of dew
and billions of other subjects too small to be fully appreciated in their -
sometimes stunning - beauty to the naked eye.

Reproduction ratio about 1:1.

We are obviously talking about macro photography, that is, about shooting at
close distance that allows one to grasp the alien universe that is found within the

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the world we are accustomed to.

There are many tools and accessories that allow our camera to become
suitable for the macro recovery. However, the simplest solution, the one without
compromises, but also more expensive is the purchase of a macro lens.
However, one must be very careful: the macro writing appears nowadays on many
objectives that are not at all. Optical manufacturers, in fact, tend to be generous
rather casually, and to assign the macro qualification even to objectives that
they allow, yes and no, a magnification ratio of 1:6, 1:5, 1:4. A well-known 70-300 zoom
which is defined as 'macro', for example, allows for a maximum magnification ratio
of 1:4 without the use of additional accessories. This ratio means that, for example, a
subject of 4 mm in length, it will be reproduced with an actual length of 1mm on
sensor. Really very little.
The macro objectives, on the other hand, are those that allow for a relationship of
1:1 reproduction. That is, every detail of the subject will be reproduced exactly with the
same dimensions on the sensor. Some macro lenses actually stop at a ratio
1:2, but they reach the fateful 1:1 with a close-up lens or an accessory extension tube.
specifically studied by the manufacturer, the use of which does not compromise it
significantly the quality.

The macro objective shows the reproduction ratio that is being worked on.
this case 1:1.

If we study the catalogs of various lens manufacturers, we discover that macro lenses
they are in almost all cases fixed focal length lenses, with aperture
certainly good, but not exceptional (it stops at f/2.8 or at f/3.5), with a front lens
it protrudes a lot from the barrel when it is at the minimum focus distance.

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At maximum reproduction ratio, as seen in the photograph, the front lens of a

The macro objective stands out a lot from the barrel.

The fundamental feature of a macro lens is its ability to focus.

at a much shorter distance compared to that of a normal lens. If a 50mm
normally focuses at a minimum distance of about 45 cm away,
The 50mm macro will be able to focus at a minimum distance of about 19.5 cm.
To illustrate other structural differences between a macro lens and a normal one,
let's compare the technical data of two lenses with the same focal length, from the same manufacturer:

Comparison between the technical specifications of a 50mm macro lens and a normal one

The differences that immediately stand out are the following:

• The 50mm normal lens is much brighter, f/1.4 compared to f/2.8. This happens because a

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50mm normal is designed to ensure excellent control of blur and therefore

with the possibility of using a very open aperture. A macro lens instead
it will be used mainly in intermediate or tighter diaphragms. Therefore, it is useless in the context of
designing, working on large openings that would not be used and
they would create many problems for designers to manage.
• The 50mm macro has a diaphragm that stops down by three more stops: f/45 against
f/16. This is also due to a specific design choice. In macro photography
in fact, the depth of field is always shallow, and a smaller aperture allows for
gain a few more millimeters of clear zone. It's pointless to predict such
diaphragms on a normal lens, where they would almost never be used.
• Obviously, the reproduction ratio is very different: 1:1 for the macro lens,
1:7.4 for the normal objective.

Which macro objective is it advisable to choose?

Nikon Micro Nikkor 60mm f/2.8 macro G ED.

There are macro lenses available on the market with various focal lengths: ranging from 35mm to 200mm.
Everyone, as already mentioned, guarantees a reproduction ratio of at least 1:2.
The choice of focal length mainly depends on the use we want to make of it.
In fact, it is important to take into account one crucial factor: the shorter the focal length
the objective, the shorter the distance between the front lens and the subject.
This fact has two important consequences:
if the subject is alive (an insect for example), if the minimum distance of the lens
if the frontal was too short, it might get scared and run away;
a distance that is too short between the front lens and the subject can cause problems with
the use of any external lighting (flash or lamp).

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In the photo of this spider, we are well beyond the reproduction ratio of 1:1. It has been
obtained with a 100mm macro mounted on extension tubes and a light source was used
external lighting (the flash, mounted on the camera, with diffuser). The distance
minimum focusing distance, thanks to the use of a telephoto lens, has allowed not to
scare the spider and also have enough space to light it up.

To exemplify the problem, let's bring some data: with a 50mm lens, the distance between the lens
front and the subject will be about 7 cm; if we have a lens hood mounted, depending on the
the configuration of this will bring the working distance down to about 4-5 cm. At this point it is
It is important to clarify that there is a significant difference between the minimum installation distance of
fire, which for a 50mm macro will be, as mentioned before, about 19.5 cm, and the distance of
subject from the front lens, as during operation the front lens of a macro
it overflows a lot from the barrel. At the minimum focusing distance, which corresponds
at maximum magnification factor (1:1), the front lens of a 50mm macro will be about
7 cm from the subject.
With a 100mm, the working distance increases to 14 cm, 12-13 with a lens hood mounted.
It is clear how the difference is remarkable: most insects will not tolerate a
a distance of 4-5 cm, but one of 12-13 yes. For insects, it would still be better to use
a 150mm or a 180mm, which allow to achieve a reproduction ratio of 1:1
respectively 18 cm and 23 cm away from the front lens, enough to ensure
also our safety concerning dangerous subjects (wasps, hornets, vipers...).

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The Sigma APO MACRO 180mm f/2.8 DG OS HSM: an extraordinary lens for photography
of insects as it allows to keep a good distance from the subject.

The possible use of external lighting sources is also greatly facilitated if

we can operate at a greater distance.
In light of the above, and even though I have seen some beautiful photos taken with macros
at a focal length of 35mm, my suggestion is to consider macro lenses with a focal range included
between 50mm and 100mm if we think about photographing flowers and other static subjects, while
100mm is really the bare minimum for photographing insects, for which focal lengths
The ideal ones are those between 150mm and 200mm.

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A very particular lens, designed by Canon exclusively for macro.

The MP E 65mm f/2.8 allows for magnifications of up to 5x with spectacular effects.

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Chapter 3 The Accessories

The tripod

Without a shadow of a doubt, the most important accessory for a photographer is the tripod.

Many photographers rely on the effectiveness of the stabilizer, while many dislike having to bear the considerable weight of a good one.
tripod, but if you want to expand the capabilities of your equipment, follow this advice: equip yourself with a good
tripod.

The use of a tripod actually has the following advantages:

1) you will simply be able to take photographs otherwise impossible, for example those in which for aesthetic reasons you
wants to use long exposure times, as in the examples below:

This image was obtained using a shutter speed of 2.5 seconds. Such a long time is necessary to render
the effect of the movement of the sea. No stabilizer could compensate for such a long shutter speed. There is only one
possibility: use a tripod.

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The 3-second shutter time allows for capturing the effect of moving water in photography. Once again, it is
the tripod is essential.

The tripod allows you to evaluate the framing calmly. In this respect, it is very useful: a kind of gym for
good composition. Especially at the beginning, when certain composition automatism are not acquired, stopping to
reflecting on the chosen framing, carefully observing it in the viewfinder or on the camera's live view, allows you to achieve
better images;

Often capturing an interesting shot means waiting for the ideal play of light. So it happens to position the
camera on the tripod, choose the framing well, and wait for the ideal light to arrive. This wait can last
even many minutes, even a few hours. If the camera is mounted on the tripod, and the framing has been well thought out in
priority, at the arrival of the light we will be ready to take the photo without losing those precious seconds that
they could nullify our wait.

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A sunset lasts only a few minutes. It's better to be prepared and choose the framing beforehand, then wait for the right moment with the
camera on tripod

When choosing a tripod, one essential piece of advice should be considered: do not save money! At the stalls and
Even in photography stores, you can find tripods that cost only a few dozen euros. Don't buy them!
The tripod, to be effective, must be stable. To be stable, it must be well constructed and it must also be
heavy. It is unlikely to find anything that meets these parameters below 150 euros. To which the cost should be added
of the head, which in professional tripods is sold separately.

A professional tripod ensures the adequate stability and safety of the photographic equipment. It should be equipped with a "head",
the accessory that holds the camera and allows you to adjust the framing.

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A good parameter to assess whether the tripod meets our needs is that it should weigh more
of the equipment that will hold it. This rule can only be waived in the case of the very modern and very expensive.
tripods built from carbon fiber with other sought-after and refined materials. In any case, the manufacturers of models
Professionals indicate the weight that a certain tripod model can support.
To resist the temptation of buying a tripod at the stalls, consider that it is precisely to the tripod that you entrust the
safety of your precious camera with the attached lens (it is probably worth hundreds of euros, if not
thousands). They would face significant damage if the tripod were to overturn. It's certainly not the time to skimp on
tripod, then!
An unstable tripod is also completely useless, because the simple movement you apply with your finger to the button of
A shot can generate vibrations that will lead to a blurred photo.

A basic head, with three movements, to be mounted on the tripod. The head is equipped with a quick-release plate that needs to be mounted.
under the camera, and allows you to mount it on the tripod in just a few moments and detach it just as quickly.

But how to choose the tripod? Which features should be focused on?

Stability and robustness

Let's say it again. Since the stability of the tripod is entrusted with the integrity of our expensive photographic equipment, it
it should really be robust. I assure you that one of the worst moments in a photographer's life is when they see
to fall to the ground his precious camera, perhaps with a mounted lens worth several hundred or thousands of
euro
It would really be unwise to skimp on purchasing the tripod. If we have a reflex camera, therefore, let's avoid it.
we accurately check the tripods for sale at the stalls, and we also avoid purchasing unknown brands in stores.
Let's turn to the few well-known serious producers and carefully choose the right tripod for our needs.
necessity after trying it or asking for clarifying information from experts, perhaps turning to friends
photographers or asking for information on one of the many online photography forums.

In choosing the tripod, we can rely on the technical data stated, present in brochures, in catalogs, on
boxes and on the websites of the best manufacturers. Among the technical data, the weight that the tripod can support is clearly indicated.

support.

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A fundamental piece of information in the choice: the maximum load capacity on the tripod. In this case, 8 kg.

An old rule of thumb advised choosing a tripod heavier than the equipment that should
support. Technology and the use of better materials have allowed us to overlook this rule. In any case
It is always better to overestimate and choose a tripod that declares a "load capacity" at least 30% higher.
to the weight of the reflex and the lens it will need to support.
A generously sized tripod will ensure, in addition to protection from the risk of sudden disastrous falls, also attenuation.
of those vibrations that cause micromovement, leading to the loss of sharpness in the photo.
Moreover, the number of leg sections also greatly influences the stability of the tripod: it is important to ensure that
the tripod that we are purchasing should not have more than two joints, so the legs should not have more than three sections.

Transportability
Portability is a very important factor in choosing a tripod, although unfortunately it clashes with the
analyzed characteristic before, as a stable tripod is usually quite heavy, unless we
we are directing towards carbon fiber models that are up to 30% lighter than others with the same load capacity. I
Carbon fiber tripods are quite expensive, but if we need to carry the tripod during long hikes.
We must seriously consider purchasing it, or looking for a compromise solution.

Versatility
a very important element in choosing a tripod is its versatility. In particular, one must pay attention to
two features: the ability to mount the column horizontally and the ability to remove it to widen the legs and
reach a minimum height from the ground of no more than 15-20 cm.

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The tripod column.

Possibility to mount the column horizontally

The tripod column allows for an increase in the maximum working height when the legs are fully extended.
this one.
For some photographic genres (macro primarily, but also document reproduction, etc...) it is important that it is possible
place it horizontally, as shown in the following image:

It is important that the tripod has the ability to mount the column horizontally.

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In this way, we will be able to take photos with the camera facing down, something that can happen more often than
how much you imagine, especially if you practice macro photography.

To take this photograph, the tripod was set up with the column horizontally.

Possibility to remove the central column

This is also an important feature, as it allows for a minimum height off the ground that is not excessive.
ai 15-20 cm. This property is especially important in nature photography. A minimum height from the ground
content, in fact, allows you to photograph animals (for example, waterfowl in a lake) at their own height, that is from the
better perspective. Of course, it is essential that the tripod legs are completely extendable as they
see in the photo below.

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It is important that the tripod has a removable central column and legs that can completely spread out to ensure
a minimum height above ground of a few centimeters.

Other factors to consider when choosing a tripod

Another element to consider is the maximum height. It should be about 130 – 150 cm with the column.
completely lowered column. If it is true that the column allows to increase the height as needed, it is
It is also true that when it is lifted, the tripod becomes less stable. For this reason, it is better to buy a
tripod that is tall enough without using the center column.
Regarding coloring, there are no particular requirements. However, if we are interested in practicing photography.
in nature, we remember that many nature photographers suggest the purchase of dark green tripods, or
black, because the color of aluminum and especially the reflections of the sun on it, could be perceived by some
annoy animals.
Very useful on the tripod (especially if used for video recordings) can be a level bubble.

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Level bubble on the tripod.

Finally, a few words about the feet, although in professional tripods they are usually interchangeable and therefore easily
replaceable, as manufacturers sell them as accessories. The most common feet, those with which they are generally sold
The stands are made of rubber, useful both indoors (to avoid scratching or damaging the floors) and in most of the outdoor settings.
outdoor situations. There are also metal pointed feet, to be used only outdoors and driven into the ground for
increase the stability of the tripod. There are also double feet, equipped with both rubber and metal tips.

Rubber foot.

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Double foot with a rubber base that can be rotated to extend the metal tip when needed.

Choose a head for the tripod

Professional or semi-professional tripods are sold without a head that must be purchased separately.
separately from the photographer according to one's needs. Let's see what the main heads are for
tripod on the market.

Test the sphere

As the name suggests, this type of head has a single ball joint that allows for movement.
quickly the camera in any direction. The head has a lever or a knob that allows to
unlock it, place it in the desired position, and lock it again.

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A ball head produced by Cullmann. The only lever present allows you to lock and unlock the head. [Link]

Advantages: immediacy and speed in moving the camera by unlocking a single lever. Compactness: if
Compared to a three-movement head, the difference in size is evident.
Disadvantages: they are generally less precise than three-movement heads and it is more difficult to achieve an accurate framing.
compared to these last ones. Even when blocked, they tend to be less stable and to move more easily from position
stability compared to three-movement heads (this, of course, depends a lot on the quality and robustness).
Recommended use: it is a very versatile head that allows you to do a bit of everything. Various photographers use it for any type.
in the photo, from portrait to macro photography. Personally, I do not consider it suitable for landscape photography, for which it is
preferable to have separate control of the three movements, and for macro photography (magnifications greater than 1:1) for
which is more suitable a rack and pinion head with micrometric movements (of this type of head and others for more uses
we will talk about specific topics in a future tutorial.

Test at three movements

With this type of head, it is possible to move the camera independently on each of the three axes.
Each of the three knobs unlocks and locks one of the axes.

A three-movement head produced by Benro. As seen, it has a knob to lock and unlock each of the axes.
independently. PhotoBenro USA

Advantages: the separate adjustment for the three axes allows for precise framing. You can move the
camera acting on one axis while keeping the others locked, useful, for example, when you want to try
different framing without changing the position of the horizon line or when wanting to combine multiple photos to
to obtain panoramas. Once the knobs are locked, it is more difficult for the framing to shift compared to how much
it occurs with ball heads.
Disadvantages: having to fiddle with three levers, the use is less immediate and fast compared to that of a ball head.
The dimensions are greater compared to a ball head of equivalent load capacity.
Recommended uses: it can be used for every type of photography, especially for those where the precision of framing is
prioritized over operational speed: landscapes, macro, architectural photos, reproduction of paintings or documents.

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How to choose
If you are undecided in choosing between these two heads, it might be helpful to go to a well-stocked photography store and ask.
to be able to try different ones of both types. This way it will be easier to understand which type of head is more suitable for
our way of photographing.

Features to pay attention to

When choosing the head for the tripod, there are some common characteristics to pay attention to.
Maximum capacity
All manufacturers state in the technical data sheets the maximum capacity of the heads they produce. Let's pay attention to
choose a head with a maximum load capacity greater than the weight of our camera with the heaviest lens of which
we are available. It's good to keep a little loose to avoid making the head work to the limit of its possibilities
advantage of the stability and security of the equipment that we will install on it.
Sturdiness and assembly quality
Let's make sure that the head we are about to purchase does not have excessive play, which could result in blurry photos.
moss, and that it is sufficiently solid for the use we will make of it. Relying on well-known brands, and avoiding overly cheap lines
economically, we should not have problems in this regard.
Quick release mechanism

The quick plate is left mounted on the camera.

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The quick plate attaches and detaches from the tripod head via an insertion and locking system operated by a
lever.

Almost all high-quality heads come equipped with it. The quick coupling and uncoupling mechanism consists of a
screw plate to attach under the camera. The plate can be inserted onto the head of the tripod through special
grooves and joints and be locked through a special stop.
The function of this mechanism is to allow for quick attachment and detachment of the machine from the head.
simply by moving a lever. In this way, for example, one can calmly position the tripod and
attach the camera only when it is well positioned. Also, when we need to move the tripod we can
detach the camera in an instant and reattach it after repositioning, avoiding unnecessary risks for
the equipment. Of course, the same thing can also be done without the quick release, but having to screw and unscrew every time the
Attaching a camera to the head of the tripod is certainly more laborious. Without a quick release, it is likely that, among
one shot and the other, you end up moving the tripod with the mounted camera so as not to repeat the boring thing every time
dismantling and reassembly operation.
With the quick attachment and release mechanism, it will also be possible to purchase various plates, one for each camera.
and for each large objective of our kit, in order to have the option to remove a camera and
mount another on the tripod in a few moments.
It is therefore highly advisable to choose a head equipped with a quick release and that has a well-made quick plate.
that can be assembled easily and, above all, that can be securely locked.

Special tests or for special uses

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Test the rack

The 410 Junior, a rack and pinion head produced by Manfrotto. Note the knobs whose rotation allows movement along the
three axes. Photo: [Link]

In the normal three-movement tests to move along an axis, the corresponding knob is released and then locked.
once again reaching the desired position. With rack and pinion heads, on the other hand, one moves along the axes
rotating the respective knobs until reaching the desired position without the need to lock and unlock anything.
the movement is very precise and allows for framing with great accuracy. They are also equipped with a
a mechanism that allows to disengage, via a ring, the gears to move the head quickly and, once
Re-lock it, precisely correct the framing using the knobs that allow for micrometric movement.

Recommended use
The rack and pinion head is recommended in situations that require great precision in framing, for photography.
of static objects and where the operating speed is secondary to precision. A certainly recommended use is for the
macro photography at high magnifications, where it would be difficult to frame with a head without micro-metric movements.
caring for the subject and simply blocking the lever of an axis would cause significant shifts in the framing. Yes
It can also be used for studio photography or landscapes if you want to meticulously take care of the framing.

Test gimbal

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A gimbal head produced by Triopo. Note the particular structure of the head that allows for perfect balance.
of the target and very fluid movements. Photo: [Link]

The gimbal is a very particular head, which is clear from its appearance, different from any other type of head. Its name
it derives from the type of mechanism used, aptly called "gimbal". This head is used for large telephoto lenses and
heavy. It has the feature of allowing to balance the telephoto lens machine complex. Once well balanced, the head
it allows for quick adjustment of the focus to follow rapidly moving subjects. If well made, the movements are
fluid, the object seems suspended in the air and its weight canceled out.

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Gimbal heads are great for supporting long and heavy lenses, like this upcoming AF S Nikkor 800mm f5.6 that
It will probably be longer than 50 cm and weigh more than 5 kg. Note the presence of the tripod mount, condition
essential for use on this type of head. Photo: [Link]

Recommended uses
The gimbal head is used with long focal length lenses equipped with a collar for tripod attachment. The photographic genres for
which are particularly indicated are in practice the same as those used for long telephoto lenses: wildlife photography of animals in
their habitat and the photography of sporting events.

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Video test

The Manfrotto 501HDV, a high-quality video head for the advanced hobbyist, also used by professionals shooting videos.
using the cameras. Photo:[Link]

Why talk about video heads in a volume dedicated to photography? The answer is simple, today most cameras
offers the possibility of shooting videos. Various latest generation DSLRs and mirrorless cameras allow for shooting high-quality videos.
quality and in full HD (1920×1080 pixels). For this reason, more and more people are not only photography enthusiasts but also
video enthusiasts and use the same equipment for both photography and video recording. For the advanced video enthusiast, who
if you want to make high-quality videos, using a specific head is practically a must. A good video head allows you to
to achieve smooth camera movements, without jerks. Let's say immediately that there is a great variety of this type of heads, ranging from those
simple two-movement ones, costing just a few dozen euros, to more sophisticated ones that cost a few hundred euros, not to
to talk, of course, about those professional ones costing several thousand euros. The first ones, in my opinion, are not of great utility because
they do not allow for smooth movements. If they are only to be used for static shots, it is better to use a good photographic head, if
already it is possessed. The second ones, having fluid and adjustable friction on the two axes, and a counterbalancing spring, allow for

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panoramic shots and fluid vertical movements without jerks. The downside is the price: it starts from 150/200€ to get
a head of decent quality, to which the cost of a sturdy video tripod must be added, which, equipped with a semi-sphere mount, costs a lot
I wear double the head.

Test the sphere, some variants

Here we see some variants of the normal ball head we discussed above.

Hydrostatic test

A hydrostatic head that can hold, in this case, up to 16Kg. Photo:[Link]

They are basically ball heads equipped with a hydraulic locking system. They have the same characteristics as standard ball heads.
they can withstand greater loads and have a more secure locking even with particularly heavy machines and lenses.

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Test the joystick

Test joystick with vertical grip. Note the lever easily operated by the same hand that holds the head. Photo:
[Link]

It is a ball head with a handle, horizontal or vertical, and a trigger release. It is used for quick changes.
the framing. Keeping your hand on the joystick-shaped grip, just press the trigger lever to unlock, reframe and
release the lever to lock the head again.

Overview test

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Panoramic test. At the base, the rotation mechanism is visible. The sliders are used to carefully position the camera. Photo:
[Link]

As the name suggests, it is a type of head used to obtain panoramic photographs made up of different shots joined together in
post-production through specific software. They consist of a part that allows 360° rotation in fixed increments and a
part that allows you to carefully position the camera to keep the center of rotation aligned with the nodal point of the
camera lens complex.

Naturally, there are other variants of the heads seen so far, but their characteristics do not differ much from those of
types to which they belong.
Who needs such specific heads? It's true that with a good ball head or a three-way head, you can dabble a bit in everything.
photographic genres, but if you become passionate about one in particular, after a while you might feel the need for more specific equipment
that allows for better and more comfortable results. For example, if one became passionate about macro photography and started
when taking photos with high magnifications, a normal three-way head would start to show all its limits and one would begin to
to feel the need for a rack and pinion head that allows micrometric movements.
My advice is to start with a ball head or a three-way head and, if you are leaning towards a particular genre,
subsequently adding a more specific head to it, continuing to use that base for other genres.

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Table easels and other supports

Although a sturdy tripod is essential in many photography genres, when traveling for work or vacation and preferring
to have with you equipment that is as compact and lightweight as possible (a compact camera, or a mirrorless or a reflex camera with
one single objective), it may turn out to be too heavy and bulky to carry around.
To meet this need, various manufacturers of photography accessories produce extremely compact and lightweight mounts,
so that they can be slipped into a bag or a fanny pack. They range from mini table tripods to various types of clamps to be fixed on
railings, poles, and similar. Let's see the main characteristics of these accessories to guide us in their selection.

Table tripod
As the name suggests, they are small tripods a few centimeters tall to be placed on a solid surface like a table.
pavement, a small wall, the roof of a car and so on. There are different types, from telescopic trestles available for a few
euros from Chinese sellers, good at most for holding a small compact, to tripods produced by specialized companies, sturdy
sufficiently to support a reflex, which cost a few dozen euros.

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A sufficiently sturdy tabletop tripod can also support a small DSLR. Photo: [Link]

Advantages
The greatest advantage is definitely being compact and lightweight, so much so that you can fit them into small bags or pouches.
photographic. If they are of good quality, they are also sufficiently robust and stable.
Defects
Being very low in height, they need a surface quite high on which to be placed, if we don't have nearby.
a table or a wall has limited usefulness. The cheaper ones are generally not very stable and sturdy, so they can be used at
maximum with a lightweight compact.

Terminals
They are true clamps to be fixed to pipes, railings, poles, and so on. There are different types, some are very robust and
They support significant loads. They are also widely used in studios to hold flashes, umbrellas, and other equipment.

A very sturdy Manfrotto clamp (with a maximum load capacity of 15Kg) with a small ball head mounted to orient the
camera.

Advantages
If they are of good quality, they are very sturdy and can easily support a reflex camera as well. They do not need a flat surface.
support to be used, just a railing, a branch or a pole to have a good support point. Among the advantages there is
Certainly, versatility, in addition to the camera, is also useful for attaching other photographic accessories, such as flashes.
reflective panels and so on.
Defects
They generally have a higher price than tabletop easels and weigh more. Normally, they do not have a ball head, so
it will need to be purchased separately. Many are designed for general photographic uses, therefore there may be a need to
buy the camera mount separately.

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Flexible tripods

The Gorillapod, the famous flexible tripod produced by Joby. Photo: [Link]

They are small tripods with legs made of joints. This particular construction allows them to be anchored to poles,
railings, branches, and so on. The spheres have a rubberized part that allows for good grip on surfaces. There is also a.
a particular type that has spheres at the ends of the legs equipped with magnets to allow for a good anchor on surfaces
metallic.
Advantages
They are very versatile and combine the advantages of mini tripods and clamps: they can be used both resting on flat surfaces and
anchored to railings, branches, and poles. Moreover, the flexible legs can adapt to rocks, cliffs, and so on. There are models available.
robust enough to support a small reflex.
Defects
The larger models, suitable for reflex cameras as well, can be quite expensive. The anchoring strength is not comparable to that of
a good clamp, especially with slightly heavier machines.

Smartphone supports
With the increasing spread of smartphones equipped with cameras that allow for decent quality photography, several
Manufacturers have launched various supports suitable for holding them. These range from snap-on accessories equipped with a screw attachment for
to be fixed on tripods and mini tripods, on small tripods complete with a plug-in attachment. If you often use your phone for
photographing, perhaps to replace the compact, can be a small accessory to seriously consider purchasing. It can
to be useful for selfies, to take clear photos when light is scarce, or to shoot videos avoiding blur.

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An accessory, dedicated to the iPhone, that is snap-on to the phone and is equipped with a standard threaded attachment.
for a photographic tripod. In this way, it is possible to mount the smartphone on mini tripods, clamps, and other supports. Photo:
[Link]

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The Gorillamobile, a flexible tripod dedicated to the iPhone. It is used exactly like a Gorillapod, but it has a snap-on attachment.
specific to iPhone. Photo: [Link]

The battery grip

The battery grip (or supplementary grip) is a device for reflex cameras (but also for some mirrorless ones).
which essentially performs two functions:

1) increase the energy autonomy of the camera;

2) improve ergonomics (especially facilitating vertical shots).

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Nikon d300 with battery grip.

This accessory is shaped as an item to be placed under the reflex using the threading for the
mounting on a tripod. Inside the additional grip, one or more extra batteries are inserted. The battery grip
communicates with the camera through an electrical connector, which connects to a connector usually present in the
lower part of the camera, protected by a plastic or rubber cover.

Pentax battery grip. In the photo, the screw that fits into the threading for the tripod present at the base is clearly visible.
reflex, and the electrical connector for the dialogue with the camera.

On the camera, through the menu, it is possible to decide which battery will be used first, if the one from the body
machine or the one inserted in the handle.
It is important to remember that not all DSLRs allow the use of a battery grip. Many entry-level models, in fact, do not
they foresee the possibility of installing this optional. If there is a battery grip for your camera model the manual
The instructions or the manufacturer's website will specify this, indicating the code of the accessory to be purchased.
There are also battery grips from universal manufacturers, but it is better to avoid purchasing such an accessory.
original, also because, if it caused damage to your camera, it would compromise the validity of the warranty.

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The Olympus OM-D mirrorless camera has the ability to attach a dedicated battery grip, confirming its professional vocation.

Let's analyze more specifically the characteristics of the battery grip to evaluate more consciously whether it is the case.
to buy one.

Increase the camera's autonomy

The main function of the battery grip is to ensure greater battery life for the camera. It is true that it is
it is always possible to carry spare batteries, but in some contexts, the simple operation of changing them
a dead battery could result in missing a great photographic opportunity. For example, it's not uncommon for a nature or wildlife photographer to

it's frustrating to run out of energy right in the middle of an action, while it was going at full speed.
if you waste time changing the camera battery the action is often pretty much over. If you watch the photographers of
nature, therefore, and those on the sidelines at sporting events, you will almost always see them with cameras equipped with
battery grip. The increase in energy autonomy provided by this accessory is priceless in many cases!
It is indeed no coincidence that professional camera models often have the battery grip built into the body.
and not sold separately as an accessory. Professional photographers simply cannot do without it.
less.

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For a professional model like the Canon 1D Mark IV, the battery grip is not an accessory: it simply is part of the body.
machine.

Some camera models, also, when equipped with a battery grip, are able to increase speed and duration of the
burst, thanks to the fact that they have more energy.
Battery grips allow you to insert one or more spare batteries. Some allow you to use, through an adapter,
even simple AA batteries, which can be useful if you work in a place where it is not possible to recharge with
facilitate the proprietary camera batteries. Often even in the most remote areas of the planet, it is possible to buy
of AA batteries and continue to take photos.

The AA battery adapter present in some battery grips.

Improve ergonomics
Another advantage of the battery grip is that it improves the ergonomics of the camera, that is, the ability to hold it in
I can sit comfortably and work on it for a long period of time. In fact, many cameras, especially in

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entry level sector, they are quite small and, although their reduced weight is generally an advantage, the
reduced dimensions constitute a handicap for intense and prolonged use, especially for those with slightly larger hands.
greats of the average.
The battery grip also promotes a more stable and secure hold.
Battery grips are very useful especially when using the camera vertically, as they also come with a button.
of the integrated shot and a replica of the main buttons and function dials of the camera. This allows you to set the
shooting parameters (time, aperture, sensitivity, exposure compensation) without being forced into unnatural and
awkward wrist contortions.

A battery grip for Pentax K5. In the foreground, the shutter button, the exposure compensation button, the
button for quickly adjusting the sensitivity and a control dial.

This possibility is particularly appreciated by photographers who often use a vertical cut, such as portraitists and.
fashion photography.

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Vertical grip with the battery grip (on the right) and without it (on the left) compared. The right hand, the one whose fingers set the
photo parameters and press the shutter button adopts a much more natural position if the camera is equipped with a battery
grip.

Disadvantages
The main, indeed the only, disadvantage of the battery grip is that it increases the weight and size of the camera.
it can lead to greater fatigue during transport and use. Many photographers therefore prefer to give up
the additional grip and carry only the spare batteries.
A certainly secondary factor, but worth considering, is that the battery grip definitely makes it more difficult to go unnoticed.
Perhaps for some it is not a disadvantage, indeed some photographers mount the battery grip exclusively for the appearance.
professionalism that it gives to their camera, but some photography genres require discretion...

The lens hood

The lens hood is a plastic object, shaped like a cone or petal-shaped, that is mounted on the lens. It is good practice
always use it, or rather get into the habit of mounting it on the lens as soon as the front lens cap is removed.

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A lens hood.

The lens hood actually serves two important functions:

1) protect the lens from stray light, especially from the sides, which can degrade the quality
of the image generating an annoying flare, that is, unwanted reflections between the lenses of the lens or, more frequently, a
sometimes slight, sometimes more pronounced - decrease in sharpness and contrast;
2) protect the lens from impacts, weather agents, and fingerprints.

Many use a neutral filter to protect the lens, but the lens hood is more protective than that.
against shocks, it has - unlike the filter - a beneficial effect on the quality of photographs.
Typically, camera lenses are sold with a dedicated lens hood that is appropriately shaped.
mount using the special grooves located on the front of the barrel. They are indicated both on the lens
that on the lens hood, there are notches that help with the operation. Using the same grooves, the lens hood usually
it can be mounted upside down on the lens when it is stored, so as to be less bulky.

Lens hood mounted on the lens.

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Reversible mounted paraluce to take up less space when transporting.

There are also objectives with an integrated lens hood that slides along the optical axis, which can be extended and retracted.

Only some 18-55mm zoom lenses and a few other budget-class lenses are sold without the
lens hood, which must be purchased as a separate accessory (the lens instruction manual states the code for the lens hood)
optional to purchase.
There are also universal lens hoods available on the market that attach to the thread for the lens filters. Some are made of
soft rubber, others in hard rubber and also petal shaped. They can be purchased for a few euros on E-bay or in a
photographic store.
If we decide to buy one, we must obviously ensure that it has the same diameter as the filter thread.
of the objective. We also pay attention to ensure that it is designed for the field angle covered by the objective, otherwise,
With wide-angle objectives, we risk the lens hood entering the frame.

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Universal screw-in lens hood that can be mounted on the lens through the filter thread.

Universal rubber lens hood mounted on the lens through the threading in the "working" position and then folded back.

The only contraindication in using the lens hood may be related to flash photography. Sometimes, especially with the
Integrated flash with the reflex and wide-angle focal lengths, there is a risk that the lens hood will create annoying shadows. In that case
it is better to remove it.

How to choose the flash

Sooner or later, every photographer reaches the moment of choosing an external flash. The small one provided with their camera...
reflex, in fact, soon reveals its limits. What are these limits? The first is the low power. One realizes that
it is not possible to illuminate the scene more than a few meters away. The second, which is perhaps even more serious, is the fact
the flash of the built-in flash cannot be oriented: it must necessarily be pointed in the direction of the subject.
Unfortunately, direct, front light is very ugly and unnatural: the image appears flat, as front light
it does not emphasize the contours. Furthermore, strong unsightly shadows are created behind the subject, and if it is a person or
An animal can easily develop the problem of 'red eyes'. To remedy all these issues, one must resort to
external flash. However, it is necessary to pay attention to certain aspects in order to purchase the right flash, the one suitable for ...
our needs.
Here is a list of features to consider.

Compatibility with your camera

Nowadays, the use of flash has become very simple, at least for amateur use. While in the past, to use
the flash required knowing and applying some formulas, today all cameras can manage it automatically
flash light. With modern TTL (Through the Lens) systems, in fact, the camera interrupts
automatically the flash when it determines that the light reaching the subject is sufficient for the correct
exposure. Reading occurs, as the acronym suggests, through the lens: the camera reads the light reflected from
subject through a specific sensor. However, in order to operate in this manner, it is necessary that the electronics of the
the camera and that of the flash little dialogue. In other words, the flash must be 'dedicated' to that camera, it must be
designed to work with it.

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A good flash, which can be defined as professional, from Metz: the 58 AF-2. Metz is a universal manufacturer. So, be careful with
take the flash in the version dedicated to your camera.

How do you know if the flash is compatible with your camera? Generally, with very few exceptions, all flashes
from a specific manufacturer are perfectly compatible with the cameras of the same manufacturer. Therefore, all the flashes
Nikon flashes will be compatible with Nikon cameras, all Sony flashes will be compatible with Sony cameras, and so on.
via...
Producers generally use the same protocol for all cameras of the brand, although from time to time
New features and improvements are introduced. Attention must therefore be paid to ensure that it is not a flash model.
too outdated compared to the reflex, because in the meantime so many innovations may have been introduced that make it
incompatible, partially or totally, an outdated model. In any case, before buying the flash, one should
always visit the manufacturer's website to verify its total compatibility with the camera it will be mounted on
mounted.
There are also "universal" flash manufacturers. Such companies (for example, Sigma or Metz) produce flashes compatible with the
cameras of any brand. However, one must pay attention to purchasing the version of a specific flash dedicated
to their own camera. This information is clearly stated on the box containing the product (usually there is
written 'for Canon' or 'for Pentax', etc...), and it should also be clearly visible on a website of a
online seller. Again, it is advisable to carefully verify, on the manufacturer's website, the
total compatibility with our camera.

The power and the Guide Number

Another parameter to consider when buying a flash is power. A more powerful flash will allow you to illuminate
a more distant scene. The power of the flashes is expressed through the Guide Number (GN). The guide number is declared
from the flash manufacturer for a certain sensitivity (in Europe it is customary to declare the GN at a sensitivity of 100 ISO). More
the higher the guide number, the more powerful the flash.
For example, the small built-in flash of the reflex typically has guide numbers between 11 and 13 at an ISO sensitivity of 100.
Flash of good power, semi-professional or professional, will instead have a NG between 45 and 60.
Once, when there was no TTL reading and the flash always fired its burst at maximum power and duration,
the only parameter that could be adjusted to achieve the correct exposure was the aperture. To determine
which diaphragm to use, it was essential to know the flash's NG at a certain sensitivity, because the
the diaphragm is related to the Guide Number according to the following formula:

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For example, using a flash with NG 40 at 100 ISO, with the subject at a distance of 5 meters, the aperture for
The setting on the camera is 40/5 = 8, that is f/8.
One must pay attention to the fact that if we double the sensitivity, the Guide Number does not double because the intensity
the light varies as a function of the square of the distance. Therefore, if we want to calculate the NG at a different sensitivity
we need to use the following formula:

In practice, if we go back to the previous example, and switch to a sensitivity of 200 ISO, the new NG will be 40 x [square root
square of 200 (new sensitivity) / 100 (sensitivity given)], so 40 x square root of 2, that is 40 x 1.4142 = 56. A
A flash with a guide number of 40 at 100 ISO will have a guide number of 56 at 200 ISO.

Since some producers are being clever and declare the NG at 200 ISO instead of 100 ISO, we duly take into account
this little formula.

Possibility to orient the satellite dish

Since, as we have already said, direct light is very harsh and is the cause of issues such as the 'eye effect.
"rossi", it is essential, when choosing the flash, to ensure that its reflector is adjustable in all directions. In this case
This way it will be possible to illuminate the subject not with direct light, but with light reflected from the walls or from a panel.
reflective.

To observe how the effect of the flash light changes depending on the direction it comes from, one should observe the
examples listed below:

Direct light

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The direct flash light flattens the image, the features that make up the doll's face are not perceivable, the photo
it could easily be that of a flat mask. If instead of the doll there had been a person
we probably would have had red eyes.

Side light

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In the photograph above, the flash's parabolic reflector has been oriented so that the light bounces off the wall.
side lighting before reaching the subject. The results are evident: the lighting appears much softer, the side light
highlights the contours of the face enhancing the impression of three-dimensionality, in short, the effect is much more natural. In this
Since the wall was painted in a light salmon shade, the reflected light also took on a tint.
warmer.

Parabola oriented towards a wall behind the photographer

If we want to illuminate the subject with direct light, but softer, we can tilt the flash's parabolic reflector.
180°, that is, point it at the photographer's back, slightly directing it upwards, as shown in the two images.
following.

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In this case, the result will also be a softer and more pleasant lighting, and we will avoid, in the case of people and
animals, the annoying "red-eye" effect.

Parabola oriented upwards

Another option is to point the dish upward, towards the ceiling, as shown in the following image.
It is yet again an effective way to spread light, but with lighting like this, since the
the lower part of the frame tends to be visibly darker, it is advisable that the subject's face be directed,
slightly, upwards.

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The ability to orient the parabola on both axes is, in the opinion of the writer, the most important characteristic of
flash, more important than the same power, since with current cameras it is possible to set sensitivities quite
old, and to compensate in some way for the poor power of the flash.
Let's take another example of how indirect flash can improve a photograph.
In the image below, the direct flash caused the 'red-eye' effect (in this case, they are 'yellow eyes', but we get the idea)
head...) on the cat.

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Photo taken with the flash in direct light.

With the flash light directed against the wall, in addition to achieving a more diffuse lighting, we avoided the effect
red eyes

Photo taken with the flash directed towards the wall.

Other features to consider

When choosing a flash, other characteristics must also be considered. We list a few, in no particular order.
The motorized zoom lens: the flash, through the camera, "reads" the focal length of the mounted lens and prepares itself.
to cover with its beam of light the corresponding field angle. It is a very useful function because, with
tele objectives, effectively allows to increase the power of the flash. Incidentally, it should be added that some manufacturers declare the

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Guide number not for the field angle of a 50mm (on 24 x 36mm), but for the maximum zoom value allowed
from the flash (in this way, the NG appears to be higher).
The wide-angle coverage: many professional flashes cover at least the field angle of a 24mm (on format
24x36mm) and, if there is an integrated diffuser (a semi-transparent plastic rectangle that lowers as needed.
on the light source), they reach a field angle of 18mm (on 24x36mm).
The possibility of making changes to the automatic settings or operating completely manually: almost all the
flashes of a certain level allow it. Some adjustments also (for example, increasing or decreasing the value
Some adjustments can be made from the camera regarding the exposure of a few stops.

The possibility of operating wirelessly: a very convenient function, allows you to work with the flash, using all the
automation, without this being physically connected to the camera. The presence of such a function depends, in addition
that comes from the flash, from the camera, and sometimes from using dedicated accessories. It is necessary to consult the manual of the

camera to see if this function can be activated, with which flashes and using which accessories. If we are oriented towards
When purchasing a flash from a universal manufacturer, we must ensure, by consulting the technical data, that this function is available.
activatable with our camera.
The ability to sync at high speeds: the minimum sync time of the camera with the flash is
imposed by the shutter. This synchronization time is indicated in the camera's technical specifications. Generally, it is about
a time between 1/100 and 1/250 of a second. If we set a shorter time (provided that the camera allows it
it will inevitably appear dark. Under certain conditions, such as when
use the flash only to lighten shadows in broad daylight, the minimum sync speed may not be
sufficient. This issue can be overcome with some modern dedicated flashes that allow for synchronization.
on all shutter speeds, sacrificing a portion of power. The camera manual indicates whether it is possible to activate
such function and with which flash. If we are oriented towards purchasing a flash from a universal manufacturer we must
to ensure, by consulting the technical data, that this function can be activated with our camera.

Flash accessories

There are many accessories available on the market designed to control lighting in the best way when using a flash.
One of the first necessities that arise when using external flash is to position our light source.
in the most suitable way to achieve the desired effect. In other words, it is usually not the flash holder of the
camera the best place to mount the flash. Direct and frontal lighting, in fact, is almost never the most
indicated. When choosing the flash, we could choose one with an adjustable reflector, which allows us to bounce the
light against a wall to achieve softer and angled lighting. However, this solution, as much as
the first is that with the reflected flash a lot of the power of the flash is lost, while
the other is that... it simply doesn't work outdoors, where there are no walls to bounce the light off.

The TTL or P-TTL cable

A definitely better solution is therefore to connect the flash to the camera using a TTL or P-cable.
TTL, which allows you to maintain all the automation, and which is mounted between the flash holder and the illuminator. In this case
we will be able to place the flash in any position we desire relative to the camera, with the only limit being
from the length of the cable. For this reason, we should purchase one that is long enough. Most of the
cables have an elastic, spiral sheath that ensures they are short at rest, but extendable in case of
necessity. All reflex manufacturers sell TTL and P-TTL cables for flashes as accessories, but it is possible to buy them
also from universal producers, being careful to verify compatibility with one's own camera.

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The TTL or P-TTL cable allows you to work with the flash detached from the camera.

In fact, all modern cameras also have a wireless flash control system, which allows you to control
one or more external flash units directly through the built-in flash in the reflex, or with a special
control accessory. In many cases, these systems make the TTL cable obsolete, but sometimes resorting to the cable is necessary.
still makes sense since if a wireless control accessory is needed (in the camera models that do not perform it
through the built-in flash), it costs more than the cable, and that the wireless may not work very well if the flash is
positioned too close to the camera or behind it. In short, the TTL or P-TTL cable is still an accessory.
quite useful.

The flash bracket

The TTL cable allows you to use the flash without mounting it on the camera's hot shoe, but to hold it with one hand.
the camera and with the other the flash is definitely uncomfortable. In the studio, tripods are used for separate flash units, but
Outdoors, the simplest and most practical solution is the flash holder bracket, which allows you to secure
Securely attach the flash to the camera while also keeping it off-center in relation to the lens-subject line.
The camera is mounted on the bracket using the tripod thread.

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A self-built aluminum flash bracket. There are dozens of models available commercially, often at a fairly high cost.
content.

There are various types of brackets available on the market that offer different configuration possibilities. It is also possible to create
to have a bracket made by a blacksmith according to one's specifications, in order to obtain a fully
responding to their needs. The bracket is very useful in outdoor portraits when one wants to use the
strobe light to lighten the shadows of the face, and it is essential in macro photography, if you do not own or do not
wants to use a ring flash.

Flash diffusers
To soften the flash light, specific diffusers can be used that are mounted on the reflector.
flasher. There are various types available on the market, almost all at a low cost, with which it is possible to
to achieve rather different effects.

One of the simplest diffusers consists of a simple opaque plastic parallelepiped to be fitted onto the parabola.
from the flash, as shown in the following photograph:

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The diffuser mounted on the flash allows for a softer light.

Photographic filters: introduction

Photographic filters are used to modify the quality of light that enters through the lens and affects the exposure.
sensor or film. By using one or more filters during shooting, you can correct, modify or transform.
the image that is obtained.

Useful and, in some cases, indispensable with film photography, many filters have been effectively replaced by software.
photographic filters, with which it is easy today to recreate the same effect. Only a few filters are still essential in the
digital photography.
A general recommendation, however, is to use filters only when necessary to achieve a specific
photographic result. The use of a filter, in fact, negatively affects the quality of the image. Another suggestion
It is to purchase, as much as possible, good quality filters.

Types
In commerce, there are essentially two types of photographic filters:

• the so-called 'screw' filters, consisting of a glass mounted on a circular support that screws directly
on the objective;

The circular filters screw onto the lens.

• those so-called "system" ones, which require a filter holder to be mounted on the lens, into which the filters are inserted,
that are square or circular in shape.

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Filters to be mounted via filter holder. In this case, the Cokin system, one of the most used by photographers.

Circular filters
Circular filters should be purchased with the same diameter as the lens on which they will be mounted. How do you do it?
Do you know what the diameter of the lens is? It is a measurement indicated on the lens itself, usually on the front part.
preceded by the symbol Ø.
A lens marked Ø52 has a diameter of 52mm. So if we want to equip it with a filter, we must
to buy one of the same diameter.
What can we do if we have lenses of different diameters? Do we have to buy a filter for each lens?
No, within certain limits we can use reducing rings. These are rings that have threads of different diameters on
each end allows the use of a filter on a lens with a smaller diameter. Therefore, one can buy a
filter of the right diameter for the lens with the largest front lens in our kit and use it, with rings
adapters, on targets with a smaller front lens.

Step-down ring. Allows the use of filters on lenses with a smaller diameter. In this case, a filter with a diameter can be mounted.
67mm on a lens with a diameter of 62mm.

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A 58mm diameter polarizing filter mounted on a lens with a 52mm diameter front element via an adapter ring.

Filter holder system

The filter holder system is also mounted with an adapter ring on the lens. The different filters are then inserted into the filter holder.
The system is very practical and allows you to buy a single filter, to be used with all lenses. It is necessary
buy only one adapter ring for each lens. This is a very professional solution.

Moreover, a significant advantage is that the filter holder system allows the simultaneous use of multiple filters.

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The illustration taken from a Cokin catalog shows the 'composability' and versatility of the well-known manufacturer's system.

The same thing is more difficult, in practice, with circular filters, because by stacking two or three on top of each other they create
very annoying vignetting, especially if used on wide-angle lenses.

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In this photo, two circular filters have been mounted in series on a 12mm wide-angle lens for APS-C format.
the edge of the filter is observed entering the frame. To try to remedy this, filters with thinner mounts can be used.
slim denominations or switch to a filter holder system.

To partially address such vignetting, circular filters called 'slim' can be purchased, which have a
thinner.

The UV filter and the Skylight filter

UV filter
The UV filter (which would be better called an anti-UV filter) is a filter that absorbs ultraviolet radiation, reducing it.
negative effects on photography. These are effects almost unknown to younger photographers, but those more experienced
they will remember the blue tones of the photos taken in the mountains or on the beach. Besides the blue tone, one could find at
Again, in the photograph, the presence of a "haze" not detected by the naked eye.
Such effects were due to the greater amount of ultraviolet rays present at sea or in the mountains, UV rays invisible to
naked eye that, however, was at least partially impressed on the film. To exclude them, it was necessary to use a
particular colorless, neutral filter that prevented such ultraviolet rays from reaching the sensitive medium. The UV filter, for
the note.

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In the mountains, due to UV rays, a blue tint may appear in photos.

The use of an anti-UV filter helps eliminate the blue cast.

Why did I use verbs conjugated in the imperfect tense? Because the long battle against UV rays has been won for decades. The
The objectives have been equipped with special coatings that absorb UV rays. The same can be said of the films, which are provided with
all of a very effective anti-UV layer. Naturally, current digital sensors are also equipped with effective anti-UV filters.
The dominant blue of the photographic example shown above was obtained digitally. In the original photograph
there was no trace of dominant species, despite the photo being taken over 2000 meters and during the central hours of the day.
Morale, the objective-sensor system today is more than sufficient to eliminate the dominance caused by rays.
UV.
Moreover, should a slight dominance remain despite everything, it is very easy to eliminate it through the
adjusting the levels using any photo development-photo editing software.
As a result, the UV filter, in the opinion of the author, is completely useless today.

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Skylight Filter

The Skylight filter was an alternative to the UV filter. It is, in fact, a slightly pink filter that was used for
reduce the blue color of the light reaching the emulsion, compensating the cool dominant with the warm dominant
introduced by the slight coloration of the filter.
The same considerations made for the UV filter apply to this filter: the Skylight has also become practically useless.
with the technological progress of objectives, emulsions, and sensors.

Is it advisable to use filters to protect the lens?

Many photographers use filters to protect the lens. On some websites, you can find the recommendation to use a UV filter.
or a skylight for this purpose, in order to protect the lens from impacts, dust, and scratches.
The question that many ask themselves is: is it worth leaving a filter permanently mounted on the lens in order to
Do you protect the front lens?
Well, if you are a bit emotional and if you are concerned about the integrity of your goal, using a protective filter can
to calm you down, but this habit has a serious drawback.
The insertion of a glass in front of the lens, in fact, will negatively affect the sharpness of the optics and the new
The glass surface will create unwanted reflections. In short, with a filter mounted, the quality of the photos is slightly ruined.
If it's worth it, you have to decide for yourselves. In reality, it just takes a little attention, and always use the lens hood.

The latter, in fact, is an excellent tool to protect the lens from accidental impacts.

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To protect the front lens of the objective from accidental impacts, it is a good habit to always attach the hood.

As for dust, just clean the lens with a microfiber cloth.

Sure, when you go photography at the beach on a windy day, or on other occasions when you know that your
The objective will be subject to the risk of contact with water, mud or other weather agents, install a protective filter.
it could be a wise choice. But generally speaking, I consider it a bad habit to leave
permanently mounted on the lens is a filter.
Anyway, if you decide to use a protective filter, buy one of good quality, avoiding the cheap ones.
that can be found online. If you buy the filter with the sole purpose of protecting the front lens of the lens, you also do not
it is advisable to use an anti-UV filter, not a Skylight, but a filter called Clear, which is perfectly neutral and is
state created precisely with the sole purpose of serving as a protective lens.

The polarizing filter

Polarizing filter.

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The polarizing filter is one of the most used filters by photographers. To understand how the polarizer works and in which applications
It can be useful; we need to think about the fact that the light reaching our camera does not travel with
a single angle with respect to the objective.
A part of the light is deflected, reflected. One can immediately think of a glass window, or a water mirror.
which reflects part of the light creating a ghostly image on its surface. But it must be said that even the
drops of moisture and other suspended particles, always present in the atmosphere, deflect part of the light,
causing a fading of colors and a haze effect. The polarizing filter is made up of two special glasses, to which
Inside, there are crystals oriented in such a way as to allow the passage only to light that has a certain...
direction, that with an inclination parallel to the polarization axis of the filter. To light that has different inclinations
the passage is blocked. In practice, light enters the lens from a single direction.
The operation of the polarizer is very simple. Once the filter is mounted on the camera lens
you just need to rotate it, varying the axis of polarization, until the crystals are oriented in such a way that
eliminate most of the parasitic light. The effect will be visible in the viewfinder of the reflex.
Let's analyze the effects produced by the polarizer.

To make the sky appear bluer and the colors more saturated.

In this photograph, the contrast between the sky and the clouds has been enhanced by the use of a polarizing filter. The intensity of the
blue has been accentuated by the use of the filter.

The presence of tiny water droplets and other reflective particles in the atmosphere has the effect of
to lighten the color of the sky, to increase the effect of haze and to weaken the intensity of the colors of the photo.
The polarizing filter, by eliminating stray light that bounces in all directions, can make colors much more vibrant.
of the image, with beneficial effects especially on the blue of the sky and the contrast with the clouds.
Here are some examples:

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Photo without polarizing filter.

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Photo with polarizing filter. The results are evident: the sky is a deeper blue. The coloration of the leaves is also more
lively

This photo was taken without a polarizing filter. The colors are not very intense and the sky appears light blue instead of blue.
clouds do not stand out much.

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The use of the polarizing filter has made the colors more saturated and increased the contrast between the blue of the sky and the white of the clouds.

The polarizer also reduces the haze effect caused by parasitic light, which results in a loss of readability.
background in landscapes.

Photo without polarizing filter

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Photograph with polarizing filter. Besides the more intense blue of the sky and the clouds that stand out more, one can observe on the
in the background the hills in the distance: it is clear how many more details can be detected. The haze effect has been significantly
reduced.

Eliminate the reflections

The polarizer can, within certain limits, eliminate reflections, for example on a shop window or on a water surface.

The photo of a window display without a polarizing filter. The reflections coming from the outside prevent a clear view of the contents.

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Photo with polarizing filter: most of the reflections have been eliminated by the filter. The improvement is quite evident.

Not by chance, the polarizing filter is widely used for photographing the sea, in order to obtain images like this one, in the
which filter has eliminated the light bouncing off the water allowing a glimpse of the bottom:

Using the polarizing filter, in this photo, it was possible to eliminate the reflections on the surface of the sea, making it so that...
the transparent water and see the bottom. The polarizing filter is widely used to take photos that are used in catalogs
that advertise the tropical destinations of travel agencies.

It should be remembered, however, that the polarizer has no effect on metallic surfaces, such as mirrors or
the chrome of cars and motorcycles. Therefore, do not think to use it to erase your image that is reflected in
a mirror. The polarizer works only with transparent surfaces.

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Which to buy
In commerce, there are two types of polarizing filters, those defined as 'linear' and those defined as 'circular'. Be careful not to let yourself...
diverting from the name. The exterior appearance is similar: a round filter with threading for mounting.
on the objective, with a greater thickness than other filters because here there are two glasses. The only difference is that
On the ring, there is an inscription "PL" for the linear and "CPL" for the circular. The operating principle is also the same. The filters
circular polarizers, however, have the crystals oriented in such a way as not to create "interference" with cameras that have a
autofocus sensor or a sensor for reading exposure placed behind a semi-transparent surface. Since many
modern cameras adopt solutions of this kind, the use of a linear polarizer risks causing an error
in the exposure or a focusing difficulty. If we plan to use the filter on a digital reflex, then,
It is worth buying a circular polarizer, even though it costs a bit more.

A circular polarizer filter, called 'CPL', and a linear polarizer filter, called 'PL'. For cameras.
it is better to choose a circular one, even though linear ones do not always cause problems. The writer, for example, has never
encountered issues using linear polarizers on digital SLRs.

Final warnings...
The effect of the polarizing filter is quite variable as it mainly depends on the direction of the main source of light.
lighting in relation to the photographer. Just observe its effect in the viewfinder of the reflex as we rotate it. If it doesn't seem
that the situation changes a lot, it will be enough to change our position with respect to the sun, obviously changing
the framing.
The polarizing filter absorbs quite a bit of light, usually at least a couple of stops, let's keep this in mind to avoid blurry photos.

Often we will have to increase the sensitivity or use a tripod.

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The ND filter

ND filters.

ND filters, or neutral density filters, are among the most useful accessories in landscape photography. The ND
It is a gray filter with constant opacity for all colors of the spectrum, which does not alter the characteristics in any way.
chromatics of the image: it only absorbs part of the light. In this way, exposure times can be used
longer.
Using one or more gray ND filters, it is possible, even when there is a lot of light, to achieve the effect of blurred water.
of clouds, or in any case of dynamic elements in the image, opposed to other elements of the landscape that instead
remain static.
The most common example is probably that of water. If you want to achieve the so-called 'silk effect', you can
photograph when the ambient light is dim, or you can use an ND filter or, if necessary, multiple ND filters mounted
one on top of the other.

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To achieve an effect like this, it is necessary to use an exposure time varying between half a second and two.
seconds. By absorbing light, a gray ND filter allows for long exposure times even when ambient light is too
strong.

ND filters are available on the market with different density values, that is, with the capacity to absorb a greater or
a smaller amount of light. This density is indicated by a number. Filters are sold with density values of 2, 4, 8, 16, 32.
A filter with a density value of 2 allows only half of the light to pass through, thus absorbing one stop. In other words, if to a
The correct exposure requires a time of 0.5 seconds, by inserting an ND2 filter the correct exposure
It will take 1 second. An ND4 filter lets in 25% of the light, so it absorbs two stops. Therefore, to go back
In the previous example, if there is no filter, at a given aperture, the correct exposure requires a time of 0.5 seconds.
with an ND 4 filter it will require 2 seconds.
Proceeding along the same scale, an ND8 filter will allow only 12.5% of the light to pass through with an absorption of 3.
A gray ND16 filter will absorb 4 stops, an ND 32 will absorb 5 stops.

This photo was taken by placing two grey filters in front of the lens: an ND8 and an ND4, for a total absorption of 5.
stop. The exposure time was 8 seconds, with an ISO sensitivity of 80 and an aperture of F/22. Without the use of filters.
the longest time achievable would have been 1/25 of a second. Too short to achieve the effect of moving water.

Gray filters can also be used to 'remove' people in front of a monument or a

landscape. By setting a shutter time of several minutes, in fact, we will have a photo in which the static elements
will remain perfectly impressed, while those who move, like people, will disappear
magically. The gray filters, which need to be very dense in this case (three or four ND 16 in series), we
will allow to achieve this effect (one must also hope that someone does not decide to linger in front of the
our monument for a few minutes in the same position, because in that case its image will still be
registered on the frame).

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The graduated ND filter

Graduated ND filters are gray graduated filters used to absorb light only on
half of the frame. The difference compared to the simple ND filter, therefore, is that the darkening affects only half of the
frame. Moreover, the transition area from the perfectly transparent part to the gray one is also blurred,
way to appear more natural in photography.

A graduated ND filter from the Cokin system.

Graduated ND filters are available, like all photographic filters, in both square format for the filter holder system and in
classic circular format that screws onto the lens. They are used when there is a strong difference in brightness between the two
half of the frame. Often, in fact, if both the sky and the ground are included in the scene, one realizes that the difference in
The brightness is such that it exceeds the latitude of exposure of the sensor or the film. In other words, during the shooting phase, one must

decide whether to expose to the sky, sacrificing everything that is on the ground level, which will be 'drowned'
in the darkness, or expose the ground, sacrificing the sky which will inevitably be overexposed.
To understand the use of the graduated ND filter, observe the following photographs:

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Exposure photo for the sky: shutter speed 1/6 of a second; aperture f/22. As seen, the color of the sky is recorded.
correctly but the rocks and the sea in the foreground are inevitably 'drowned' in the black of underexposure.

In the photograph shown above, the photographer decided to expose for the sky in order to capture the fascinating colors of the
sunset and the beautiful cloud above. However, this has led to an underexposure of the sea and the rocks in the foreground,
because the upper part of the frame, containing the sky, is much brighter than the lower part.
If you want to preserve the readability of the rocks, on the other hand, it is necessary to measure the exposure on them, obtaining a result

like this:

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The photo is displayed among the rocks in the foreground (the ones in the background still appear slightly underexposed): time for
shot 2.5 seconds, always at f/22. As you can see, the details of the rocks are readable, but the sky is hopelessly
oversaturated. The beautiful colors of the sunset are drowned in white.

The sky appears overexposed and the beautiful colors of the sunset have disappeared, "drowned" irrevocably in white.
By using a graduated ND filter instead, we can achieve a result like this:

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Using the graduated ND filter, with the dark part facing upwards, you can achieve a similar effect: sky and rocks
correctly displayed.

The use of a graduated filter thus allows to 'reduce' or 'compress' the latitude of the scene's setting, in order to
to be able to properly expose both the sky and the ground.
Unfortunately, however, the use of the graduated ND filter involves some compromises. The most serious is that it forces you to adopt

always a 'central composition' in which the dividing line between sky and earth is at the center of the
frame. As we know, however, very often when composing the photo it is better to follow the rule of thirds.
Another problem not to be underestimated is that the filter performs much better when used where there is a clear horizon line.
of demarcation between the upper part and the lower part of the frame (for example, in this case, the sea), while if they are
present trees, hills, or any element that extends to the top of the frame, the effect will appear quite
unnatural.
For these reasons, many photographers prefer to simulate the effect of the graduated ND filter digitally. How? By doing
two shots, on a tripod, and merging them later with a photo editing program. In fact, even the sample photos
The above-mentioned were taken with the aim of achieving the 'graduated filter effect' later in post-production.
the result is, in fact, the one shown in the third photo, for which, therefore, the filter was not really used
graduate.
The simulation of the filter effect in post-production allows for greater control over the final result and to bypass the
disadvantages associated with the use of the graduated ND. A photo like the one shown below, for example, would not have been able to

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achieve with the use of the graduated filter in shooting: first of all because the horizon line follows the rule of thirds,
and then because the jagged rocks would have appeared unnatural, half correctly exposed, half dark.

A photo like this requires simulating the graduated filter effect in post-production.

It should be noted, however, that some photographers, while accepting the use of filters during shooting, believe that a process of
post-production so pushed that it can hardly be defined as photography.

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Chapter 4 - The exhibition

The time/aperture pair: introduction

To obtain good photographs, it is necessary to know how to control two fundamental parameters: aperture and exposure time.
exhibition.

The diaphragm is a device found inside the lens. Essentially, it is a variable diameter opening.
Basically, the diaphragm is used to control the amount of light that, entering through the lens, reaches the sensor.

The aperture scale. At f/2 corresponds to a very open aperture: a lot of light will pass through. At f/22 corresponds to a diaphragm
very closed: it will let in little light.

The exposure time is controlled by an internal device in the camera called the shutter. Through the shutter
we (or the camera's automatic mode) can decide how long the light will reach the sensor.

On the old film reflex cameras from a few years ago, there was a scale of times.

As seen in the photo above, older reflex cameras had a dial used to select the shutter speed.
desired. Today there is still a control wheel, but the selected time is displayed in the camera viewfinder.
Attention: 1000 corresponds to a time of 1/1000 of a second, 500 to a time of 1/500 of a second, and so on:
250 = 1/250 sec.; 125 = 1/125 sec.; 60 = 1/60 sec.; 1 corresponds to 1 second.
On modern reflex cameras, you can generally select shutter speeds ranging from 1/8000 sec. to 30 seconds, plus the B (bulb) mode.

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Setting B allows you to keep the shutter open for as long as you want, enabling long exposures greater than 30.
seconds normally set by the camera options.
The amount of light (regulated by the aperture) and the exposure time (regulated by the shutter) determine the quantity
total light that reaches the sensor while we take the photograph. These are the fundamental parameters for achieving a good
exhibition.

To understand it better, let's imagine wanting to fill a glass with water.

The more we open the tap, the less time it will take to fill the glass.
The only thing to be careful about is choosing the right faucet opening/ filling time combination. If we make a mistake for
If we pour too much water, it will spill; if we make a mistake by pouring too little, the glass will remain half-empty.

Similarly, if we make a mistake with the aperture/shutter speed pair by excess, we will have a photo.
superseded as reported below:

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Overexposed photograph. The sensor received too much light.

If we get the aperture/exposure time pair wrong, we will have an underexposed photo like the one below.
reported

Underexposed photograph. The sensor received little light.

The correct photo should instead appear like this:

Photograph is properly displayed.

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Through the pair of time and aperture, however, not only is the correct exposure controlled, but also a series of other parameters that
they decisively influence the aesthetics of the image.

The time/aperture couple: the aperture

As we have seen, the diaphragm regulates the aperture through which light passes to reach the sensor.
For convenience, and to be able to use the same parameters for each objective, the aperture value is not expressed in absolute terms, but
in relative terms, with a ratio: "f/" where f represents the focal length of the lens.
For example, for a 50mm lens, if the stated aperture is f/2, it means that the diameter of the opening through which light passes is
the diaphragm is fully open, it is 25mm. If instead we have a 100mm lens, which is declared to have an aperture of f/2, this means that at
The diaphragm fully open, the hole through which the light passes will be 50mm. There is now an important concept to be expressed:

regardless of the focal length of the lens, at the same aperture corresponds the passage of the same amount of
light.
So, for example, if we set a diaphragm of f/4 on a 50mm lens and on a 300mm lens,
despite the two holes through which the light passes being very different from each other, with the 300mm one being much larger than the other
50mm, the amount of light that reaches the sensor will be exactly the same.
The following is the f-stop scale:
f/1 – f/1,4 – f/2 – f/2,8 – f/4 – f/5,6 – f/8 – f/11 – f/16 – f/22 – f/32 – f/45 – f/64
At each shot, referred to in jargon as 'stop', corresponds to the halving of the amount of light that reaches the sensor. If you
"diaphragm", that is, the diaphragm of the lens is closed, from f/2 to f/2.8, that is, by one stop, the light that reaches the sensor will be
halved. If you stop down two stops, for example, changing the aperture from f/8 to f/16, the amount of light that reaches the sensor
it will be 1/4 compared to before.

At each stop of closure, the amount of light reaching the sensor is halved. In this scale, f/2 represents the diaphragm.
more open, f/22 the more closed (observe the size of the hole).

Be careful because beginners often make mistakes on this point: since it is a fraction, the numerically higher value
it corresponds to a more closed diaphragm. Therefore, f/2 designates a diaphragm that is more open than f/2.8 or f/4.

The diaphragm is selected directly on the camera, through an adjustment wheel. The selected value
can be displayed within the viewfinder.
Naturally, it is also possible to select intermediate values. In SLR cameras, it is usually possible to set adjustment steps of 1/2.
stop or a third of stop.

The use of the diaphragm and the control of depth of field

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One of the most important concepts to learn when approaching photography is that of depth of field. Only when one
learn to perfectly control the depth of field through the diaphragm, in fact, one really begins to master it
photographic instrument.
A lens can focus exclusively on a certain plane. Everything that is on the plane of focus
it will appear sharp, while everything that is behind and in front of the focus plane will appear blurred, that is, not sharp.

Everything that is in front of and behind the plane of focus appears blurry.

This happens because a point that is on the focal plane will be reproduced exactly as a point even in the
The photograph obtained, while a point that is located in front of or behind the plane of focus will be reproduced as a small circle on the
same photograph.
In practice, however, in front of and behind the focus plane there is a certain range in which the blur is so contained that
to be imperceptible: the observer continues to see the details of the image as sharp. This range is called depth.
in the field. It is the interval within which the circle of confusion is small enough to still be perceived.
like a point from the observer.

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The depth of field, the range within which what is in front of and behind the plane of focus continues to appear
sharp.

To better understand what depth of field is, and how the transition from the plane of perfect sharpness to the true and
blurred itself, observe this photo:

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The lines illustrate the extent of the depth of field.

The control of depth of field is definitely one of the fundamental concepts of photography.
The depth of field, in fact, is not always the same, but varies based on certain parameters:
1) Personal perception: within certain limits, the observer of the image can perceive as clear details that are
slightly out of focus. Usually, the more one acquires the 'photographic eye,' the more one becomes strict in judging the image because it refines.
the ability to distinguish, in the image, what is in focus from what is not. This perception also depends on the magnification.
of the photograph. In a small print, the image can appear sharper.
2) Focal length: to simplify the matter – a lot – it is said that in telephoto lenses the depth of field is shallower
compared to wide-angle lenses.

3) The distance of the focal point from the focal plane: if we focus on a subject close by, with the same focal length and
all other parameters, the depth will be less than that obtained by focusing on a subject further away.
4) The aperture, which we are talking about now.

The diaphragm and depth of field

To make a long story short, closing the aperture increases the depth of field. The more the aperture is closed, the more the rays that
the rays hitting the sensor will be perpendicular to it. The more perpendicular the light rays are to the sensor, the smaller the circle of confusion
The out-of-focus planes are small and approach being perceived as a point. This gives a feeling of sharpness.
To understand what happens when closing the diaphragm, let’s observe the following images.

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The focus was set on the pole in the foreground. A 50mm lens at f/2 aperture was used.

Same focal length, but aperture set to f/8.

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Same focal length, but aperture closed to f/22.

The three images above clearly illustrate how the variation of the aperture opening leads to obtaining very
diverse of the same subject. It is up to the photographer to select, based on their experience and aesthetic sense, the diaphragm that is most
suitable to return the image it wants to obtain.

Let's do some more examples:

50mm lens - aperture f/1.7.

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50mm focal - aperture f/8.

Another example:

Focal 130mm - aperture f/2.8.

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Focal length 130mm - aperture f/8.

Focal 130mm - aperture f/22.

The three images of the cup are very useful in demonstrating how with a wise use of the diaphragm one can obtain photographs.
diverse. For example, using an open aperture eliminates the unsightly crumbs on the table. Conversely, a diaphragm
a tighter focus gives a greater impression of overall sharpness.
When to use an open aperture and when to use a closed aperture?

In general, but it is not a rule, when photographing a landscape one wishes for all the details of the scene to be sharp.
Usually, a smaller aperture is chosen.

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Photo taken with a focal length of 18mm. The aperture used is f/7.1, a quite closed diaphragm, which with this length.
wide-angle lens - allows for almost the entire scene to be perceived as sharp, from the road in the foreground
piano, to the tree placed on an intermediate floor, to the clouds in the background.

When making a portrait, one usually wishes to highlight the subject. The background could distract unnecessarily. Here then is the
the necessity of using a fairly open diaphragm, perhaps combined with a medium-telephoto focal length.

The rather open aperture, f/2.5 at a focal length of 50mm, allows the faces in the foreground to stand out by blurring the background.

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The same can be said for animal photography. Often to give more emphasis to our four-legged friend, it is preferable
"remove" the background, making it so blurred that it appears uniform and unobtrusive, as seen in the photo below, obtained
with a 150mm telephoto lens at f/2.8 aperture.

Focal length 150mm, aperture f/2.8.

The shutter speed/aperture pair: the exposure time

One of the key concepts that one must learn when starting to learn photography is that of exposure time.
exposure because, along with the aperture, is the parameter that has the greatest influence on the photograph we will obtain.

The exposure time is the time during which the shutter remains open to allow light to reach the sensor (or the
film, obviously).

The available shutter speed scale on current reflex cameras is as follows:

1/8000 di secondo – 1/4000 – 1/2000 – 1/1000 – 1/500 – 1/250 – 1/125 – 1/60 – 1/30 – 1/15 – 1/8 – 1/4 – 1/2 – 1″ – 2″ – 4″ – 8″ –
16" – 30" – B (bulb)

For each step of this scale, as occurs with the diaphragm scale, we refer to one "stop" more or less (see the paragraph)
in appendix The concept of 'stop' in photography). For example, if we move from 1/1000 to 1/500 we have increased the time by
display of a "stop".
If we go from 16" to 4", we have reduced the exposure time by two 'stops'.
It should be noted that many entry-level models have a fastest available shutter speed of 1/4000 of a second. Furthermore, the cameras
they allow you to set intermediate values, in steps of 1/2 and 1/3 of 'stop'.
The poseB(bulb) allows you to keep the shutter open for as long as desired. To use this function, it is necessary
obtain a remote control or an external wired control. Physically holding down the shutter button for many seconds, in fact,
it would cause vibrations even if the camera were placed on a sturdy tripod, at the expense of the sharpness of the photo.

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When selecting the exposure time, a determining factor must be taken into account. The exposure time is essential for
to get a 'still' photo or a 'moving' one.
This applies both to the inevitable shaking of the hands holding the camera and the movement of the subject itself.
Therefore, if we hold the camera freehand and want to avoid a blurry photo, we must choose a 'time of
"security", that is, fast enough to cancel the effect of hand tremors and the movement of the subject.
What can this safety time be? As far as the movement of the subject is concerned, rules can be given for
general value, because it depends on the speed and also on the direction of that movement, regarding the compensation of
hand tremor some suggestions can be given.
Sure, everything also depends on how steady the photographer's hand is, the correct grip on the camera, as well as the weight.
From this, however, a rule of thumb that is always valid is that of the reciprocal of the focal length.
In other words, if we have a 400mm goal, on a camera with a Full Frame sensor (24x36mm), the safety time,
the maximum time to set to have reasonable certainty of having a still photo is 1/400 sec. If the 400mm is mounted on
a camera with an APS-c sensor, with a crop factor of 1.5x, should consider the apparent resulting focal length, that is 600mm: the time of
safety therefore becomes 1/600 sec.
To give another example, with a 50mm lens mounted on an APS-C with a crop factor of 1.5x (equivalent focal length 75mm), the
The safety time is 1/75 of a second.

Please observe the two photographs below:

Effective focal length 200mm on APS-C 1.5x (eq. 300mm), exposure time 1/15 sec. The photo is blurry.

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Effective focal length 200mm on APS-c 1.5x (eq. 300mm), exposure time 1/320 sec. The photo is sharp.

It must be said that nowadays all manufacturers provide stabilization systems on the lens or on the sensor that allow for
risk much higher times compared to the reciprocal of the focal length. Often a good stabilization system allows for gains.
from 2 to 4 stop.

The choice of exposure time

When we choose the exposure time, we must always remember that for the correct exposure it is strictly necessary.
linked to the opening of the diaphragm.

Remember the example of the faucet:

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With equal light, a larger aperture will correspond to a shorter exposure time.

What is the purpose, however, of choosing a longer or shorter exposure time?

Well, by varying the exposure time, you can obtain very different images.
The first risk to carefully evaluate is the danger of getting a blurry photo if we set a too long exposure time.
long
It is important to consider that in addition to the tremor of the hand, which we discussed in the previous paragraph, another factor that risks
to make the blurred photo is the movement of the subject. Unfortunately, this movement cannot be compensated by any
mechanism. So if we want to have a moving subject that looks beautiful and sharp in our photo, we need to
necessarily use enough time to stop its movement.
The following examples should be observed, which are based on a subject that is always quite difficult, birds in flight.
To block the movement of a bird, it usually takes a rather short time:

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A time of 1/400 of a second was enough in this case to stop the movement of this bee-eater in flight.

But perhaps, also to convey the sense of movement, the photographer might decide to use a longer exposure time in order to
to convey dynamism to his photography by partially freezing the subject:

A time of 1/160 of a second does not completely freeze the movement of birds. It can be observed that flying ducks
they appear quite still, but the tips of their wings seem to be in motion. The photographer obtained this photo using the panning technique,
which consists of continuing to follow the subject during the shooting phase. In this way, the horizontal movement of the birds
it appears blocked, while the wings, which move up and down, are therefore in a different direction compared to the trajectory followed by the
birds and from the camera, appear blurred.

Alternatively, the photographer could try to leverage movement to deliberately obtain a blurred image for creative reasons, to
example to make your photography more dreamlike or painterly:

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With a time of 1/80 of a second, a blurred image is obtained. One can try to use a long exposure for creative purposes, to
obtain an unconventional image.

Long exposures are widely used to convey the sense of water movement, as in the following photo:

I
The time of 1/3 of a second allows for the effect of the movement of water.

Naturally, to achieve similar effects, it is necessary to ensure the stability of the camera. It therefore becomes necessary to use a
tripod.

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Shooting time of 4 seconds. The water of the stream takes on a pleasant satin effect. The camera was naturally positioned
on a sturdy tripod.

To practice:
If you have a camera that allows you to set the shutter priority mode (usually marked with [Tv]),
Set it and then change the settings with the appropriate dial. Observe how the camera adjusts the apertures accordingly.
With a medium telephoto focal length, around 80mm equivalent, choose a perfectly still subject and photograph it by hand.
Release at different times, ranging from 1/500 of a second to 4 seconds. Carefully observe the obtained photographs.
If you have a tripod, mount the camera on it and photograph a stream or a fountain with variable exposure times between 1/2000 and 30.
seconds. Use a remote control, a flexible shutter, or a two-second timer to minimize the risk of vibrations.
Carefully observe the obtained photographs.

Sensitivity
The last fundamental parameter to master for achieving a perfect exposure in our photographs is the
sensitivity of the sensor or film.

What can we do when we have opened the lens diaphragm to the maximum but the camera's exposure meter indicates
still an exposure time so long that we risk getting a blurry photo? The solutions are various, from a tripod to a
fortuitous support, for the use of the flash.
Probably, however, the simplest solution is to increase the sensitivity.
What is sensitivity? It is the ability of the sensor or film to be impressed by light. The higher it is,
film sensitivity, the lower the amount of light needed to create the image. For this reason, when photographing with the
film, a high sensitivity roll is chosen for working indoors or in the evening when light is low, while a
low sensitivity roll when working outdoors and during the day, with a lot of light.
The sensitivities are encoded according to the standard ISO 5800:1987 in this way:
Low sensitivity
ISO 25 – ISO 50 – ISO 100
Medium sensitivity

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ISO 200 - ISO 400 - ISO 800

Old sensitivities
ISO 1600
Very high sensitivity
ISO 12500 – ISO 54000

The menu on the cameras to select the sensitivity.

Each jump represents a doubling of sensitivity, which is an increase of one 'stop'.

If, for example, the exposure meter indicates to us, with a sensitivity of 100 ISO, a shutter speed of 1/25 of a second, with aperture f/4, if
we double the sensitivity by setting it to 200 ISO, and keep the aperture unchanged at f/4, we will need to use an exposure time
at 1/50 sec. If we switch to 400 ISO, keeping the aperture at f/4 unchanged, the correct exposure time will become 1/100.
sec.
This means that to avoid motion blur, it is often sufficient to set a higher sensitivity.
So why not choose a fast film directly and always use that? Or why not set it as the default?
the highest sensitivity available on our digital camera?
Simply because low sensitivity films and the low sensitivities settable on our digital camera,
they guarantee a higher resolution, better color rendering, and lower 'grain'. In other words, the lower the sensitivity,
the better the photography.
To illustrate this, one can observe the images shown below. These are 100% crops of images taken at different sensitivities. It appears
It is evident that as sensitivity increases, images deteriorate. The so-called 'noise' becomes increasingly visible.
digital". A phenomenon due to the fact that to achieve higher sensitivity it is necessary to electronically amplify the signal.
captured by the sensor.

Sensitivity: 100 ISO.

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Sensitivity: 1600 ISO.

Sensitivity: 6400 ISO.

The images shown above clearly illustrate the deterioration in photo quality as sensitivity increases.
Therefore, even though technicians are performing miracles in the war against digital noise, with each generation the cameras
great strides are being made in containing it, the rule still holds that if you want to achieve the best quality
For the images, low sensitivities need to be set.
The secret lies in knowing how to skillfully play with the three fundamental parameters of photography: aperture, exposure time,
sensitivity, knowing that often compromises will be inevitable.
In general, one should select a higher sensitivity only if we need faster times, to avoid motion blur or to
freeze the action.

For practice:
Try adjusting the sensitivity while keeping the aperture unchanged: observe how the exposure time changes in relation.
to the selected sensitivity.
Take the same photograph at different sensitivities, keeping the aperture unchanged, then observe them carefully on the monitor for
see the differences between the shots.

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Appendix

What is the exposure triangle?

To obtain a correctly exposed photo, three parameters must be taken into consideration: the aperture of the
aperture, shutter speed and sensitivity. These three parameters make up the so-called "triangle"
of the exhibition.

The exposure triangle.

Each of them plays a fundamental role in determining the right amount of light that will fall on the sensor, and each of them is
strictly connected to the others, in the sense that varying one of these factors, if one wants to achieve the correct exposure of the
scene, it will be necessary to intervene on at least one of the other two.
Once, with film photography, rather than 'exposure triangle', people talked about 'time-aperture pair'.
Once a certain film was inserted into the camera, in fact, it was not easy to intervene on the sensitivity. Therefore, the only
two parameters that were adjusted to achieve the correct level of exposure were the shutter speed and the aperture
diaphragm.
With digital technology, one can adjust sensitivity as easily as one can adjust time and aperture.
This reason has increasingly popularized the expression 'exposure triangle'.

The concept of 'stop' in photography

"Stop". There is no conversation among photographers in which this word is not pronounced several times. Those who do not
those familiar with the photographic jargon remain quite puzzled when hearing expressions such as 'you should have opened by one stop'

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“potevi diminuire la sensibilità anche di due stop”, “il sensore di quella fotocamera ha una latitudine di posa di otto stop”
the statement is not entirely correct - in this case, one should speak of "EV" instead of "stop" and, even if the
the issue is debated, of 'dynamic range' instead of 'laying latitude' - but commonly used). There is no doubt that
One of the first difficulties that a beginner must face is becoming familiar with the specific language of the world.
photographic.

So, what does 'stop' mean in photography? Very simply, it is an increase or decrease in the light that reaches the sensor.
(or the film) by a factor of two. In practice, "increasing by one stop" means doubling the amount of light that reaches the sensor.
"decrease by one stop" means halving the amount of light that reaches the sensor. Increasing by two stops means
Quadrupling the light hitting the sensor, decreasing by two stops means reducing to a quarter the light that reaches the sensor.
Please observe the following photographs. They are spaced one 'stop' apart from each other.

2 stop

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1 stop

Correct exposure

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+ 1 stop

+ 2 stop

But how do you increase or decrease the amount of light that reaches the sensor? Essentially by operating on two parameters:
aperture of the diaphragm and exposure time.
Let's resume the f-stop scale:
f/1 – f/1,4 – f/2 – f/2,8 – f/4 – f/5,6 – f/8 – f/11 – f/16 – f/22 – f/32.
The widest diaphragm of a certain lens is given by the ratio between the focal length of the lens and the diameter of its aperture.
f=F/d.
f/1, therefore, on this scale represents the widest aperture. With each subsequent shot, the light that will enter the lens will result in
halved. Bright objectives are considered those with a maximum aperture between f/1 and f/2.8.

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It deals with professional objectives and generally quite expensive ones. Objectives aimed at a less demanding audience have a diaphragm.
maximum much more contained, usually from f/3.5 to f/5.6.
When it is said that a lens is brighter than another diaphragm, it means that it is a lens equipped with an aperture.
the maximum diaphragm larger than one stop. For example, a 50mm f/1.4 lens will be one stop wider than a 50mm
f/2.

The scale of present tenses commonly on reflexes is this:

30 seconds
sec. – 1/60 di sec. – 1/125 di sec. – 1/250 di sec. – 1/500 di sec. – 1/1000 di sec. – 1/2000 di sec. – 1/4000 di sec. – 1/8000 di
second.
As noted, apart from some rounding, at each stop the exposure time is doubled or halved, that is, it affects the
sensor double the light or half the light compared to the previously set value.

A separate discussion must be made for sensitivity. The concept of stop has indeed been extended to this parameter as well. Thus it is said,
commonly, moving from 200 ISO to 400 ISO increases the sensitivity by one stop, while moving from 200 ISO to 100 ISO
it decreases by one stop. However, in this case, it neither increases nor decreases the amount of light reaching the
The sensor simply increases or decreases the sensor's ability to be affected by light.

The scale of sensitivities, commonly used, is as follows:

ISO 25, ISO 50, ISO 100, ISO 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, ISO 1600, ISO 3200, ISO 6400, ISO 12800, ISO 25600, ISO 51200.

It is clear that, in order to achieve the correct exposure, we can intervene on any of the three factors (aperture, shutter speed)
exposure, sensitivity) mentioned. The only limit is given by the consequences that varying one or the other parameter has on the
photography. For example, if we vary the aperture, we will change the depth of field, that is, the perception of sharpness in front and behind
the focal point. If we vary the time, we must pay attention to ensure that the movement of the hand or that of the subject does not
make the photo 'blurred' (unless, of course, it is a deliberate and controlled effect). If we change the sensitivity, we will have to
pay attention to the onset of so-called noise and the general decrease in image quality.
In short, when choosing the values for aperture, exposure time, and sensitivity, we must let our experience guide us.
to obtain the photograph we have in mind.

Current cameras, of course, allow for more precise adjustments than one stop. It is indeed possible (just select it)
relative option from the menu) variations in both time and aperture as well as sensitivity in steps of 1/2 stop or 1/3 stop, for
to really calibrate the exposure with the utmost precision.
For example, in addition to the f/2.8 aperture and the f/4 aperture, spaced one stop apart, we can select (if we have
set the variation in steps of 1/3 stop) also for the values f/3.2 and f/3.5. In this case, the ring that we rotate to choose the
The diaphragm will make a change of 1/3 stop at each click.
The values we select are displayed in the camera viewfinder, as shown in the image below:

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In the viewfinder of a reflex camera, we find the indications regarding the aperture, exposure time, and sensitivity set, and
also an exposure bar.

Through the exposure bar, we can also receive indications on the correct exposure in the viewfinder of the reflex.
suggested by the camera's exposure meter, and on the changes we are making, expressed precisely in terms of stops.
In the example mentioned above, the mobile index is aligned with the central notch of the exposure bar, meaning we are following the
exposure meter suggestions. If we intend to overexpose the photograph by 1 stop and 1/3, we just need to align
(operating on the diaphragm, exposure time or sensitivity) the movable index with the desired value, as we show below:

Similarly, if we want to underexpose by 2 stops, we need to align the mobile index with the value -2:

In practical use in photography, both the term 'Stop' and the term 'EV' are used, although they refer to two different concepts.

In the next paragraph, we will see what is meant by the acronym EV and why, in practice, it is possible to use one interchangeably.
finish the other.

The concept of EV (exposure value or exposure metric) in

photography

In photography, the acronym EV is used to indicate the Exposure Value, which is a unit of measurement of
luminous intensity expressed in terms of the different possible combinations of the time/aperture pair. This quantity was
developed by a German shutter manufacturer, Friedrich Deckel, around 1950, precisely in order to summarize in a
a unique value the different time/aperture pairs possible, thus making life easier for photographers.
The Exposure Value refers to the sensitivity of 100 ISO and is defined with the following formula, where A is the aperture of
diaphragm while T is the exposure time:

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The formula that defines the exposure value.

The same EV value can be expressed with different aperture/shutter speed pairs. For example, if we set an aperture of f/1 and a
With a time of 1 second, we will have an EV=0. But EV=0 will also be given by f/1.4 and a time of 2 seconds, by f/2 and a time of 4 seconds, by f/2.8 and

exposure time of 8 seconds and so on... as shown in the following table of EV exposure values for a sensitivity of 100 ISO:

Aperture(f/)
12346T
28565em
4,82,41p,o
secondcourse
6-06 5- 4- 3- 2- 1- 0 1 2 3 4 5
5-03 4- 3- 2- 1- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4-51 3- 2- 1- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8

4-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910
10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11
1/2123456789101112
1/42345678910111213
1/834567891011121314
1/16456789101112131415
1/305678910111213141516
1/6067891011121314151617
1/125789101112131415161718
1/2508910111213141516171819
1/50091011121314151617181920
1/1000101112131415161718192021
1/2000111213141516171819202122
1/4000121314151617181920212223
1/8000131415161718192021222324
Exposure values for an ISO sensitivity of 100.

The table shows the exposure values ranging from -6EV to 13EV with the corresponding shutter aperture pairs.
What does this table mean? Let's take an example. A scene has a brightness of 8 EV. To obtain a photograph
correctly exposed we can choose the following shutter speed/aperture pairs:
1/250 sec. – f/1;
1/125 sec. – f/1.4;
1/60 sec. – f/2;

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1/30 sec. – f/2.8;

1/15 sec. – f/4
and so on...
This obviously does not mean that any pair we set will yield the same photo. By setting pairs
With different shutter speeds/aperture, we will obtain different photos, but all will be correctly exposed.

It is important to remember that the Exposure Value represents an actual unit of measurement of the brightness present in a scene.
for example, the EV=0 value corresponds to 2.5 Lux (unit of measurement of the luminous flux incident on a unit area, accepted by the
International System). This means that a scene that has luminous flux per unit area of 2.5 Lux (corresponding to 0 EV)
it can be correctly exposed using a lens with an aperture of f/1 and an exposure time of 1 second
using a sensitivity of 100 ISO.

It should be highlighted that every increase or decrease of 1 EV means that the scene or subject receives respectively double or half.
half of the light. This means that, although it is not the same thing (since the EV value represents the actual brightness
present in the scene, while the word 'stop' refers to the light that reaches the sensor based on the parameters set by the
In photography, the expression EV is often used as a synonym for 'stop', and in practice, it makes no difference.

Among the visible indicators in the viewfinder of a reflex camera is the exposure scale that tells us if the aperture values are correct.
Aperture and shutter speed settings allow us to achieve an exposure in line with the brightness of the detected scene.
from the exposure meter or if they deviate from it, and by how much, in terms of EV or 'stop'.

In light of the above, however, and just for the sake of precision, it is worth noting that when we talk about the brightness of
a scene, one should use the term EV, while when talking about corrections or settings made by the photographer on
diaphragm, exposure time or sensitivity, one should talk about 'stop'.
For example, it would be more accurate to say that 'a scene presents a variation in brightness between lights and shadows of 7 EV' (and not 7
stop), while, on the contrary, it would be more correct to say that a "correction of + 2 stops" has been applied in a photo (and not + 2 EV).

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Chapter 5 - Camera Controls

In this chapter we will explain what the main commands are and how to use them.
cameras.

The shooting mode dial

The shooting mode dial (or mode dial) is present on almost all reflex and mirrorless cameras (even if
lately, especially on these last ones, tends to be replaced by options accessible from the menu), and it is perhaps the most command
important of the camera as it allows setting the exposure modes, that is, the way in which they will be determined,
from the photographer or the camera, aperture, exposure time, and sensitivity, the three essential components
the triangle of exposure.

The mode dials are slightly different depending on the manufacturer and the camera model, but the selectable options and symbols
that mark them are quite similar and almost always very intuitive. For this tutorial, we will refer to the dial of the
modes of a Canon 650d, but whatever camera you have the options are very similar. Please refer to the manual anyway.
instructions, where all selectable display modes via the dial are reported and illustrated. The mode dial can
to be replaced, on some models, by menu options or function keys.

How does the mode dial work?

On the mode dial, there are letters or graphic symbols that represent the different exposure modes.
To select them, simply rotate the dial until the symbol representing the chosen mode aligns with a reference notch.
Some rings may have a safety lock, for example, a button to press to unlock them.

The various modes of exposure

Manual mode [M]

In cameras, the symbol [M] represents manual mode. By selecting this option, the photographer will have to set
manually, using the exposure meter scale present in the viewfinder, both the aperture and the shutter speed
exposure. See the paragraph dedicated to manual mode. Naturally, the photographer will also choose the ISO sensitivity.
This mode is used by photographers who want complete control over the exposure of the scene.

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Priority mode to diaphragms [Av]

Using the Av mode, that is, aperture priority, the photographer selects the aperture, while the camera adjusts.
to the chosen aperture, a shutter speed adequate to provide the correct exposure has been set (see the tutorial on Phototutorial)Come
set the diaphragmsThe priority to apertures is very useful when you want to have full control over the depth of field.
and it is certainly one of the most commonly used modes of exposure by photographers. The photographer can decide whether to leave the choice of the
camera sensitivity, setting from the AUTO ISO menu, or setting it manually. Naturally, in this mode, there are
activate the exposure compensation functions and automatic bracketing.
Nikon uses the symbol [A] for this mode.

The mode dial of a Nikon D3200.

Priority to time [Tv]

By selecting priority to the shutter speed, the photographer retains control over the shooting time while the camera will take care of matching.
At the selected time, an appropriate aperture is set to ensure correct exposure. This mode is chosen whenever
turning the use of a particular shutter speed becomes an important parameter for the success of the photo. For example, if we want
freezing the action of an athlete running, we will set a fast time, at least 1/500 of a second, while in the same situation,
if we want to achieve a panning effect, we will set a time of 1/30 of a second or less. Using this mode, the photographer
He should only worry about setting the shutter speed that will allow him to achieve the desired effect; the camera will take care of the rest.
Naturally, the photographer can also decide whether to set the ISO sensitivity or leave the choice to the camera's automatic settings.
photographic. It will also be able to use the exposure compensation functions and automatic bracketing.
On Nikon cameras, the shutter priority mode is indicated by the symbol [S].

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Mode [A+]

Selecting Auto or Full-auto[A+] sets the completely automatic mode. The camera chooses the aperture by itself.
shutter speed and sensitivity. See the section The automatic exposure: AUTO and PROGRAM modes. It is a mode suitable for
Beginners who do not want to risk ruining a photograph. However, if you want to learn how to take photos, it is better not to use it.
On the Nikon dial, the same mode is indicated with the symbol [Auto] and a green camera icon.

The mode [P]

The Program mode is similar to Auto mode, but allows the photographer to intervene on the chosen shutter-aperture pair.
from the camera. For example, if the camera sets the combination f/8 - 1/250 sec., by moving the adjustment dial the photographer
you can set f/5.6 - 1/500 sec., or f/11 - 1/125 sec., and so on... Moreover, this mode allows the possibility of
intervene on sensitivity and use the exposure compensation functions and automatic bracketing. See the
Automatic exposure: AUTO and PROGRAM modes.

The mode [No Flash]

Most entry-level cameras automatically activate the flash when the exposure meter detects that in the scene
there is little light to resume. However, we often might want to capture the scene without flash light, in ambient light,
even at the risk of movement, or if we have a tripod with us. The [No flash] mode prevents the camera from activating
the flash forces her to take the photo using only the light available in the environment.

The changes [Scene]

On the dials of entry-level cameras, there are symbols that represent the main photographic situations that
we can encounter, for example portrait, landscape, close-up shot, and so on… Each of these symbols sets

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a program suitable for the specific rehabilitation situation. These programs are also particularly suitable for beginners. See the
automatic exposure: the use of the "SCENE" modes.

In more professional setting cameras, the mode dial does not feature Scene modes, as an experienced photographer
He would hardly use them. Instead, we often find other commands that are absent on entry-level cameras or can be activated.
only from the menu.

Let's make some examples.

The pose [B]

The pose B (bulb).

Setting B allows the photographer to keep the shutter open for as long as they decide. (For more information, see the tutorial on
PhototutorialThe pose BIf it is not present in the mode dial, setting B will still be selectable via the menu.

The user changes

I change user.

Marked by a[U]o by the word USER, these are modes of exposure programmable by the user. The photographer will choose
the options and the operating modes and will memorize them. When it selects the user mode, the camera will behave like
requested by the photographer during the planning phase.

It is not possible to consider all the available options on the exposure mode dials of different manufacturers.
cameras. We have indicated the most common modes found on almost all models. For any specific modes present
For your camera, we invite you to refer to the instruction manual.
What methods to use? If you just want to take home a good photo, without worrying too much, you can easily
resort to automatic mode, or to the various preset programs. However, if you really want to learn to photograph and you

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wants to have full control over their photographs to achieve exactly the desired effects, one must learn to use the
modes that allow you to personally set the parameters.
The manual mode is obviously the most recommended, but also the aperture priority mode, which allows you to control the
depth of field through the diaphragm, and the shutter priority mode, which allows you to select the exposure time
suitable for blocking the image or for using motion for creative purposes, can give full control over the image and lead to
to obtain exactly the desired photograph.

The manual mode

The manual mode allows you to select the desired aperture and exposure time.

In this mode, both the exposure time and the aperture are selected manually. Once this was the only
operating method to obtain a photograph: there were no programs and the photographer always set things manually
two values. Then programs were invented. The first, and the most useful, was the one that prioritized diaphragms. The second was
that of priority to time. Most experienced photographers usually primarily use the priority automation.
the diaphragms. The reason is simple. By prioritizing the diaphragms, it is easy to control the depth of field..

However, it is important to learn to use the completely manual mode. This is for two reasons. The first is that
practicing taking photos in manual mode allows for a better understanding of the basic pairing in photography: that
shutter/aperture. Secondly, knowing how to operate manually allows us to achieve exactly the photograph that
we desire, not necessarily the one suggested by the camera's automatic settings.

Operate in this way. Position the mode dial on [M] (the symbol that indicates manual exposure).
Select the desired aperture. Once you have chosen the aperture, operate with the shutter speed dial, allowing the scale to guide you.
of the exposure or the numerical value that you buy in the upper monitor of the camera and/or in the viewfinder. The correct exposure
it will be achieved when the exposure scale, displayed on the upper display and/or in the viewfinder, has reached the central value. The value of
overexposure or underexposure can be indicated by a number (see the following photo).

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Set the mode dial to M

2: Diaphragm adjustment ring

3: Time adjustment bezel. In fact, only professional models have the second bezel, the one for
adjust the shutter speeds. Other models use a single ring to adjust both the apertures and the shutter speeds (see the
Photo 5). Usually, the times are adjusted by pressing a specific button while turning the only dial provided.

4: The selected diaphragm time

5: The selected exposure time

6: The correct exposure signal (in this case the indicated value + 0.7 EV tells us that we will have a
0.7 EV overexposure, to reach the correct value we will have to adjust the aperture or the exposure time.
exposure until the indicated value is 0.0.

As already mentioned, entry-level DSLRs usually have a single dial to adjust both the aperture and the shutter speeds: below a
Canon 550D.

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The mode dial of a Canon 550D.

1: Control ring for the time and diaphragm settings

2: Mode setting ring: the different programs are visible as well as the positions [Av] and [M] of which
let's talk in this article.

With bridges, the operating mode is practically the same.

Mode dial and shutter/aperture adjustment wheel on a Fujifilm S7000 'bridge'.

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the mode selection ring

2: the selection ring for exposure times and apertures.

Automatic exposure: AUTO and PROGRAM modes

On the mode dial of many cameras, both compact and reflex, there are many exposure modes available.
In this tutorial we will consider two: 'AUTO' and 'PROGRAM'.
The 'AUTO' mode, usually identified by the icon of a green car or by the word 'AUTO' always colored green, is the
fully automatic mode. When set to this position, the machine not only operates automatically
the exposure, but also chooses the sensitivity to use, and whether or not to use the flash. On some cameras when using this
In automatic mode, the camera tries to understand what type of subject is being photographed and automatically selects the time-aperture pair.
which according to its programming is more suitable for that photo.

Set dial of a reflex camera on "AUTO" mode.

The 'PROGRAM' mode works similarly to the 'AUTO' mode regarding exposure, automatically selecting the
best time-aperture combination according to its programming, but leaves the photographer the right to choose the sensitivity from
using and managing the flash (which, if desired, can still be left on automatic in this way).

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Dial of a compact set to "PROGRAM".

That said, it should be added that, even for a beginner (who still isn't very familiar with priority ways of
opening or time) photographing in this way can be simple and quick, for those who want to learn to photograph it would be better
avoid using these ways.
The reason is simple: by using them, we will let the camera decide, based on its preset parameters, which aperture to use.
and which time to use, and we will not make the effort to understand why in a given case it is better to use a certain time pair
diaphragm rather than another.
Furthermore, the photo we will get will come out as the machine has decided and not as we saw it. For these reasons, if the
our camera has the capability, it is good to learn to photograph using the time or aperture priority.

Automatic exposure: the use of the 'SCENE' modes

On all compacts and on many entry-level and non-entry-level DSLRs, there is a variable number of symbols on the mode dial.
(on various machines that do not have the mode ring, or that have a simplified one, these programs are accessible via
the menu).
These modes are nothing more than preset variations of the PROGRAM mode. While in the latter the machine tries to expose
In the best way for a generic situation, in the various 'SCENE' programs, the machine will expose taking into account the situation.
choice.
Let's say right away that these modes are of little use on a reflex camera, or rather, they can be useful for a novice, but their use
it will be progressively abandoned as greater photographic skills are acquired. In fact, on reflex cameras we can
customize the choice of all shooting parameters, from exposure time to aperture to white balance.
On the contrary, on a compact camera, which does not have the ability to customize such parameters, these modes can be
useful to force the machine to display in the desired way.
Let's see some of these ways and how we can use them.

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PORTRAIT. Set a very wide aperture.* On some cameras also adjust sharpness and color rendering for better results.
the complexion of the face. By using it, we force the camera to choose wide apertures, useful for separating the subject from the background and for
to obtain photographs with a softer rendering of details.

LANDSCAPE. Set a very closed diaphragm. On some machines, increase the saturation and contrast to make the
details. To be used when we need the maximum possible depth of field, and high contrast and saturation for
enhance the color of the sky and vegetation and highlight the details.

SUBJECTS IN MOVEMENT. Set the fastest time possible. Useful when we want to force the machine to use times
fast. For example, to freeze the movement of a person running or a car, a bicycle, and so on.

NIGHT PORTRAIT. Use the flash along with long exposure times. It is used when we want to take night portraits. The slow time
it allows you to avoid having a completely black background, while the flash shot properly exposes the subject. Setting up
This way you need to use a tripod to avoid blurry or 'streaked' photos.
These are the main programs. Some machines have many more, for these latter refer to the instruction manual.
of your camera. Generally, they are not particularly useful, as they are all slight variations of the main ones.
This is a very relative aspect of a compact, given the great depth of field typical of these machines with a sensor.
small in size.

The camera exposure meter

The exposure meter is a device, present in all cameras, that reads the amount of light present in the scene and helps us,
therefore, obtaining the correct exposure. There are also 'external' exposure meters on the market, but they are used these days
only by professionals and the most refined photographers.

An external light meter Sekonic. The external light meter should be placed near the subject to measure the light falling on it.

Exposure meters can be of two types: incident light and reflected light. Those with incident light read, through a sensor,
directly the light that falls on the subject. Reflective light meters, on the other hand, read the light that is reflected by the subject.

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The internal exposure meters of cameras are exclusively of the reflected light type. They read through the lens (hence the
denomination TTL, which means 'through the lens') the light that is reflected by the subject. This type of reading has the advantage of
to take into account any filters that absorb part of the light, mounted on the lens. On the other hand, it has the disadvantage, being these
spectrophotometers calibrated on the so-called 'medium gray' can partially distort readings on black or white subjects.
Incidence light type exposure meters, on the other hand (the 'external' ones), do not have this problem as they measure the light that falls.
on the subject, not that reflected by it. However, one must remember, if using filters mounted on the lens, to take their into account
absorption factor.

The internal exposimeter

If we have a reflex camera, we can use the light meter in two ways: we can entrust it entirely with every decision regarding
the exposure, or we can assign it only the function of guiding us in choosing the right shutter speed/aperture.

We leave every decision regarding exposure to the exposure meter when:

1) we work in Program mode (using the function called [P]), or we use the so-called preset programs (the
so-called 'scene' modes such as portrait, landscapes, night, etc...). In these cases, it will be the exposure meter, of course supported
from the camera processor, to decide the exposure time and the aperture (see paragraphs: Exposure
automatic: AUTO and PROGRAM modes. Automatic exposure: the use of "SCENE" modes). However, let's remember that
when we are using these modes (which on many compacts are the only ones available), we can always make a
manual correction to the exposure through the appropriate button, or intervening from the menu (see the paragraph: Compensation
of the exhibition);
2) we use partial automatics, namely the priority of shutter speeds [Av], or the priority of apertures [Tv], as once set
manually one of the two parameters, the light meter selects the other in order to achieve the correct exposure. Naturally, also
In this case, we can intervene on the value chosen by the light meter using the exposure correction button.

Instead, we use the camera's exposure meter only as a guide when we operate in manual mode[M] (see the
paragraph The manual mode). In this mode, we set both the aperture and the exposure time ourselves, but in the viewfinder

a staircase like this appears that allows us to evaluate whether we are setting a

time pair/correct diaphragm.

In the crosshairs, a mobile indicator shows the deviation between the exposure value obtained with the pair.
shutter/aperture chosen by us, and the value perceived as correct by the light meter. When the moving indicator is aligned with the
zero value of the scale, as highlighted in the following figure

we are in line with the recommendations of the exposure meter.

When we deviate from the zero value, we are setting an overexposure or an underexposure.

Underexposure of two stops.

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Overexposure of +1.3 stops.

The exposure meters of modern DSLRs can measure light in three ways:

On the reflex, it is possible to select three light measurement modes: spot, center-weighted, or matrix.

Spot measurement:
In this mode, the brightness is measured only in a limited area at the center of the viewfinder.

2) Weighted measurement at the center:

the measurement will be taken giving a certain prevalence to the central area of the frame, but will still take into account
the whole area framed in the sight.

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3) Measurement matrix or multi-zone:

the area of the viewfinder is divided into a large number of small sectors and the light meter measures the intensity of the light in each of them. The
Diverse readings are then compared with a series of situations stored in the camera's computer which, based on the analysis, ...
resulting, select or suggest the correct shutter speed/aperture pair.

Which mode to use?

Let's say right away that in a situation with easy light, that is quite uniform, using the different exposure modes
we probably will not encounter differences.
In difficult lighting situations, however, the choice of the correct measurement method can make the difference between a good photo and one that is not.
destination.
The difficult light is the non-uniform one, where the different areas of the frame are illuminated differently. Typical are those
situations in which the subject reflects a much greater or much lower amount of light compared to the background, perhaps in the
backlight.

To exemplify the problem, let us present a particular situation: it was necessary to photograph a white abbey, however in
what moment directly illuminated by the sun, including the surrounding landscape, wooded, and the foreground, which was
rather in shadow. A situation that presented a difference in lighting between the different areas of the frame of at least 8
stop between the illuminated areas and those in shadow...

We took three photographs, with the three different measuring systems, always making sure to aim at the moment of measurement,
the center of the sight on the white abbey. Here are the results:
Spot measurement

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Spot exposure measurement. Shooting data: Aperture f/8, ISO sensitivity 400, Shutter speed 1/4000.
sec.

Prevalence measurement at the center

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Measurement of exposure in weighted average mode. Shooting data: Aperture f-stop f/8, ISO sensitivity 400, Shutter speed
shot 1/250 sec.

Measurement matrix

Measurement of exposure in matrix mode. Shooting data: Aperture f/8, ISO sensitivity 400, Shutter speed 1/250
sec.

Looking at the results obtained, some considerations can be made:

1) The spot reading, with the central area of the viewfinder pointed at the white abbey, took the measurement exclusively in that
small area. The exposure meter has selected an exposure time of 1/4000 of a second. The white of the abbey has generated a
slightly underexposed. The rest of the photo is significantly underexposed, as all parts of the scene were
less bright compared to the abbey, especially the first floor.
2) The matrix reading and the central dominance reading, in this case (but it happens often) have caused the camera to make the
same choices. The result is a photo that generally appears much better balanced than the one taken with spot metering, but with
a major flaw: the abbey is very overexposed.
In reality, the differences in light in the scene were so wide that it was impossible to achieve proper lighting for all elements.
present. Which photo is better? It depends exclusively on the result that was desired. Although it is very small.
the white abbey inevitably tends to attract the observer's gaze, and its overexposure (as in photos 2 and 3) does not
it is certainly pleasant. On the other hand, even a photo that presents the abbey correctly exposed, but surrounded by a landscape
The underexposed is not very beautiful.

In reality, this photo should have been taken in a more balanced lighting situation. However, for educational purposes, within the framework of a course
of photography, these images are very useful because they allow reflection on how the different modes behave
exposure and how to operate accordingly.
When to use matrix mode

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The matrix modality seeks to indicate an exposure that allows for the best reproduction of most of the scene.
framed. For this reason, it is essentially good when the light is sufficiently uniform and there are no strong differences between the
subject and background. This means it is suitable for most photographs, but if you find yourself in a situation
specific, as illustrated above, it will be difficult to achieve a correct exposure.
In other words, a very dark background could lead to overexposure of the main subject, especially if this
occupies a minority part of the frame and, conversely, a very light background (as happens in backlighting) could lead to
to the underexposure of the main subject.
Furthermore, even in a simple lighting situation, since the purpose of the matrix mode is to find an exposure
"intermediate" that works well for the entire framed scene, the risk is always that of "flattening" the photos, saving both the lights and the
shadow, but ending up sacrificing those games of light and shadow that often make a photograph interesting.
When to use center prevalence mode
Reading with a prevalence in the center, or weighted average, is a mode of presentation that has become almost entirely useless today as the
Matrix measurement systems have become very reliable. Usually, in the best case scenario, this mode will yield results.
comparable to those obtainable with the matrix. In any case, the reading mode with a focus in the center can yield good results.
when the subject is at the center of the frame and occupies an important area.
Both the matrix mode and the center-weighted mode are suitable for achieving a correct exposure of the scene, at least
in most cases, but not for a creative interpretation of the scene.
When to use spot mode
The spot metering reading mode is the most reliable, and if you want to learn to photograph, it would be good to learn to
especially use this one. In this way, it is possible to calculate the exposure exclusively on the subject or on the part of
subject that interests us, excluding everything else from the frame. In this way, we will have the certainty that the subject of the
our photo will be correctly displayed.
This does not mean that by using spot mode we cannot also take into account marginal areas of the frame. On the contrary, with
the spot reading, if we operate manually, we can read the exposure on all the areas of the frame that interest us, to understand
What differences are there in terms of stop, and deciding fully independently which shooting data to set. We have full
exposure process control. A really useful exercise for those who are learning to photograph.
The spot mode allows for achieving the correct exposure in certain challenging lighting situations, such as the
backlighting, or a white subject against a shadowy background, or a dark subject against a very bright background, a ray of light
that filters through the branches, the sunset, etc...

Let's take a couple of examples:

White subject on dark background

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A difficult situation for the exposure meter: the little egret against a shadowy background... The matrix reading and the average one
considered would inevitably lead to the overexposure of the bird. The spot measurement, carried out on the subject
White has allowed to resolve the situation.

Backlit portrait

Backlit portrait. Measurement with a focus on the center and, although the algorithms are becoming increasingly sophisticated, even that
matrix could lead to underexposure of the subject. The spot reading, on the other hand, measures exposure only on the
subject allows for the correct exposure.

The compensation of the exposure

Both on DSLRs and on most compact cameras, there is an extremely useful button: the exposure compensation control.
of the exhibition.

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Learning to use it is essential because it allows you to balance the errors of the exposure meter.
First of all, it should be clarified that the camera's light meter is not infallible. Light meters are indeed calibrated to the so-called

The medium gray or 18% gray.

This calibration on the average gray ensures that the light reading done by the camera is correct in most situations.
situations. Unfortunately, when the exposure meter is pointed at something white or black, the reading becomes unreliable. The attempt,
done by the exposure meter to 'bring' the black to middle gray, in fact, causes the camera to overexpose the photo, that is to capture the
scene in too clear a way. Conversely, if the reading is done on a white surface, the camera could underexpose it.
scene, that is to say making it too dark.

To illustrate what has been said, the same scene was repeated, a series of books, first pointing the light meter at a book.
white, then towards a black book, placed side by side. The results exemplify well how the exposure meter provides two readings.
different from the scene, both wrong.

PHOTO A. When taking this photograph, the light meter was pointed at the white book. This caused an obvious
underexposure.

The photograph above was taken by pointing the light meter directly at the white book. This caused a
evident underexposure. To realize it, just observe the histogram of levels, clearly unbalanced to the left. The area
severely underexposed, to the point of losing the signal, is also indicated by that splash of yellow seen in the upper right. In
In many cameras, it is indeed possible to activate a function that indicates areas of severe overexposure and underexposure.
indicate respectively with the flashing red and yellow color.

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PHOTO B. When taking this photograph, the light meter was pointed at the black book. This caused a clear
overexposure.

The photograph above was taken by pointing the light meter towards the black book. This caused a clear
overexposure, evident from the histogram reading, which indicates a large overexposed area on the right, and from the red
flashing light that signals the seriously "burned" area.
How could it be remedied?
With a bit of experience and with the exposure compensation command.
Experience will tell us that the exposure meter in a given situation will definitely be deceived.
The exposure compensation command will allow us to intervene quickly.
By pressing the button, in fact, a scale will be activated in the camera's viewfinder and on the external display (if our reflex is equipped with it).
of the compensation for the exposure similar to this:

The scale for exposure correction.

The unit of measurement is in 'stops': +1 ('+1 stop' or '+1 EV') means that the camera has been set so that
provide an exposure to light double that indicated by the exposure meter. Obviously -1 (“-1 stop” or “-1 EV”)
it would mean that we set an exposure that is half of that indicated by the light meter, -2 and a quarter, and so on...
The compensation adjustment is made through a ring located on the camera, usually the one that normally
select the diaphragm.
Let's go back to the photos of the books we saw earlier. How could one intervene with exposure compensation?
In the first case (PHOTO A), where pointing the light meter at the white book resulted in an underexposed photograph, one can
set a compensation of +1 stop. The result would be this:

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PHOTO C: by setting the exposure compensation to +1 EV, the scene captured in PHOTO A is exposed correctly.

In the second case (PHOTO B), setting an exposure compensation of -1 results in the photo being correctly exposed.

PHOTO D: setting the exposure compensation to +1 EV, the scene captured in PHOTO B is exposed correctly.

When should one compensate?

But when can it happen to have to offset the exposure? The situations are many, and it is difficult to take them into account.
all.
Let's focus on a rather common case: photos in the presence of a snow cover.
The presence of snow, with all that white, puts the camera's exposure meter in serious difficulty, often leading to, if one
entrust the automation to obtain underexposed photos, as in the following case:

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The presence of snow fooled the exposure meter, leading to strong underexposure.

In an image taken shortly after, the photographer made an exposure compensation of +0.7 stops, achieving
a decidedly better image:

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A correction of +0.7 EV exposure resulted in a properly exposed photograph.

If we have a dark subject instead, the camera's light meter can be misled in the opposite way, generating a
overexposure. This is the case of the photo below, in which the cat's black fur caused the camera to overexpose:

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The black color of the kitten tricked the camera's light meter, leading to an overexposure.

To obtain a correctly exposed photo, you can adjust the exposure compensation command, making changes
a slight underexposure, in this case -0.3 EV has proven to be a sufficient value:

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By operating an exposure compensation, a value of -0.3 EV was set, resulting in a correctly taken photograph.
response.

On which parameters does the compensation of exposure intervenes?

It depends on the type of shot set.
If you are operating in priority to the apertures [Av], compensation will affect the exposure time. The reason is simple. If you
in priority mode, the camera assumes that the fundamental parameter of interest to the photographer at that moment is the
diaphragm. It is left to the photographer to decide and the compensation affects the timing.
Conversely, if one operates in priority mode, the compensation will affect the diaphragms.
If the camera is in program[P], the compensation affects both shutter speeds and apertures.
The most sophisticated cameras allow you to adjust, if desired, the sensitivity parameter as well.

Bracketing

The bracketing technique involves taking a series of shots by varying the exposure parameters. Typically, three are taken.
bracketed shots: one for the value that the light meter suggests as correct, one underexposed, the other overexposed.
What is this technique used for? To find the optimal exposure even in difficult situations that can mislead the light meter, or
when in doubt about the correct value of exposure or how to interpret a scene 'photographically'.
Current DSLR cameras have a very useful automatic bracketing function: you can set values of
exposure compensation ranging from +2 to -2 EV (some models go up to ± 3EV) in steps of 1/3 or ½ EV.

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The automatic bracketing command is usually accessible from the menu or from the custom functions of the camera.
in the area dedicated to shooting mode, where you select – to be clear – single shot or burst or self-timer, etc...

The symbol of automatic bracketing: the function can be selected in the 'shooting mode' menu. The symbols can indeed be seen.
single shot, continuous shooting, remote shooting, etc...

Once the command is selected, we need to choose, in terms of EV - or stop - the 'distance' between the shots: in the example below
a value of ± 1 EV has been selected:

We have selected the automatic bracketing mode, the camera will take three shots, spaced 1 EV apart from each other.

The result in a photograph may be similar to that of the illustrative photos shown below:

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The photograph taken with the values suggested by the exposure meter.

The shot taken at +1 EV: an overexposure of one stop.

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The shot taken at -1 EV: an underexposure of one stop.

Some camera models allow you to select the number of frames, opting for 3, 5, or even 7 photographs.
with different exposure values.
If we have the time and the lighting conditions are not straightforward to interpret, we can make use of this useful function.
We will then choose the photograph that convinces us the most calmly, in front of the computer monitor.
If we use a tripod in front of a static subject, like a landscape, we can later use the frames to
perform a simulation of the graduated ND gray filter, or to create a true HDR.
Warnings
When working in bracketing, if we are photographing landscapes or taking portraits, it is advisable to use the camera in priority mode.
the diaphragms (mode A or Av). In this way, the compensation will affect the exposure time and the diaphragm will remain constant
during the shots ensuring that the same depth of field is maintained for all the shots.
If we use the camera in program mode, in fact, the compensation will occur both on the shutter speeds and on the apertures, and this
will cause a change in depth of field.
Obviously, if the camera is set to shutter priority, automatic bracketing will only vary the aperture.
Let's take this into account when we decide to make an automatic fork exhibition.
Some more feature-rich cameras offer, in addition to the classic exposure bracketing, also focus bracketing.
focus (meaning the focus point is changed between shots), on white balance, on saturation, on
contrast, etc... In short, one can have fun trying out all kinds of things. However, the actual usefulness of such functions is at least questionable.

The histogram of levels

If you have a digital camera, you will have certainly noticed a special function: the ability to review the photo just taken.
taken with, overlaid, the histogram of levels.
What is this histogram and what is it for?
Well, the histogram of levels simply indicates the number of pixels present in the image for each shade of gray. It's about
a Cartesian diagram in which the horizontal axis represents the levels of gray (from 0 to 255), while the vertical axis represents
the number of pixels present on each level.

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The histogram of levels overlaid on the image just taken on the camera monitor.

Even though numerical values are not always displayed on the camera monitor, from the observer's perspective, the left edge
The histogram indicates a gray level value equal to 0, that is, black, while the right border indicates the gray level equal to 255.
that is the white. Therefore, the histogram provides a representation of the brightness level of the image.
In fact, referring to the image above, the left quadrant of the histogram represents the shaded areas, the
the right quadrant represents the highlights, while the two central quadrants represent the midtones. Even though it cannot be
Generally, in a well-exposed image, most of the pixels are found in the two central quadrants.

The histogram is therefore very useful for understanding whether the image just taken is correctly exposed or not. For example,
By observing the photograph above, we can gather the following information:

1) there are no overexposed areas: in fact, if you look at the right side of the histogram, you can see that practically in the area of the highs
there are no pixels:

2) there are no areas severely underexposed: in fact, the left side of the histogram, while clearly showing a lot
amount of pixels in the shadow area, does not extend to the extreme edge:

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3) Overall, the image is therefore quite balanced, although slightly tending towards underexposure, as
the histogram is nonetheless clearly shifted towards the left area (it must be said that the exposure meters of many cameras are calibrated
to achieve a similar yield in order to avoid the risk of obtaining overexposed photos: in fact, it is much easier during the post
Production or printing, recovering a slightly underexposed photo compared to an overexposed photo:

The example above demonstrates how useful it can be to know how to read the histogram. In fact, not always on the little monitor of
with the camera, it is possible to identify the underexposed and overexposed areas of the image, nor evaluate the image itself with
precision. The histogram does not lie, and with some experience, if we know how to read it in the light of the scene we have.
Resumed, and of the photographic effect we wanted to achieve, helps us accurately assess the photo just taken.
To clarify our ideas, let's take another example. Please observe carefully the three images shown below:

The photo is underexposed: one can observe the histogram clearly shifted to the left.

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The image is displayed correctly: the histogram is observed with the curve 'spread' across all sectors, without touching the edges.
extremes.

The image is overexposed: note the histogram shifted significantly to the right.

Naturally, the reading of the histogram must be done in light of the captured scene.
Sometimes, in fact, histograms that seem unbalanced can instead indicate a scene captured correctly.
Let's give two examples:

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The histogram seems to represent a severely underexposed photo. In reality, the black background was intentional.
photographer to highlight the beautiful bright green color and the texture of the leaf. Therefore, the image is correctly exposed, in
a sense that exactly reflects what the photographer wanted to achieve. One can observe how the part of the curve that
shows the leaf positioned in the central area of the histogram, demonstrating that the latter is correctly
answer.

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The histogram would seem to represent a severely overexposed image. In reality, it was captured during a
snowstorm, therefore with vast areas completely white, which are clearly visible on the right side
of the histogram. The photographer has utilized the diffuse white to 'draw' the elements that make up the landscape, almost as if
as if it were black ink on white paper. Note the presence of pixels spread throughout the entire tonal scale represented.
from the histogram. Therefore, it is not a classic 'burnt' photo.

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Chapter 6 - Let's delve into some technical concepts

important

Check the depth of field

The concept of depth of field is fundamental in photography because knowing how to perfectly control the extent of the plane of
sharpness allows the photographer to achieve exactly the desired image and assign to it an aesthetic value as well as
documentative. Let's try to understand, through this tutorial, what depth of field (DOF) is, how it affects
on the aesthetics of photography, and what parameters influence it.
What does the term PDC mean?
When we focus on a point on a certain plane with an objective, points will also appear acceptably sharp.
that is in front of and behind the focus point. This creates a sort of 'zone of sharpness' that includes everything that
it appears clear to the observer of the photo. This 'band of clarity' is called 'depth of field.'

The depth of field depends on a considerable number of factors, some of which are related to the observer's perception.
of the photo, and therefore difficult to quantify. For example, a more experienced and savvy observer will catch it at first glance.
what are the areas of the photograph that are 'in focus' and those that are 'out of focus', while an observer who is not particularly experienced will find it difficult

it will take notice.

What does depth of field depend on?

The depth of field is essentially related to three factors:

1. the focal length;

2. the diaphragm;
3. the distance of recovery.

In this paragraph, we will exclude mathematical formulas, limiting ourselves to describing how these three parameters influence the
depth of field.

Depth of field and focal length

The depth of field is primarily influenced by the focal length. The higher the focal length, the shallower the ...
depth of field. This means that, speaking generally, telephoto lenses have a reduced depth of field while the

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Wide-angle lenses have a high depth of field. However, be careful: depth of field is not related to the concept of telephoto lens.
not a wide-angle but precisely the focal length itself.
A 100mm lens for the APS-C format is a medium telephoto, while a 100mm lens for large format field cameras is a
wide angle. However, at the same magnification on the print, they will exhibit exactly the same depth of field.
This is why compact and bridge cameras with very small sensors always have a depth of
very high field. In fact, even using the zoom at its longest focal length, that focal length is actually so short (for
a compact common area is around 20mm) that does not allow for playing with depth of field, as everything appears
always clear and it is very difficult to separate the foreground from the background. In fact, this is one of the main disadvantages of compact cameras.
compared to reflex.

This image shows how depth of field varies as a function of focal length with lenses of different focal lengths.
mounted on a camera with an aps-c sensor using the aperture f/2.8 for all and the same shooting distance.

From the observation of the image shown above, we can make these considerations for the benefit of those who have recently approached the
photography (this is obviously a simplification and I therefore ask for the more experienced to forgive me):
1. When you want to isolate the subject from the background (for example in a portrait), it is better to use a longer focal length.

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2. When you want both the foreground and the background to be perfectly sharp (for example in landscape photography), it is better to
use a shorter focal length.

In this photo, the use of the telephoto lens (focal length 400mm) allowed for a reduced depth of field and thus to blur.
the background in order to highlight the subject.

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The use of the wide-angle lens (12mm focal length) has allowed for a great depth of field, so much so that in the photo it appears
both the very close-up of the amanita muscaria and the background are sharp.

Depth of field and diaphragm

As we explained in the paragraph The use of the diaphragm and the control of the depth of field in PDC, at equal
focal length and shooting distance are determined by the chosen aperture.
To illustrate this, we can refer to the following image that shows how the depth of field changes with a
focal length objective 50mm, as the diaphragm aperture changes:

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The image shows how the depth of field changes with the aperture.

For this reason, when you want to isolate a subject from the background, such as in a portrait, in addition to choosing a focal length
long, you also need to use a rather wide aperture.

Depth of field and shooting distance

The distance of the subject captured by the camera also plays a significant role in the extent of the depth of field. Given the same ...
focal length and aperture opening, the depth of field will be greater if the subject is farther away from the camera.

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The farther the subject is from the camera, the greater the depth of field will be.

This means that if you want to separate the subject well from the background, you need to be close enough to it (in line with the
other aesthetic needs).

Calculate the depth of field

We have already seen that knowing how to control depth of field is an essential step for those who truly want to learn to
photographing. After discussing which parameters influence depth of field, let's consider, in this
paragraph, how to calculate the PDC in every recovery situation. Things will become slightly more challenging, but we hope to
be able to simplify them enough.
Let's start by saying that it is almost never necessary to know exactly what the PDC we will obtain with certain...
shooting parameters. In ninety-nine percent of cases, in fact, it is enough to have just a rough idea of what the PDC will be for
take pictures in complete peace. However, it is good to explore the topic further.

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The first concept we need to clarify is that of the circle of confusion.

The circle of confusion
The depth of field is related not only to the parameters mentioned above but also to the magnification of the photo when printed or to
monitor. In a small-sized print, in fact, certain details may appear sharp that, when enlarged,
they are evidently blurry.
For this reason, in the formula that always roughly calculates the depth of field, which we will examine among...
briefly, a parameter called 'circle of confusion' has been introduced. When a point is perfectly focused, it is
reproduced in the image as a point. But the points located on a different plane are reproduced as small circles. Until
a certain size however the human eye is not able to distinguish the small circle and continues to see it as a point. Therefore
as long as the dots are perceived as point-like by the human eye, that plane is still considered to be in focus. When instead
The eye begins to perceive them as small circles, we are outside the field of focus. The depth of field encompasses the whole of
planes in which points are still perceived as such by the human eye. Conventionally, the human eye perceives as
Point-like all the dots having a diameter of less than 0.25 millimeters, although of course it depends on the quality of vision.
of the observer. In any case, it has been established – so let’s remember, this is just a convention – to calculate the circle of
confusion in determining the depth of field based on a conventional print of 20×25 centimeters viewed from a
distance of about 32 centimeters (equal to the diagonal of the print format) from an observer with normal visual capabilities.
We can say that by looking at a print of 20×25 centimeters (8×10 inches) from a distance of about 32 centimeters, all the little circles
with a diameter equal to or less than 0.25 millimeters will appear as point-like.
The above applies to prints. If, on the other hand, we want to identify the acceptable circle of confusion related to different sensors
we need to consider the number of enlargements needed to reach the dimensions of 20x25cm and divide by 0.25
enlargements. For example, if we start from a negative format of 24x36mm (Full Frame), the number of enlargements to obtain a
print size 20x25cm, calculated on the diagonal is about 7.4, which divided by 0.25 gives an acceptable circle of confusion of about
0.029mm (many use 0.03mm). For the APS-C format (Nikon - Canon - Sony), the acceptable circle of confusion calculated
according to the same method it is about 0.02mm (0.019 for the Canon Aps-c). These are parameters that, as we have already mentioned,
They are the result of many conventions and approximations. So don't be surprised to find some variability on different websites.
which deal with the subject.

In any case, we report here the generally accepted circle of confusion for the main formats of reflex cameras.
mirrorless
Four-thirds system and micro-four-thirds: 0.015 mm
Aps-c Canon: 0.019 mm
Aps-c Nikon, Pentax, Sony: 0.02 mm
Aps-H Canon: 0.023 mm
Full Frame (24×36): 0.03 mm

The formula to calculate depth of field

Having made this premise about the circle of confusion, we can move on to the formula that relates focal length,
aperture, shooting distance, and circle of confusion allow us to calculate the depth of field.
Here it is:

The formula to calculate the Depth of Field (DOF):

"D" is the diaphragm;
"F" is the focal length of the lens;
"c" is the circle of confusion;
"d" is the distance of the subject.

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Obviously, as we explained, and as shown by the 'approximately equal' symbol rather than the equal sign, the formula
it should be taken as simply indicative, because much depends on the perception of the observer of the photo, and because the
The concept of the circle of confusion is related to a convention.

Programs that calculate for you

If the formula above has scared you, you don't need to worry too much. We say this for three reasons:
In taking photographs, you only need a rough assessment of what the depth of field will be based on the parameters.
what do you set;
There are online programs and apps for phones and tablets that calculate depth of field for you;
You can preview the depth of field that you will achieve directly in the viewfinder of your DSLR or on the live view.

Preview of depth of field with your camera

Almost all DSLRs and mirrorless cameras on the market allow you to assess the depth of field before shooting through the
closing of the diaphragm. There may be differences depending on the model (just consult the manual to find out how to)
activate the function), but almost all cameras have near the shutter button a command, with the diaphragm symbol
stylized, called 'depth of field preview', which operates by closing the diaphragm at the working aperture set by the
photographer and allows him to observe in the viewfinder, or in the live view of the camera, the actual extent of the sharp area. Except in
really particular applications, this command is more than sufficient to ensure the photographer has full control over the depth of
field.

The depth of field preview button found on DSLR and mirrorless cameras features the little icon.
of the stylized diaphragm.

The hyperfocal

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The hyperfocal distance is closely related to the depth of field. As we know, beyond the plane where the focus is set,
fire, depending on the chosen diaphragm, the focal length used, and the distance of the focal plane from the camera, we will have an area
which will still appear sharp, which is called depth of field.
Well, there exists, at every focal length and for every aperture, a focusing distance such that the depth of field will extend.
from infinity to a distance located about halfway to the focal point. This distance, called hyperfocal, also coincides
with the greatest possible depth of field at a given focal length and for that particular aperture chosen.
Obviously, the shorter the focal lengths, the greater the depth of field that can be achieved and the closer the hyperfocal distance will be.
The following image clarifies what has been expressed so far:

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The image shows how the hyperfocal distance and the depth of field extension change with varying focal lengths and
diaphragm

The image shows how the hyperfocal distance and the depth of field extension change with varying focal length and aperture.
At a focal length of 50mm, with an aperture of f/11, the hyperfocal distance will be 7.63 meters, while the depth of field will extend from
around 3.65m to infinity. This means that it's enough to focus by manually using the appropriate ring on the lens to the
distance of 7.63 meters and close the diaphragm to f/11 to have a sharp field that extends across the entire area shown by the
Figure. If the diaphragm is closed to f/22, the hyperfocal distance will become 3.84m and the useful depth of field will range from 1.69m.
to infinity.
If we use an 18mm lens set at f/11, the hyperfocal distance will be 1 meter and we will have a depth of
field that extends from 50 centimeters to infinity; closing the diaphragm to f/22 and focusing at a distance of 51 cm
At the hyperfocal distance, we will have sharpness that extends from zero to infinity.
Knowing, even approximately, the hyperfocal distance is very useful because it allows us, if we wish, to maximize the
sharpness range. For example, in landscape photography, it makes little sense to focus at infinity and then close the diaphragm.
at most, because the depth of field cannot be extended beyond infinity. If we want to achieve the maximum
extension of sharpness, it is better to focus on an intermediate plane, just the plane that corresponds to the distance
hyperfocal.

Focusing on the hyperfocal distance allows you to maximize depth of field. It can be very useful in the
landscape photography.

Calculate the hyperfocal distance

The formula that allows us to calculate the hyperfocal distance is as follows:

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The formula for calculating the hyperfocal distance:

"D" is the diaphragm;
"F" is the focal length of the lens;
"c" is the circle of confusion.

Fortunately, it is not necessary to do the calculations every time, because there are websites and smartphone applications that
they allow calculating both the depth of field and the hyperfocal distance, for any focal length and any aperture
used.

Find the hyperfocal distance using the markings engraved on the lens.
On fixed focal length objectives, the scale of focus distances and useful references are indicated that allow for
easily set the hyperfocal distance.

The references on fixed focal length objectives allow identifying the hyperfocal distance.

On the barrel of the lens, in fact, in addition to the focusing distance, there are usually also lines corresponding to
some aperture settings. If you have a lens of this type, you just need to set one of the apertures indicated on the camera.
on the barrel (in this case, let's assume you have chosen f/22). After that, you just need to align the infinity symbol.
with the chosen aperture opening, as shown in the image above (a). Once this is done, you will have also discovered the
approximate hyperfocal distance for that aperture which corresponds to the focus distance (b), and you will know what the limit is.
to you closer than the depth of field that coincides with the corresponding notch of the chosen aperture (c). In the case of the photo of
for example, the focus distance is 3 meters (b) and the depth of field extends up to about 1.5 meters (c).

The Bokeh

Very often this word is read on photography forums, and for once it is not an English word but a word of origin
Japanese. Its entry into photographic jargon occurred in the late 1990s as a transliteration into the English language of the
The Japanese word or means "blur." Bokeh, thus, in photographic jargon would simply be equivalent to

"blur", but in reality, having taken on a greater depth of meaning, wants to define the contribution that out-of-focus parts.
damage to the aesthetics of the image.

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In conclusion, therefore, when we talk about bokeh, we are discussing the aesthetic quality of the blur ('the bokeh of this lens doesn't work for me')
"convince", "what beautiful bokeh there is in this photo".

The pleasantness of bokeh is influenced by many factors that can, however, be summarized into two main groups:
1. the design of the objective;
2. the skill of the photographer.

The design of the objective

Lenses can be designed to provide a pleasing blur. Not all lenses, in fact, have the same performance of
are out of focus. In general, the lenses that are best optimized by manufacturers to provide a nice bokeh are the medium telephoto ones.
of portraits and super telephotos. Precisely in the photographic genres of portrait, fashion photography, and ceremonies, as well as in photography of
wild animals, in fact, the rendering of the blurred effect is of particular importance. Even in macro photography, the blurred effect is very important.
return of the blurred.
The factors involved in the design phase of a lens that affect the quality of the bokeh are multiple, but
there is an aspect that is of considerable importance. It concerns the shape of the diaphragm hole. In general, although it depends on
personal taste, it is considered typical of beautiful bokeh to make the out-of-focus light points blurred and diffused. Furthermore, characteristic of
good bokeh is the soft and gradual blur from sharp planes to out-of-focus ones. Well, to achieve these characteristics it is
it is essential that the diaphragm hole is as circular as possible. For this reason, the more refined portrait lenses are
characterized by a diaphragm with a high number of blades, because the higher the number of blades, the more the shape of the hole is
approaches that of a perfect circle. A diaphragm with five blades will, in fact, return a hole in the shape of a pentagon, one with eight
it will return it to the shape of an octagon and so on, getting closer and closer to the perfect shape of a circle. Some manufacturers
they come to propose diaphragm blades suitably shaped to create the circular shape of the hole.

Diaphragms of different shapes affect the bokeh.

In the photographs above, we see the comparison between a six-blade diaphragm, which produces a hexagonal aperture, a diaphragm
an eight-blade diaphragm, which provides an octagonal hole, and a diaphragm with eight suitably shaped blades to produce a hole
circular. The best bokeh should be achieved, of course, with this last lens.

However, the design factors that affect the bokeh of a lens are many, and it is not certain that a lens with
the diaphragm has many blades then an extraordinary bokeh. Obviously, an important part is also played by taste of
photographer, so although there are lenses that are considered by experts to be the pinnacle of bokeh, often there is not
another solution is to try a certain objective that interests us and see how it behaves.
The skill of the photographer

In the rendering of the blurred effect, the photographer plays a role far superior to that of the lens.
For example, we talked about the importance of the circular diaphragm, but the experienced photographer knows that, at full aperture, all the
The diaphragms are perfectly circular. Therefore, in some cases, one can choose to shoot wide open to achieve a nice blur.
putting oneself at an adequate distance from the subject, and placing the latter at the right distance from the background, in order to have the

desired depth of field not affecting the diaphragm, which can be left wide open, but on the distances
camera-subject-background (see the paragraph The depth of field).
The photographer - checking the aperture, the chosen focal length, using a particular lens, deciding which background to use and to
which distance, including in the frame bright or less bright points, and in a thousand other ways – significantly influences the outcome.
of the blur. In fact, once the basics of photography are learned and the first encouraging results are obtained, one should start to
work specifically on the rendering of out-of-focus areas, because the bokeh is of great importance in the aesthetics of photography.

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Bokeh and portrait. As highlighted by the photo above, the out-of-focus areas contribute significantly to the aesthetics of the
photography. Especially in certain specific genres, such as portrait.

In the photo of the child here above, the transition from the areas in focus to those out of focus is gradual but also due to the
overexposure of the background creates a 'double line' around the blurred cheek that is not exactly pleasant.

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The photo of the ibex above has a not very nice bokeh. The out-of-focus areas are very 'harsh' while they should
it should have been softer and more nuanced. If the performance of the lens is like this, it's better that the background is farther from the subject, or the

subject closer to the camera, to achieve a greater blur.

In the photograph of the bee-eater above, you can see that when the subject is close enough, the focal length used
sufficiently telephoto (in this case the goal is a 400mm), the aperture sufficiently open, and the background sufficiently
distant, it is possible to achieve a perfectly blurred background that highlights the subject.

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Bokeh and macro photography. Even in macro photography, bokeh is important. The transition from in-focus areas to blurred ones must
be gradual and nuanced.

The same thing can be said for still life, where the transition from sharp areas to blurred ones must be smooth and pleasant.
like in this case.

Which format: RAW or JPEG?

DSLR cameras (and also many bridge cameras, as well as the very latest mirrorless ones) allow you to save photographs in different formats.
In general, it is possible to choose between the JPEG format, which can be saved at various resolutions, and the RAW format. Some cameras offer
also the TIFF format.

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The camera menu that allows you to choose the file format. This camera allows you to select the format.
RAW or the JPEG format. The RAW+ option is used to save photos in both formats.

If you choose to save in JPEG format, you can also decide the resolution of the file.

What are the differences between the formats? Which one is advisable to choose for our work?
To understand it, it's good to spend a few words on the different formats.

The JPEG format, acronym for Joint Photographic Experts Group, is an ISO/CCITT committee that defined the first standard
International compression for continuous tone images, it is a completely open and standard compression.
free implementation, quickly became the most used in the world. The reason is soon told, in the face of a small, almost
imperceptible loss of quality, JPEG files are often much smaller in size compared to other formats such as TIFF.

The TIFF format, short for Tagged Image File Format, is a bitmap (raster) graphic file format developed in 1987 by
Aldus Corporation (which is now part of Adobe). TIFF allows images to be stored without losing quality, regardless of
from the platform or the device used, up to 32 bits per pixel. This is a very commonly used format that, however, presents a
problem: the considerable size of files.

The RAW format (it is not an acronym; it is an English word that means 'raw') instead saves the data produced by the sensor.
of the camera without processing them. In practice, an image is not saved, but all the data that describes it and that will be needed later
to reconstruct it. Since they are electronic data, it is also possible to compress them to reduce their size to about 1/3.
of the original, without any loss of quality. To obtain the actual image, it will be necessary to 'develop' the RAW into
posteriori with a specific program. This solution allows us to not lose any information related to our photograph.
and at the same time maintain a file size that is still quite contained. It should be added that each camera manufacturer
has developed its own proprietary RAW format, which may also vary from model to model. Therefore, to obtain
the final image, it is necessary to make use of the software provided with the camera, or rely on
third-party programs that contain in memory the algorithms for the demosaicing of images of each model of
camera, which are constantly updated as new cameras appear on the market. If you try to open
a RAW file on a computer that does not have the 'development program' installed, you will not be able to see the images in any way.

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The first important difference to highlight is that saving in different formats results in files of very different sizes. For
for example, the image above, taken with a 16 megapixel camera, which in the original has dimensions of
4928×3264 pixels, assume the following dimensions depending on the format in which it is saved:
RAW28.4 MB (MegaByte)
TIFF (a 16bit) 92.1 MB
JPEG (highest quality) 8.75 MB

Advantages and disadvantages of different formats

JPEG
Advantages:
image already ready;
small dimensions, which means that more photographs will fit on the memory card (to give an example that is just
indicative, because it depends on the compression algorithms, with my 16-megapixel DSLR, on an 8-gigabyte card it is possible
Save about 535 photos in JPEG format at maximum resolution and quality, while in RAW format it is only possible to save 233.
Disadvantages:
loss of image quality;
limited possibilities to intervene afterwards to correct any errors in the white balance and exposure;
further loss of quality with each subsequent save.

TIFF
Advantages:
image already ready;
no loss of quality.
Disadvantages:
very large file sizes;
limited possibilities for intervention afterwards to correct any errors in white balance and exposure (higher
compared to JPEG, but lower than RAW).

RAW
Advantages:
no loss of quality;
possibility to set the white balance in post-production;
great possibilities of correction of any errors in the presentation.
Disadvantages:
larger dimensions compared to JPEG (fewer photos fit in the tab);
It is necessary to develop the file afterwards using a suitable program (which takes time).

So: which format to use?

It essentially depends on one's needs.
If you don't have the time or desire to develop files in post-production, the JPEG format still guarantees a
very high quality. However, it is important to remember to perform an accurate white balance before shooting, especially in
particular lighting situations, such as the presence of fluorescent lamps, that can mislead the balancing function
automatic white balance of the camera.
It should also be remembered that any errors in the presentation are unlikely to be recoverable in post-production.
To avoid the loss of quality that occurs with each subsequent save of the file, when using a photo editing program.
It's advisable to open the file and save it with a different name (for example, [Link]), and then work on the latter.

If you want to get the most out of your photographs, and you have the time and desire to develop your files to obtain them...
Images, it is advisable to save in RAW. In this way, any exposure errors will be more easily recoverable in post-

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production. Moreover, the ability to adjust the white balance afterward, offered only by the RAW format, is in my opinion
almost indispensable for those who seek the highest quality.

To exemplify it, observe the following photo, taken in RAW+JPEG, an option that allows you to save in both formats.

JPEG obtained in recovery.

The image above is the JPEG obtained directly from the camera at the moment of shooting, without any modifications.
As seen in the photograph, it is slightly underexposed, and the automatic white balance does not enhance it either.
adequately.
Instead, observe the image obtained by working on the RAW file:

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The image obtained from the RAW file, after adjusting the white balance and correcting the underexposure.

A manual adjustment was made to the white balance, resulting in warmer and more vibrant colors. Then, the correction was made to the
underexposure of about one stop. The image appears more pleasant, all without loss of quality.
Sure, a skilled graphic designer could achieve a similar result with a photo editing program, but it would take much longer than
what is necessary for the simple development of the RAW, and there would still be significant loss of quality in the final result.

The camera indicates the chosen format on the display and/or in the viewfinder.

You will have understood from my considerations that I shoot almost exclusively in RAW. I prefer to ensure the highest quality.
possible, although I will have to spend some extra time to 'develop' the file. I also find that the 'development' phase is part of
an integral part of the photographic process, and that can bring much satisfaction.
Additionally, the possibility of saving files in RAW+JPEG, sacrificing only a bit of space on the card, also considering the
the capacity of current memory cards allows to obtain simultaneously both the ready-to-use JPEG and the RAW from
to archive and possibly revisit later.

White balancing

Surely we have often noticed it: the light we have available changes constantly.

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The midday sunlight, the sunset sunlight, that of the neon lights, that of the incandescent lamps,
the light of a candle, they are all different. Different for what? Essentially for their wavelength, which makes them different.
tone. Thus, the light at noon, on a cloudless day, is almost perfectly white, while the light at sunset has a
tone between yellow and orange. Also, the light from incandescent lamps, the classic light bulbs, has an orange hue,
while fluorescent lamps have whiter shades.
The various color tones of light are indicated on a color temperature scale expressed in degrees Kelvin:

The Kelvin scale.

It is said that a light source has a certain color temperature (the Kelvin degree is actually a unit of measurement for temperature)
because a black body heated to that temperature emits light radiation of that color.
For a correct color rendering of the photograph, it is necessary for the camera to read the hue of the light present in the environment and
correctly calibrate the colors of the scene according to this. To calibrate the colors, the best thing to do is to work on the rendering of
white, in fact, when white is properly balanced, all other colors will be as well. That said, it can be easily
understanding how important white balancing is.
On cameras, you can access the white balance function through a dedicated button or a menu item.
commonly indicated by the acronym [WB], which stands for white balance.

Learning this menu item, we find ourselves in front of a screen of this type:

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Let's analyze some of the symbols on the screen, keeping in mind that depending on the camera model they may be
different.
Automatic white balance. When we select this option, the camera operates in full
automatic. It is also the option on which the camera is set by default.

White balance for sunlight. Option to select when shooting in full sun with a clear sky.

White balance for shade. To be used when the sky is clear but our subject is in an area
of shadow.

White balance for overcast sky. Option to select if you are working with cloudy sky.

White balance for fluorescent lights, which are often mistakenly commonly referred to as 'at
neon." Since they are of different types, and emit light of different wavelengths, often under this option one
open an additional menu with other options to select the type of lighting that is closest to that of the light in the environment where
we operate.

White balance for incandescent light, the classic bulb, based on a tungsten filament, which
gives a yellow-toned light (which will no longer be used in the European Community from 2012).

White balance for flash light. This is the option to select if our main light source is the flash.

Manual white balance adjustment. To manually adjust the white balance.

How to achieve a proper white balance

It is usually better to leave the camera set to 'automatic white balance' [AWB]. Modern cameras, in fact,
They have a very efficient automatic white balance function. They rarely get the color temperature wrong.
Another fact must also be considered: it is very easy, once a certain white balance parameter has been set,
forgetting it and not thinking about it anymore. This could lead, if the tone of the light changes, for example if from a lit interior
from tungsten light, we go outside, or we switch to an interior with fluorescent light, finding ourselves with a balance of

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completely wrong. In other words, if we set a certain balance, we must then remember to change it
when the light source changes. My experience tells me that it is very easy to forget about it.
We must also consider another thing. If we have a DSLR, a mirrorless, or a high-end bridge camera, we save our
RAW format images, the ones in which the data produced by the camera sensor is saved without any processing.
the white balance can eventually be adjusted later, during the development phase. By saving in RAW, therefore,
It is certainly advisable to keep the balancing always on [AWB] and then intervene if necessary while we develop.
the image. This is one of the major advantages of saving files in RAW format.

If we prefer to save the files in Jpeg format, then we need to pay close attention to the white balance.
the correct one at the moment of shooting, because working afterwards is quite difficult and also leads to a deterioration of quality
file. My suggestion in that case is to take some test shots using automatic settings, and only if this doesn't work...
if it satisfies you, switch to manual adjustment. We need to pay particular attention when shooting indoors, because at
Nowadays, there are many different lamps available with varying light temperatures, and especially fluorescent lamps tend to emit
automatic balancing in difficulty.

For example, observe how the following photo, taken with light from a regular energy-saving lamp
energetic can give rise to different shades.

Automatic white balance.

Balancing for warm fluorescent light.

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Balancing for incandescent lamp.

Balancing for sunlight.

Manual balancing.

As you can see, the camera's automatic balancing has not managed to perfectly resolve the situation. The same
What can be said about the attempts to adjust the balance to the default values for fluorescent light, or for lamp with ...

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incandescence, not to mention the balancing for sunlight. The only way to obtain a chromatically correct photo is
it was to switch to manual balancing.

How to manually balance the white

To perform manual balancing, you need to select the corresponding option from the menu. Each camera has a different menu with
access buttons and graphics are different, so the indicated procedure is only an example. It is possible that with different cameras
This changes slightly. Therefore, it is necessary to refer to the camera manual.

First step: select the 'manual white balance' option. As you can see, it is also possible to enter directly
the temperature in Kelvin degrees of the light source.

At this point, it is necessary to frame something white, like a sheet of paper or a wall, and press the shutter button:

Second step: the camera asks us to take a photo of something white, obviously illuminated by the same.
Light source that will later illuminate the scene to be photographed. A white wall or a sheet of white paper is also fine.

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At this point, the camera will ask us to confirm that we want to adjust the white balance directly on the image.
registered. You will need to press an Ok button or something similar...

Third phase: photographed something white the result could be, as in this case, a different color. There is no
the problem is just to confirm to the camera that what we have photographed is white. With our okay, in fact,
The camera will render the image white, and from that moment it will be calibrated to white, obviously as long as we continue to use it.
the same source of light.

Having done this, it will also be possible to finely adjust the white balance to eliminate any remaining slight tones of other colors.
colors.

Fourth phase: if we are not satisfied with the obtained white, we can always proceed to a fine adjustment.
through the camera control buttons (refer to the manual).

It is still useful to remember once again that such adjustments are only necessary if shooting in Jpeg format. If shooting in
RAW format is superfluous because the white balance can be adjusted later, during the development stage.
of the image.

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Chapter 7 Composition Elements

The geometry of the frame

If you want to improve your way of taking photos, you need to adopt some elements of photographic composition.
Composing means arranging the main elements of the photo in a way that enhances them aesthetically.
Suppose that the subject of the photograph is a person. Usually, the general tendency is to place the person in the center.
of the photo. Well, this is rarely the best solution.
I will try to provide some basic elements of composition in photography while minimizing technical explanations.
rather speak the images.
One fundamental thing to learn is that in the area of photography there are zones that our brain considers more important.
of others. In photographic jargon, they are called 'strong points'. The observer's eye automatically tends to start the 'reading'
of photography starting from these strengths. We photographers, therefore, must ensure that the observer finds exactly there
something interesting.
But how do we identify these strengths?
A very simple empirical way is to apply the so-called 'rule of thirds'. The rule of thirds - which is a
simplification of the so-called golden ratio based on the Fibonacci sequence, which is discussed in the next paragraph consists of
in dividing the area of the frame using lines that divide the sides of the rectangle into three equal segments. The strong points are
they find at the intersection of the lines.

The rule of thirds consists of dividing the frame using lines that divide the sides into three equal parts.
of the rectangle. The strong points are located at the intersections of the lines.

In particular, for us Westerners who are used to reading from left to right and top to bottom, the strong point more
important is the one in the top left, followed by the one in the top right, the one in the bottom left, the one in the bottom right. What

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Does it happen? That the eye and the brain unconsciously focus on these strong points in search of important information that
allow us to decipher the image. The skilled photographer will then place the basic information, that is, the elements in those points.
of the image that wants to enhance.
Through those points also pass the diagonals of the frame. They are also fundamental elements for composition.

When arranging the elements of the photograph, one must also consider the diagonals.

Let's try to understand what everything we've discussed above means with some practical examples.
Take the following photo as an example:

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The fundamental elements of this photograph are arranged in a far from random manner.

If you look closely at the image, you realize that the fundamental elements of the photograph have been arranged in a way
anything but random.
To realize this, just look at the image with the overlay grid:

The image with the grid of strong points overlaid

What are the strengths of the image and where does it fall short?

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Here are the points we can highlight. Pay close attention to the point in the frame where they fall:
1) The bear's muzzle in the foreground, perfectly in focus, almost perfectly falls on the strong point positioned at the top.
right
On the strong point at the top left, the center of the bear that is leaving falls;
The bear's feet in the foreground rest on the line that divides the shot into thirds;
The bear's hind paw going away is at the center of the frame;
The face of the bear that is leaving is at the center of the small rectangle located at the top left.

Those identified are all important details of the scene, located at key points of the frame, precisely where the brain
the observer asks that there is something relevant.
To read this photograph from a compositional perspective, however, we can still make other considerations.

For example, observe how the position of the two bears relates to the diagonals.

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The position of the subjects in relation to the diagonals.

1) The bear's muzzle points towards the bottom left corner;
The triangular shape of the bear and the direction of its movement point towards the top left corner.

Naturally, these considerations are valid for every type of photography.

Here is an example of a landscape photo:

Let's overlay a grid:

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Here are highlighted some compositional adjustments made by the photographer.

One can observe how:
1) The horizon line should be positioned close to the line that defines the upper third of the frame;
2) The line of the mountain should be on the diagonal of the frame;
The boat, an important element of the image, is in the immediate vicinity of a point of interest.

Also observe this portrait photograph:

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Even in portraiture, it is essential to follow the rules of composition.

If we overlap the grid, we realize that the photographer did not place the elements randomly:

Note how the girl's left eye (the eyes are always fundamental elements in the portrait) is exactly placed on one
of strong points. The same can be said about the mouth. Also observe how the hair in front of the face flows in the direction of the
diagonal, and how on the line of the diagonal is also the right shoulder of the model. Always in the direction of the
diagonal, downward, points the subject's gaze.

To conclude, some considerations:

It is not necessary for the key elements of the image to fall exactly on the strong points: a reasonable alignment is sufficient.
approximation.

The rules of composition, like all rules, can be violated. Generally, violating the rules leads to disastrous effects.
In photography as in life, but other times, few times, knowing how to do it, by breaking the rules, extraordinary results are achieved.
In life as in photography. So my advice (regarding photography, not certainly life, which is none of my business)
it is about learning the rules, applying them until the automatisms are acquired, and then starting to look for paths
alternative.

Compact cameras, and today many DSLRs with live view also allow you to set a grid on the view monitor.
this grid is very useful for learning to apply the rules of composition.

The watchword is 'decentralize'. Rarely is a subject, placed at the center of the frame, highlighted. Naturally, like
As previously highlighted, sometimes a better result is achieved by violating a certain rule.
In taking the photograph below, for example, I assessed, rightly or wrongly, that placing the horizon line at
center, made the image more restful and balanced, in harmony with the feeling that the sight of that sunset stirred in me
on the sea with soft colors.

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Sometimes the rule of thirds can be broken: in this photograph the horizon line has been placed in the center of the frame.

The many cameras' settings allow you to select a grid that helps the photographer with composition.

The monitor of a camera with a grid that helps the photographer with composition.

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To learn to effectively use the rule of thirds, having a tripod can be very helpful, especially in landscape photography.
With the camera positioned on the tripod, in fact, there is a tendency to think more about the photo. It also proves to be very useful.
the live view of modern digital reflex cameras that allows you to set a grid that divides the frame into a grid of nine
rectangles that follow the rule of thirds.

The golden ratio and photography

The golden section, or golden ratio, has long captivated the imagination of artists and art history enthusiasts as it seems
to be the basis of the composition of many paintings, sculptures, and architectural works. Such recurrence would demonstrate, according to
many, a particular aesthetic value of the golden ratio: works created taking into account the golden ratio would appear more
beautiful and harmonious as the human brain would be naturally predisposed to find this particular pleasant
proportion.
Particularly interesting, then, is the fact that this proportion can be found in many elements of the world in nature.
mineral, vegetable and animal, from the shape of galaxies to that of the nautilus shell, from the arrangement of seeds of
sunflower, to the proportions of the human body... So much so that some see in the golden ratio a kind of "signature of God".

A sea snail, whose shell closely resembles the golden spiral in shape.

Naturally, many scholars warn that the alleged presence of the golden ratio in many works of art, in reality, when put to the test
facts, it would not be confirmed, as it is the result of approximations and measurements that start from points chosen arbitrarily by
supporters of this theory.
But what is, specifically, the golden ratio?
See the following figure:

The golden section, or a:c=b:a

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If one takes a segment (c) and divides it into two unequal lengths, (a) and (b), the golden section is obtained when the longer segment more
long, (a), is within the segment like the shortest part, (b), is to the longer one (a).

a:c=b:a
or, if you want
a:(a+b)=b:a

Golden ratio and Fibonacci series

The same ratio, expressed in numerical terms, is equal to 1.61803398874989484820... (being an irrational number it can
continue indefinitely).
Obviously, this means that:
c = a * 1.618033…
e
a = b * 1.618033…

The number 1.61803398874989484820... is also defined as the golden number and is denoted by φ.

The golden number can be obtained, through an increasingly precise approximation, by dividing two numbers by each other.
consecutive Fibonacci series.
As is well known, the Fibonacci sequence is that sequence of natural integers each of which is the result of the sum of
two previous:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, ...
Well, a particular property of them is that if we divide two successive numbers of the sequence, the higher the two numbers are, the more we
we approach the golden number with greater precision: 1.61803398874989484820...
For example:
144/89 = 1.61797752...
233/144 = 1.61805555…
377/233 = 1.61802575...
610/377 = 1.61803713…
987/610 = 1.61803278…
1597/987 = 1.61803444...

…
The mathematical properties of the golden number are remarkable and very interesting. For example, the square and the reciprocal of the
the golden number has the exact same decimal digits as the number itself.
So φ squared = 2.61803398... while 1/φ = 0.61803398...
Due to these particular mathematical properties and the fact that we find it in many elements of nature, according to many,
this number would represent the key to a mysterious and almost magical harmony.
There are various geometric shapes that can be obtained using the golden ratio. Here are some of the simplest, because they can
to have a certain significance in photographic composition.
Golden rectangle
Starting from a segment divided into two based on the golden ratio, it is possible to construct the golden rectangle simply.
drawing its minor side with a length equal to that of the major segment, as seen in the image below
reported:

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The golden rectangle.

If we draw a square based on the shorter side within the golden rectangle, we obtain a new rectangle, which is also
gold, as seen in this image:

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If we divide a golden rectangle by drawing a square on the shorter side (A), we obtain a new rectangle (B),
also golden.

Fibonacci spiral
If we continue this operation of dividing to obtain smaller golden rectangles, as shown in the image.
underlying

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Construction of increasingly smaller golden rectangles.

and then we join with quarter circles the angles of the squares adjacent to the golden rectangles, we obtain a Fibonacci spiral, which is
very close to the golden spiral, that is, the spiral with growth factor b equal to the golden number φ:

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Fibonacci spiral.

The golden ratio in photographic composition

But how does the golden ratio benefit the photographer? It can have some importance in composition, that is in
choice of the arrangement of the main elements within the photograph.
In fact, let's say it straight away, until recently the regular photographer could not refer to the golden section but had to
to settle for a simplification that is based on the rule of thirds. It consists of ideally dividing the frame.
in nine rectangles, using lines that divide the sides of the rectangle into three equal segments, and in arranging the strong points
of the image in the intersections of these.
In the images below, we compare a grid derived from the golden section with its simplification called
rule of thirds

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Grid based on the golden ratio.

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Grid based on the rule of thirds, which consists of dividing the frame using lines that split it exactly into
Three equal parts the sides of the rectangle. The strong points are located at the intersections of the lines.

The difficulty of applying the golden ratio to photography during the moment of capture was due to the fact that, up until recently, the majority
Some of the cameras were not equipped with sighted viewfinders to serve as a guide. Therefore, it was limited to arranging the strong points.
of the image on the third of the frame, calculated approximately, by eye, by the photographer who was framing. In reality for
some reflex and for almost all professional cameras with a view camera and medium format, were available as an option,
special showcases that divided the frame according to the rule of thirds or, less commonly, according to the golden section.
Nowadays, the live view of many cameras is equipped with guidelines designed according to the rule of thirds, and some even
according to the golden section. There is no doubt that in the future more and more cameras will offer this possibility, allowing
to visualize even the golden spiral in the viewfinder.
All this will be very useful for composition. Today it is already possible to download applications for smartphones that allow you to
see through, in the viewfinder, while using the camera, the guidelines for composing according to the rules of the section
golden.

An app that allows you to overlay the golden section guidelines onto your smartphone's camera. A great help.
for the composition.

The golden section in post production

Some photographers, to better care for the composition of their photographs, crop them in post-production to standardize.
to the golden section. Let's see how we can operate.
During the shooting phase, it is necessary to keep 'a bit wide', applying the rule of thirds by eye as usual. In post-production, you...
Then go to crop the image by operating as we illustrate to you now.
Let's start with a photograph where the subject, the bee-eater, is correctly off-center:

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The photo of a bee-eater where the subject is off-center.

With a photo editing program that allows the use of layers, we overlay a transparent gif onto our photograph.
grid based on the golden section or the Fibonacci spiral (there are many available on the Internet):

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The golden spiral overlaid on the photograph of the bee-eater.

As you can see, it really only takes a small adjustment to align the starting point of the golden spiral with the eye.
of the bird.
It is therefore sufficient to resize the spiral, being careful to maintain its proportions.

To achieve a composition based on the golden spiral, simply resize the spiral, locking its proportions, until it becomes
coincide the beginning with the subject's eye.

Now, if we crop our photograph, it will have a composition based exactly on the golden spiral or Fibonacci spiral, which
It starts right from the kingfisher's eye, nearly perfectly touches the tip of the bird's tail, and ends up in the corner.
top left of the photograph:

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The composition of the photograph is now based on the golden spiral.

Some photo editing programs have integrated guidelines related to the golden section, and even the golden spiral in their own
function 'cropping'. An example is Photoshop, which allows you to set guidelines based on the rule of thirds, on the section
golden, on the golden spiral and on the diagonals:

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When we crop a photo with Photoshop, we can select the guideline related to the golden spiral, as in this case.
(click on the photo to enlarge it).

The lines

In photographic composition, one of the most important elements to consider is lines. The human eye tends to
naturally drawn to geometric elements. The line represents one of the simplest elements and therefore has a stronger
attraction. In the things we observe and photograph, often the lines are well traced and defined (think of the elements
architectural, or to the simple line of the horizon), at other times they are only hinted at, barely suggested in the arrangement of the elements
In the case of the photo, it is often the skill of the photographer that fully enhances them through compositional choices.

The horizon line is perhaps the one that the photographer often has to contend with. Choosing where to position
The horizon has fundamental importance in photographic composition.

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When we photograph architectural elements, we naturally encounter clear lines to arrange in the frame.
(photo of Lorenzo Salinari).

Often, especially in the face of natural elements, the lines are only hinted at, created by the human mind that tends to unite.
the elements like in this case where the birds in flight are arranged in a diagonal line (see the image
next)

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The diagonal "line" formed by birds in flight.

When we take a photograph, the rectangle of the viewfinder represents the plane on which the lines will be drawn. The same can be applied.
say of the edges of the obtained image. For this reason, the aesthetic value of the lines will be determined primarily by their
relationship with the margins of the photograph, that is, of the plane that encompasses them. Given that photographs have a rectangular shape (or, at most,

square) the lines that take on a greater significance are those parallel to the two sides or to the diagonal of the photo. In other words, the
horizontal lines, vertical ones and diagonal ones (the latter especially if they start exactly from one of the four corners)
they are the ones that most attract the observer's mind.
The horizontal lines
Horizontal lines generally produce an impression of stillness and tranquility. This is because we instinctively seek a
horizontal support plane, a line that recalls the familiar one of the horizon. When, in a photo, we identify one or more
horizontal lines convey a sense of stability.
By observing the following photo, we can see that it develops along horizontal directions both in the artificial elements (house,
railway), as well as in natural ones (clouds). The result is a landscape where the feeling of calm and stability predominates, aided by
this also the cool colors, even if vibrant, dominant in the scene (green and blue).

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The composition in this photograph is based on elements that develop along horizontal lines (see the image that

as a result). The outcome is a sense of calm and tranquility.

The horizontal development of the elements in the photo.

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Naturally, since the horizontal lines are so important in the economy of composition (particularly if one of these is
the horizon line), one must carefully consider their placement within the photograph, perhaps letting oneself be guided
from the rule of thirds, as in this case:

The position of the horizon line, in particular, must be well taken care of. It is important that it is perfectly parallel to the edge.
horizontal of the photo and positioned in a strategic point of the image.

The vertical lines

In photographic composition, vertical lines generally make images more dynamic compared to those dominated by horizontal lines.
horizontal elements. This is because vertical lines are instinctively associated with falling due to gravity or flying.
Vertical lines are obviously present in human constructions, but they have a vertical extension comparable to a line.
also trees and the human figure. Generally, if the subject extends vertically, a vertical framing is preferred; if not
Another to fill the frame. Let's remember this when photographing a full-length person, or trees.

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Often when our subject extends vertically, a vertical shot allows us to better enhance it.

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The succession of parallel vertical lines in the photograph of these trees.

However, when vertical elements need to be related to each other, often a horizontal framing allows for
achieve better results, as shown in the following image:

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The electric line poles, with vertical extension, are related to each other by the horizontal framing.

Naturally, attention must also be paid to the arrangement of vertical elements within the photo. For example, one must...
should pay attention to making sure that the vertical elements are parallel to the vertical edge of the photograph. Also, let's remember that
Even with vertical elements, the rule of thirds works great from the perspective of image composition.

In this photograph, the elements are arranged according to the rule of thirds.

The diagonal lines

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Observe again the photograph of the light poles. If we draw a line connecting the tops of the poles to each other, and another line
what connects the bases, we realize that in photography it is actually possible to identify two oblique lines as well.

The “hidden” diagonal lines in our photograph.

These oblique lines, converging towards a single point (thus becoming diagonals), convey a feeling of
depth to the photo. The most basic case in which we can notice this phenomenon is when we photograph a road, like
we show in the following images.

The diagonal lines, converging towards a single point, give depth to the photo (see the image below).

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The converging diagonals.

Diagonal lines, in general, convey a stronger sense of dynamism compared to vertical lines. This is why
Often photographers prefer to tilt the camera when capturing a monument or a building, to make the lines oblique.
of the vertical lines, and therefore 'to move' the image a bit.

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Photo by Lorenzo Salinari.

The relationships between the lines in the composition of the image

Naturally, in a photograph there are generally no lines of just one type. In most cases, we will be dealing with lines.
and the vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines that must be harmonized in the best possible way by the photographer with their choices
Compositional. In fact, composing often means nothing more than relating lines to each other and to the edges of the photograph.
that we can identify or guess in the scene we are about to photograph.
Here are some examples:

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In this image, in addition to the horizon line, it is possible to identify many other directions, almost all oblique, that give a
sense of depth to the scene.

The lines identified in the previous photo.

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In this photograph, the succession of horizontal lines, clearly predominant in the scene, gives a sense of tranquility and
stability. The choice to place the vertical structure at the center of the frame contributes to the feeling of stability. If one
wished for greater dynamism, the vertical structure should have been moved to a decentralized point (photo by Lorenzo
Salinari).

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The diagonal lines of the road give depth to the scene.

In this photo, it is possible to 'guess' horizontal and diagonal directions even in the arrangement of the clouds.

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Few graphic elements, based on a horizontal line and two slightly oblique lines, as well as on the juxtaposition of colors.
delicate, characterize the composition of this photo.

By overlaying this image with the grid of division according to the rule of thirds, one can appreciate the way it has been
take care of the composition.

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How to photograph... elements of color theory

Few photographers reflect on how to use colors in photography. After all, unlike painters, who choose which colors
how to use and match them, photographers, especially those who dedicate themselves to nature and landscapes, find the colors already
They are packaged in the scene they intend to immortalize, and they must limit themselves to capturing them: isn't that so?

Nature is the photographer's color palette. In this photo, the dominant color is blue, with small splashes of yellow.
orange, red and green.

In reality, it's not quite like that. The landscape photographer often, even within certain limits, can decide which colors to include, and which
exclude from a scene, changing the framing, or it can simply capture the same landscape at a different moment
different from the day or the year. A seascape will have blue as the dominant color if taken during the day, violet or the
red-orange has picked up at sunset. A wheat field will be brown at the time of plowing, green while the wheat is growing.
crescendo, yellow when the harvest is almost ripe.
The photographer, therefore, should also know some elements of color theory, since the final result, the effect of
The perception of the observer depends to a good extent on the colors present in the image and their combination.

Primary colors, secondary colors, and complementary colors

Colors are divided into primary colors and secondary colors. The primary colors are blue, red, and yellow. These are pure colors that do not...
can be obtained by mixing other colors and that, when mixed together, allow for the creation of all others.

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The color wheel. The primary colors are blue, red, and yellow; the secondary colors are orange, green, and purple.

By mixing two primary colors we obtain secondary colors. For example, the combination of blue and red generates purple, the combination of red and
Yellow generates orange, the union of yellow and blue generates green. Purple, orange, and green are secondary colors. The color wheel
It shows the six colors of the spectrum. All other colors are nothing but variations of these shades.
The complementary colors are those that are found on opposite sides of the color wheel, so they are complementary to each other.
red-green pairs, blue-orange, purple-yellow. Each pair of complementary colors is therefore made up of a primary color and from
secondary color obtained by mixing the other two primary colors (for example, the complementary pair red-green consists of a
primary, red, and from a secondary obtained from the other two primary colors, green formed by yellow and blue). When one
When the two complementary colors are placed next to each other, the maximum possible contrast effect is achieved.

Yellow-purple complementary.

Red-green complementary.

Blue-orange complements.

.
.
.
Primary colors
Blue is the color of the clear sky. Perhaps for this reason, blue is almost universally associated with
sensations of tranquility, security, calm, and serenity. Think of the song "In the blue painted blue" or, more
prosaically, to the color of the insurance policy forms. Blue is often used, in art, as a color

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of the Virgin Mary's dress, to symbolize her serenity and purity (especially in the "annunciations"), often in
opposition to another garment of red color that alludes to the passion of Christ.

Beato Angelico, Annunciation. The Virgin's mantle is blue, a color that symbolizes purity and serenity, while the dress is
in red, a color that alludes to the future passion of Christ.

Blue is obviously very present in photographs, especially landscape ones, as it is the color of the sky and the sea. When the
blue is dominant in an image, the moods associated with this color, serenity and tranquility, are transmitted to the observer
of the photograph.

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In this photo, blue, in its various shades, is clearly the dominant color, to the point of making the image almost
monochromatic. Many observers will feel a sense of calm and serenity when viewing an image like this.

The yellow
Yellow is the brightest color. There are infinite shades of blue, from light to dark. But yellow, does not
as soon as it gets darker it transforms into something else: an orange, a yellow-green. Kandinsky, profound
A connoisseur of colors, he wrote that 'yellow has such a tendency towards lightness that there cannot be a very dark yellow.'
Knight – Alain Gheerbrant, Dictionary of Symbols, Rizzoli, 2001, volume I, p. 499.

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In nature, yellow is quite common, for example in flowers or in the plumage of birds.

Yellow is the color of light and, by extension, in art, of divinity. One can observe the Annunciation by Fra Angelico: the angels are yellow.
aureole of the Virgin and the angel, as well as the divine words spoken to Mary. The children choose yellow to draw the sun.
Gold is a shade of yellow, and therefore this color is associated with wealth and sovereignty. Yellow is the color of many flowers and
of the grain when it is ready for harvest, for this reason it is associated with spring and, by extension, with rebirth. It is a
color that evokes positive emotions. It is said that people with a strong personality choose yellow clothes and accessories,
They feel good about themselves, extroverted, self-confident. Yellow does not go unnoticed; in fact, it is, after red, one of the most chosen colors.
for sports cars and motorcycles.

For the same reason, many road signs that indicate the need to pay attention are yellow (think of the traffic light).
In photography, a particular shade of yellow, especially when associated with less vibrant colors (such as green or brown), will attract attention.

of the observer's eye.

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A cicada: many birds have a coloration that is at least partially yellow.

The red
Color of fire and blood, red represents love, vital energy, sexuality, passion. In the
purple hue, due to a millennia-old tradition, represents power.

Surely red is the color that has the strongest psychological power. It immediately attracts attention. It is no coincidence that the signals
Danger and prohibition road signs have this color. In a photograph, a small detail in red, even very small, captures
immediately the observer's eye. A factor to always keep in mind when including something of this color in
an image.

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In a photograph, if there is a detail of red color, it usually tends to catch the observer's eye.

Secondary colors

The green
Green is the color of vegetation and therefore one of the most common colors in landscape photography.
because it is ubiquitous in nature, it has become its symbol. In temperate climates, green is associated with melting.
of the snow and the return of spring, in Mediterranean climates to the lush nature and the rainy seasons, in arid countries to the oases and
in the presence of water: always therefore to a vital principle and to a moment of explosion of life. For this reason perhaps green is
universally the color of harmony, of life flowing smoothly, of tranquility and security, including economic security (it
think about money), of the "go ahead" (as in the case of the traffic light).

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A nearly monochromatic photo on green.

For this reason, in photography, especially landscape photography, green conveys feelings of calm and peace, even though generally
it is advisable to break the green by including details of other colors - perhaps vibrant ones - or by playing with graphics and
variations in tone, in order to avoid excessive monotony. Often, photographers assign green the sole role of 'background'
compared to the real subject of the photo, as in the photo of the blue tit above. Green is indeed an ideal color for being a background, in
considered by almost everyone as pleasant and not too intrusive.

Green often dominates landscapes, but it's better to break the monotony by playing with graphics and pairing it with other colors:
In this photo, the green in the foreground contrasts with the brown (a non-intrusive color) in the background and the graphic design of the curves.
undulations of the terrain.

However, it should be considered that the perception of green varies quite a bit depending on the shade. A bright green evokes sensations
positive, while a pale green is associated with illness, decomposition, and death.

The orange
Orange is made up of yellow and red and comes in a wide range of intermediate shades.
two primary elements that compose it.

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The orange hue of a photo taken at sunset.

Less vibrant than red, it is nevertheless a color that does not go unnoticed: think of the robes of Buddhist monks.
Usually, orange conveys positive feelings and is associated with energy, joy, and happiness. An intermediate color in all aspects.
Aspects, for it many of the considerations made for yellow and red, of which it is a descendant, apply. In nature, it is the color of some flowers and
fruits, of the plumage, of the beak and of the legs of different birds, and of many types of leaves in autumn. Therefore, often in photography of
An autumn forest, orange is perceived as the dominant color.

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Orange, in landscape photography, is the main color of autumn.

Photographically speaking, orange, unless you do a macro of a flower or an autumn leaf, will hardly be
the main color of a photograph, but it should be noted that it is a rather strong color: although it is not as striking as red, a
The particular orange color always captures the attention of the observer.

The orange tends to capture the observer's attention, as in the case of the robin in this photo.

The purple
Purple is a color that is rarely found in nature, except for some flowers and the coloration taken on for a few minutes.
from twilight.

“Made up of equal parts of red and blue, purple is the color of temperance, of clarity and reflective action,
balance between earth and sky, the senses and the spirit, passion and intelligence, love and wisdom." (Jean Chevalier – Alain
Gheerbrant, Dictionary of Symbols, Rizzoli, 2001, volume II, p. 560). In symbolism, purple is associated with solemnity, mysticism,
modesty, shyness, twilight, death understood as a passage to another life.
In general, purple is considered a pleasant and restful color. However, it is necessary to take into account the fact that, if in the brighter shades
is associated with cheerfulness, in darker shades, with a strong presence of blue, it can be perceived by some as a very
sad, disturbing and depressing. One thinks of the use of purple that Edvard Munch makes in the famous 'Evening on Karl Johan Street', not to mention
talk about "The Scream".

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Edvard Munch, Evening on Karl Johann Street. The walk at twilight, a typical bourgeois habit, is transformed into a
procession of ghosts. The faces resemble yellowish skulls. The horror of the scene, the sense of alienation of the solitary figure,
identified with the painter himself, are highlighted by the purple background. Note the contrast between the windows, illuminated in yellow and the
violet of the atmosphere. Violet and yellow are two complementary colors.

In photography, purple is rarely the predominant color of an image, unless, of course, one is photographing flowers of this color.
color, or do not take pictures at dusk.

In landscape photography, the color purple takes center stage for a few minutes at dusk.

Warm colors and cool colors

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The colors are also divided, based on the sensations they transmit, into warm and cool. The warm colors are considered to be red and yellow.
and orange. The colors considered cold are blue, green, and violet.

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