Topography

Summary: In order to achieve a minimum lexicon and have a common language of topography,
It is necessary to start from the basic definitions, some classifications and divisions. This chapter
It will have an introductory character and will serve as a tactic to break the ice before going into
matter.

Publication sent by Pablo Javier Barrera

GENERALITIES OF TOPOGRAPHY

1.1. DEFINITIONS, DIVISIONS AND

APPLICATIONS OF TOPOGRAPHY

1.1.1. Geodesy
1.1.2. Photogrammetry
1.1.3. The Flat Topography

1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF TOPOGRAPHY

PLAN

1.2.1. Basic division for the study of

flat topography
1.2.2. Operations or activities of
topographic work
1.2.3. Hypothesis on which it is based
flat topography.

1.3. TYPES OF PLANE TOPOGRAPHY SURVEYS

1.3.1. General type surveys (lots and parcels)

1.3.2. Longitudinal survey or communication routes
1.3.3. Mine lifts
1.3.4. Hydrographic Surveys
1.3.5. Cadastral and Urban Surveys

1.4. ERRORS IN TOPOGRAPHICAL MEASUREMENTS

1.4.1. Systematic or cumulative errors.

1.4.2. Accidental, random, or compensatory errors.

1.5. CLASSES AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS IN TOPOGRAPHY

1.5.1. Linear units.

1.5.2. Area units.
1.5.3. Units of volume.

1.6. SCALES

1.6.1. Scaling methods.

1.6.2. Conversion of areas by representative fractions.
 1.7. DEFINITION OF SOME OTHER TERMS

1.7.1. Degree of accuracy.

1.7.2. Field checks.
1.7.3. Field record notes and types of portfolios.
1.7.4. Level surface.
1.7.5. Plans, lines, and horizontal angles.
1.7.6. Plans, lines and vertical angles (Zenith, elevation, depression).
1.7.7. Height, level or elevation of a point.
1.7.8. Contour lines.
1.7.9 Slope of a line.
1.7.10. Vertices, stations, and stakes.
1.7.11. References of a topographic point

1.8. ALIGNMENT DIRECTION

1.8.1. Types of reference meridians

1.8.2. Concepts of azimuth and heading.
1.8.3. Types of horizontal angles measured at the vertices of polygons
1.8.4. Direction of the alignments in a polygon based on the measured angles.

1.9. RELATIVE POSITION OF POINTS ON THE GROUND

1. GENERALITIES OF TOPOGRAPHY

In order to achieve a minimum lexicon and have a common language of topography, it is

It is necessary to start from the basic definitions, some classifications, and divisions. This chapter
it will have an introductory character and will serve as a tactic to break the ice before entering into
subject. The aim is to provide a global view of the subject to familiarize the student with the
foundations of this discipline of engineering and at the same time learn some elements
minimum conceptual tools that facilitate the understanding and assimilation of the following topics. The
Reading this chapter will initially leave some concerns and doubts, possibly some false ones.
interpretation, but it is expected that once the course is finished and upon rereading this chapter, you ...
will have a better understanding, association, and assimilation of all the topics presented.

1.1. DEFINITIONS, DIVISIONS AND APPLICATIONS OF TOPOGRAPHY

1.1.1. Geodesy
1.1.2. Photogrammetry
1.1.3. The Flat Topography

1.1. DEFINITIONS, DIVISIONS, AND APPLICATIONS OF TOPOGRAPHY

Topography is a science that studies the set of procedures to determine the

relative positions of points on the surface of the earth and beneath it, through the
combination of measurements according to the three elements of space: distance, elevation, and direction.
The topography explains the procedures and operations of fieldwork, the methods of
calculation or data processing and the representation of the terrain on a map or topographic drawing to
scale. The set of operations necessary to determine the positions of points in the
surface of the earth, both in plan and in height, the corresponding calculations and the
representation on a plane (fieldwork + office work) is what is commonly called
Topographic Survey The topography as a science that is responsible for measurements of the
The surface of the earth is divided into three main branches which are geodesy, photogrammetry and
flat topography.
 1.1.1. Geodesy

Geodesy deals with the measurements of large areas of land, such as for
to create the geographical map of a country, to establish borders and internal limits, for the
determination of navigation lines in rivers and lakes, etc. These surveys take into account
the true shape of the Earth and requires great precision. When the area in question is not
too extensive, the required precision can be obtained by considering the earth as a
perfect sphere, but if such a surface is very large it must adopt the true shape
ellipsoidal of the earth's surface. The elevations of large cities are made under the
assuming that the earth is perfectly spherical. This type of uplift is categorized
as high precision and includes the establishment of primary control points or points
geodesic points, which are properly materialized points on the surface of the earth, that is,
with known positions and elevations, which are of great importance and significance due to
to establish reliable support and reference points or networks for all other liftings of
lower accuracy. The geodetically fixed points (control survey), such as for example
The triangulation vertices constitute a network to which any other can refer.
lifting without fear of any error in horizontal or vertical distances or in direction, derived
from the difference between the reference surface and the true surface of the earth.

1.1.2. Photogrammetry

Photogrammetry is the discipline that uses photographs to obtain land maps.

Photogrammetric surveys involve obtaining accurate data and measurements.
from photographs of the terrain taken with special cameras or other sensor instruments, already
sea from airplanes (aerial photogrammetry) or from elevated points of land (photogrammetry)
terrestrial) and that has application in topographic work. The principles of perspective are used
for the projection onto scale drawings, of the details that appear in the photographs. The
photogrammetric work should be based on visible points and located by methods of
topographic or geodetic triangulation that serves as control for both planimetric and altimetric purposes.
As a derivation of photogrammetry, there is photo-interpretation which is used for analysis.
qualitative of the land. Aerial photogrammetry is based on photographs taken from airplanes
equipped for work, in combination with analytical aerotriangulation techniques for
establish control positions for obtaining real projections of the terrain and for making
checks with a lower precision than that obtained in the primary control networks
geodesic. It has the advantages of the speed with which the work is done, the profusion of details
and its use in places that are difficult or impossible to access from the actual terrain. This discipline is
It is used for both military purposes and for general topographic surveys.
preliminary project of roads, canals and cadastral agricultural uses, traffic studies, ports,
urbanism, etc. Terrestrial photogrammetry makes surveys based on photographs taken
from stations located on the ground, serves as an excellent auxiliary means for the
classic topographic surveys, especially in the drawing of small-scale plans of
mountainous areas and for the reporting of traffic accidents. The work consists of
essence in taking photographs from two or more suitable locations and using them later to
obtain the details of the photographed land, both in plan and in elevation or profile. The
Current operations in a photogrammetric survey are generally the following:
Studies on available plans of the region to plan the work, determine the lines of
flight, depending on the camera's focal length, the scale of the photograph, the overlap or
overlaps of the photographs, both longitudinal and transverse, the size of the negatives, the
flight altitude, etc. · Recognition of the terrain to be photographed. · Setting of control points
basic terrestrial, both planimetric and altimetric, to achieve the correct orientation and
localization of the points on the photograph. · Taking, development, classification, and numbering of the
photographs. · Assembly of mosaics or sequential arrangement of the photographs together in such
manner that represent the desired area. · Preparation of plans obtained by the system of
photogrammetric restitution and its applications for engineering projects. Currently, there have been
developed other types of photogrammetry such as spatial or satellite, inertial and sensors
remote ones, which have specific applications in military strategy and route control
long-distance transportation. Satellite uplinks include the determination of the
Site positioning on the ground using satellite imagery for measurement and mapping of
large areas on the earth.

1.1.3. The Flat Topography

The flat topographic survey has the same purpose as geodetic surveys, but
differs in terms of magnitude and precision and consequently in the methods employed. This
the area is responsible for the measurement of land and lots or parcels of small areas, projected
on a horizontal plane, ignoring the effects of the Earth's curvature. Most of the
surveys in engineering projects are of this kind, as the errors made by not
taking into account the curvature of the Earth is negligible and the level of precision obtained remains
within the permissible margins from a practical point of view. The justifications for not
taking into account the curvature of the Earth can be based on the following data, which
they can demonstrate through the application of principles of geometry and spherical trigonometry: The
The length of an arc of 18 km over the surface of the Earth is only 15 mm greater than the
chord subtended by it and the difference between the sum of the angles of a plane triangle
triangle of 200 Km2 (20,000 hectares) and the angles of a spherical triangle
corresponding, is just one second of arc. From the above, it is deduced that it only must
take into account the true shape of the earth when the uplift refers to large
surfaces and their execution require high precision. When it comes to determining heights, even in the
cases where high precision is not required, the curvature of the Earth cannot be disregarded. Let us suppose
a tangent plane to the mean sea level surface at a given point; the vertical distance
between that plane and the mean sea level, at a distance of 16 km measured from the point of
The tangent is 20 meters and at a distance of 160 km, the distance is two kilometers. Without
embargo, leveling work does not require any additional work to refer to the heights
measures to said spherical surface, due to the leveling of consecutive points
it is normally done at short distances and each visual line remains parallel to the surface
mean of the earth.

1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANE TOPOGRAPHY

1.2.1. Basic division for the study of flat topography

1.2.2. Operations or activities of the topographic work
1.2.3. Hypotheses on which flat topology is based

1.2. FUNDAMENTALS OF PLANE TOPOGRAPHY

Due to the great technological and scientific advances in the three branches of surveying, each
one of them has been formed into well-defined areas of knowledge, although
interrelated and complementary. Nowadays there are the professions of survey engineer,
geodesic engineer and photogrammetrist.

The focus of these class guides is oriented towards flat topography, since most of it
The topography surveys aim to calculate the surface or areas,
volumes, distances, directions and the representation of the measurements taken in the field
through the corresponding topographic maps. These maps are used as a basis for the
majority of engineering jobs and projects related to planning and construction of
civil works. For example, topographical surveys are required before, during, and after
the planning and construction of roads, railways, mass transportation systems, buildings,
bridges, tunnels, canals, irrigation works, dams, drainage systems, subdivision or
division of urban and rural land (partitions), water supply systems
drinking water (aqueducts), sewage disposal (sewers), pipelines, gas pipelines
transmission lines, control of aerial photography, determination of land boundaries
 private and public property (boundaries and party walls) and many other related activities
geology, landscape architecture, archaeology, etc.

[Link] division for the study of flat topography

For the study of flat topography, it is divided into two main areas, which are Altimetry and
Planimetry.

Planometry or horizontal control

The planimetry only takes into account the projection of the land onto an imaginary horizontal plane.
(view in plan) which is supposed to be the average surface of the earth; this projection is
it is called productive base and is what is considered when measuring horizontal distances and
calculate the area of a land. Here the relative differences in elevations are not of interest between
the different points of the land. The location of the different points on the surface of the
land is made through the measurement of angles and distances from points and lines of
projected references on a horizontal plane. The set of lines that connect the points
observed is called Base Polygon and is the one that makes up the fundamental network or skeleton of the
surveying, from which the position of all details or accidents is referenced
natural and/or artificial interests. The base polygon can be open or closed depending on the
requirements for the topographic survey. As a result of the planimetric work,
it obtains a horizontal scheme.

Altimetry or vertical control

The altimetry is responsible for measuring the differences in level or elevation between the
different points of the terrain, which represent the vertical distances measured from
a horizontal reference plane. The determination of heights or vertical distances also
it can be done based on the measurements of the slopes or degree of inclination of the land and
the inclined distance between each two points. As a result, the vertical scheme is obtained.

Simultaneous planimetry and altimetry

The combination of the two areas of plane topography allows for the preparation or creation of a
"topographic plan" properly said, where both the plan position and the
elevation of each of the different points of the terrain. The elevation or altitude of the different
land points are represented by contour lines, which are hand-drawn lines
elevation in the floor plan based on the horizontal scheme that connects points with the same
Height. The contour lines are used to reproduce in the drawing the topographical configuration or relief.
of the land.

1.2.2. Operations or activities of the surveying work

The activities or operations necessary to carry out a topographic survey,

They are essentially divided into two types of work: fieldwork and office work.

Field work and operations.

These consist of the tasks carried out directly on the ground such as:

Decision making for the selection of the surveying method, the instruments and
necessary equipment, the checking and correction of the same, the required accuracy
for the lift.
 Determination of the best location of the vertices of a base or reference polygon
(whether open, closed, or branched) that will form the skeleton or structure of
uplift

Scheduling of work and the taking or collection of necessary data, carrying out of
measurements (distances, heights, directions) and their corresponding recording in notebooks
suitable, called 'topography portfolios', whether manually or electronically.

Placement and marking of reference landmarks for delineating, delimiting, marking

boundaries, set points, guide construction work and control measurements.

Measurement of horizontal and/or vertical distances between points or objects or details of

land, either directly or indirectly.

Measurement of horizontal angles between alignments (lines on the ground).

Determination of the direction of an alignment based on a line taken as

reference, called landline or meridian.

Measurement of vertical angles between two points on the ground located on the same plane
vertical.

Location or re-establishment of points or objects on the ground based on measurements

angles and previously known distances.

Office or cabinet work and operations.

As a complement to field operations and based on the measured and recorded data
adequately, in office operations, the following is generally calculated
parameters:

Cartesian coordinates of all points.

Distance between points.

Angles between two alignments.

Direction of an alignment based on a line taken as reference.

Areas of lots, parcels, strips, areas of cross sections.

Cubications or determination of land volumes.

Relative heights of points.

Finally, a plan or scale map must be drawn up (graphical representation or

drawing) of the points and objects and details raised in the field. The plans can be
plant representations of relief, longitudinal profiles of lines, sections
transversals, cuts, filling, etc.

[Link] on which flat topography is based.

As explained, flat topography operates over relatively small portions of the earth, and
Use a flat and horizontal surface as a reference plane, without considering the true one.
its elliptical shape, that is, the curvature of the Earth is disregarded. Consequently, the principles
Basics of plane topography are based on the following hypotheses:

The line that connects two points on the surface of the earth is a straight line and not a
curved line

The directions of the plumb line at any two different points are parallel.
reality is directed towards the center of the earth

The imaginary reference surface with respect to which the heights are measured is a
flat and not curved surface.

The angle formed by the intersection of two lines on the Earth's surface is a
plane and non-spherical angle.

3. TYPES OF FLAT TOPOGRAPHY SURVEYS

1.3.1. General type surveys (lots and parcels)

1.3.2. Longitudinal survey or communication routes
1.3.3. Mine Surveys
1.3.4. Hydrographic surveys
1.3.5. Cadastral and urban surveys

[Link] of Flat Topographical Surveys

According to the purpose of topographic work, there are several types of surveys that
although they apply the same principles, each of them has specific procedures for
facilitate compliance with its own demands and requirements. Among the most important assessments
commonly used are the following:

[Link] type elevations (lots and parcels)

These surveys aim to mark or locate boundaries, dividing lines, or limits of

properties, measure and divide surfaces, locate lands in general plans linking with
previous surveys or projecting works and constructions. The main operations are:

Definition of itinerary and measurement of polygons by the existing boundaries to determine its
length and orientation or direction.

Reassessment of disappeared boundaries based on previous data on length and

guidance using all possible and available information.

Division of properties into plots of specified form and characteristics, an operation that
known by the name of partitions.

Marking of boundaries to ensure their position and permanence.

Reference of markers, positioned in relation to permanent signals on the ground.

 Calculation of areas, distances, and directions, which is essentially the outcome of the work
of surveying.

Graphical representation of the survey through the creation or drawing of plans.

Support for the minutes of the boundaries established.

[Link] survey or communication routes

They are the surveys used to study and construct transportation or communication routes.
such as roads, railways, canals, transmission lines, aqueducts, etc. The operations
the following are:

Topographic survey of the area where the work will be located

plant as in elevation (simultaneous planimetry and altimetry).

Plan design of the axis of the track according to the given geometric design specifications
for the type of work.

Location of the axis of the work designed by placing stakes at short intervals
intervals from one to another, generally at fixed distances of 5, 10 or 20 meters.

Leveling of the staked or abscissa axis, through leveling routes to determine

the terrain profile along the designed and located axis.

Drawing of the profile and annotation of the longitudinal slopes

Determination of sections or cross profiles of the work and the location of the points
of the respective chamfers.

Calculation of volumes (cubing) and scheduling of earthworks or

earth movement (mass diagrams), for the optimization of cuts and fills
up to reaching the subgrade line of the track.

Layout and location of the works in relation to the axis, such as bridges, drains, culverts,
drains, filters, retaining walls, etc.

Location and marking of rights-of-way or legal passage areas along the

axis of the work.

[Link] lifts

These surveys aim to establish and control the position of underground works.
required for the exploitation of mineral material mines and relate them to the works
superficial. The operations correspond to the following:

Determination on the ground surface of the legal boundaries of the concession and
the reestablishment of them.

Complete topographic survey of the land occupied by the concession and

preparation of the corresponding topographic plan or drawing.
 Location on the surface of wells, excavations, drillings for the
explorations, the railways, the aggregate and mineral crushing plants and
other characteristic details of these exploitations.

Underground surveys necessary for locating all galleries or tunnels

from the same.

Drawing of the plans of the component parts of the operation, where the details are shown.
galleries, both in longitudinal and transverse section.

Drawing of the geological map, indicating the rock formations and geological features.
geological.

Cubing of lands and minerals extracted from the excavation in the mine.

[Link] surveys

These surveys refer to the necessary works for obtaining the plans of
bodies of water, coastal or shoreline lines, relief of lake and river beds, whether for purposes
navigation, for reservoirs, intake and water conduction, quantification of water resources,
etc. The general operations are as follows:

Topographic survey of the shores that border bodies or flows of water.

Bathymetry using echo sounding to determine water depth and the

nature of the fund.

Location on the floor of the bathymetric survey points through observations of

angles and distances.

Drawing of the corresponding plan, showing the banks, the dams, the
depths and all the details deemed necessary.

Observation of tides or changes in water levels in lakes and rivers.

Measurement of the intensity of currents or flow rate measurements or discharges (volume of

water that passes through a specific point of the current per unit of time.

1.3.5. Cadastral and urban surveys

They are the surveys that are carried out in cities, urban areas, and municipalities to establish boundaries or
to study urban areas with the aim of having the plan that will serve as the basis for planning,
studies and designs for widenings, extensions, renovations, and urban road projects and
public services, (water supply networks, sewage, phones, electricity, etc.).

A population plan is a survey where the measurements of the blocks are taken,
road networks, clearly identifying public areas (roads, parks, reserve zones, etc.) of
the private areas (buildings and plots), taking as many details as possible from both the
horizontal and vertical configuration of the land. These plans are very useful especially
for projects and improvements and renovations in large cities. This work must be done with
extreme precision and is based on points of known position, previously fixed with
geodetic procedures that are taken as permanent reference signals. Likewise
 the network of reference points must be complemented by creating new positioning points
known, both in plan according to its coordinates, and in elevation, altitude or level.

The cadastral surveys include the necessary work to create plans of

properties and define the boundaries and areas of rural estates, crops, buildings, thus
like all types of properties with covered and open spaces, mainly for tax purposes,
especially for the determination of appraisals and for the collection of property tax.

The operations that are part of this work are the following:

Establishment of a network of support points, both in planimetry and altimetry.

Filling this grid with as many points as necessary to be able to draw a

detailed plan.

Referencing a certain number of special points, such as street corners, with

suitable brands referring to a unique system of rectangular coordinates.

Preparation of a detailed map of the population with the location and dimensions of
each house.

Preparation of a mural map or plan.

Drawing of one or several plans where the distribution network can be appreciated.
different services that run underground (pipes, sewers, telephone cables,
etc.).

1.4. ERRORS IN TOPOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS

1.4.1. Systematic or Cumulative Errors

1.4.2. Accidental, random or compensatory errors

1.4. Errors in Topographic Measurements

All operations in surveying are subject to the imperfections inherent in the instruments.
devices or elements, to the inherent capacity of their operators and to the
weather conditions; therefore, no measurement in topography is exact in the sense of
word. One should not confuse mistakes with errors. While mistakes always
they are present in every measurement due to the mentioned limitations, the mistakes are faults
grave errors caused by carelessness, distraction, fatigue, or lack of knowledge. Making mistakes
It is human, but in topography it should be minimized or eliminated, as this implies repetition.
from fieldwork, which increases time and costs, affecting efficiency and the
economy.

It is necessary to know the types and magnitude of possible errors and how they propagate.
to seek to reduce them to a reasonable level that does not have disastrous incidents from the point of view of
practical view. Errors must remain below the permissible, acceptable, or
tolerable to ensure the results which must meet a certain degree of
specified precision. The error is the discrepancy between the field measurement obtained and the value
Real magnitude. The causes of the errors can be of three types:
 Instrumentals: due to the imperfection in the construction of the devices or elements of
measure, such as the approximation of horizontal or vertical circle divisions, drag
of graduations of a transit or theodolite, etc.

Personnel: due to limitations of observers or operators, such as deficiency

visual, poor appreciation of fractions or interpolation of measurements, etc.

Natural: due to the prevailing environmental conditions during the measurements such as the
atmospheric refraction phenomenon, the wind, the temperature, gravity, declination
magnetic, etc.

When calculations are made from measurements taken in the field, which already have errors,
the propagation of those errors is presented, which can be magnified and lead to results
unpleasant or unexpected. For the study of errors, they are divided into two types: systematic
and accidental.

In order to achieve a minimum lexicon and have a common language of topography, it is

It is necessary to start from the basic definitions, some classifications and divisions. This chapter
It will have an introductory character and serve as a tactic to break the ice before entering into
subject. The aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of the subject to familiarize the student with the
fundamentals of this engineering discipline and at the same time learn some elements
minimum conceptual elements that facilitate the understanding and assimilation of the following topics. The
Reading this chapter will initially raise some concerns and doubts, possibly some false ones.
interpretation, but it is expected that once the course is finished and upon rereading this chapter, one
will have a better understanding, association, and assimilation of all the topics presented.

Systematic or Cumulative Errors

They are the ones who for fixed working conditions in the field are constant and therefore are
cumulative, such as measuring angles with poorly calibrated theodolites, when there is
dragging of graduations. In the measurement of distances and levels with poorly graduated tape,
inclined belts, alignment errors, temperature tension errors in the measurements with
love, etc. Systematic errors can be corrected if the cause and the way to do so are known.
quantify it through the application of physical laws.

1.4.2. Accidental, random or compensatory errors

They are the ones committed indifferently in one direction or another, they are outside the control of
observer, meaning that the measurements can be higher or lower than the actual ones. There is
equal probability that the errors are by excess or by default (positive or negative). Such
errors may occur in the following cases: appreciation of fractions in readings
angular measurements in calibrations of nonius or verniers, visually misaligned from the signal due to
oscillations of the plumb line, interpolation in distance measurement, placement of
marks on the ground, etc.

Many of these errors are eliminated because they are compensated for, reduced with greater care in
the measures and increasing the number of repetitions of the same measure. The random errors
there are still left after making the correction of the systematic errors.

1.5. CLASSES AND UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS IN TOPOGRAPHY

1.5.1. Linear Units

1.5.2. Area Units
 1.5.3. Units of Volume
1.5.4. Angular Units

[Link] and Units of Measurements in Surveying

Horizontal or inclined distances are measured directly with steel tapes, or with
indirect way with electronic distance meters or EDM (Electronic Distance Meter).
Due to the widespread use of these latter devices, by virtue of their accuracy and speed, the tapes
they are used less and less and only for very short distances. There are also indirect methods and
fast for measuring these distances, known as tachymetric or stadimetric.

For the measurement of elevations, leveling instruments are used, which allow determining the
height differences between consecutive points. The height difference between two points of
Land can also be obtained by measuring the inclined distance and the slope.
among them, and the application of elementary principles of trigonometry.

The measurement of horizontal and vertical angles is done using transits or theodolites, which enable
the reading of angles with high precision and very small fractions of a degree.

The applications of surveying include the measurement or determination of lengths, elevations,

areas, volumes and angles, which require the use of a system of units
consistent.

[Link] Units

Linear units are used for measuring lengths and elevations (distances
horizontal or inclined and vertical distances) use the metric system known as the
international system of units or simply SI, which is based on the decimal system
(multiples of 10) and the base unit is the meter.

The meter was originally defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the North Pole.
Ecuador to the North Pole or to the South Pole, which is a rather impractical measure for the
users. Subsequently, steel bars with markings that defined the length were used.
equivalent to a meter. The most recent standard or prototype meter is the distance between two marks.
in a bar of 90% platinum and 10% iridium, which is more stable than the steel bar, but
even so, this bar is still subject to changes or variations in length over time. In
1.960 when it was discovered that the spectroscopic wavelength of certain elements
gases was exceptionally stable, the meter was redefined as the equivalent length to
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the red-orange portion of the spectrum produced by light of the
Krypton 86, a rare atmospheric gas. In 1983, the General Confederation of Weights and Measures
defined the meter as the length of a beam of light that travels in a vacuum in a time of
1/299,792,458 seconds.

[Link] Units

Area units are used to measure surfaces and are expressed in square meters (m2Sin
embargo, in our environment, in the surveying measures for the areas of lots and parcels,
hectare (ha) and fanega (fan) are commonly used. For large areas, the
square kilometer (km)2).

The hectare is equivalent to a square of 100 meters per side or 10,000 m.2Like a kilometer
a square is equivalent to a square with a side of 1000 meters, it follows that one square kilometer
equivalent to 100 hectares. A fanega is equivalent to a square of 80 meters per side, that is 6,400.
m2.
 1.5.3. Volume Units

The unit of volume is the cubic meter (m3Volumes are used for quantification of
the earthworks on the excavations required for the construction of
engineering projects or works. Likewise, the production of the equipment that executes the
earth movements or transport the excavated material are normally expressed in m3/Hour,
Although in the performance manuals of American earthmoving equipment, the
volumes come in cubic yards, the equivalence can easily be made using the factor
of respective conversion (1 cubic yard = 0.7646 m3). For flow measurements in small
Cubic meters are commonly used as a unit of volume, the liter or cubic decimeter. One cubic meter
it is equivalent to one thousand liters.

1.5.4. Angular Units

The units for angular measurements, both horizontal and vertical, are based on the
sexagesimal or centesimal systems. Angular measurements in the sexagesimal system
correspond to the divisions of a circle of 360 degrees and a quarter of a circle or quadrant
is equivalent to 90 degrees. These units are called sexagesimal degrees. In turn, each degree is
divide into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds, that is, one degree has 3600 seconds,
for example, an angle of 65° 45' 36''. The sexagesimal system uses the same units as
they use to express time in terms of hours, minutes, and seconds.

The centesimal system is an application of the decimal system. Here the circle has been divided into 400.
units, in such a way that a quarter of a circle or quadrant is equivalent to 100 units, these
units are called grads, gones, or simply centesimal degrees, which in turn are
subdivided centesimally. For example: 45.2356 degrees or gons. One degree or gon is exactly
0.9 sexagesimal degrees, therefore the conversion factor is 0.9 °Sexagesimal/°Centesimal.

1.6. SCALES

1.6.1. Methods of Giving Scale

1.6.2. Conversion of Areas by Representative Fractions

[Link]

To draw the results of any topographic survey on a map, it is necessary

use the concept of scale, which represents the relationship between the number of units of
length in the plane and the number of units of length on the ground. To express the value of the
The scale of a plan or drawing can be expressed in words, graphically, or as fractions.
representative. The scale can be either enlargement or reduction. In topography, it is usually
They use reduction scales, because the dimensions measured in the surveys are
much larger than the size of the paper where the measured object will be drawn, but they have the
inconvenient that the details cannot be represented. In measurements of tiny objects, if
magnification or enlargement scales are used, they are very detailed but cannot be
represent many objects in the same plane. Large scales are used by architects
for the representation of details such as doors, windows, and special construction details.

[Link] of Scaling

In words

The scale in words is expressed by relating the number of units in the plane or drawing.
(generally one unit) regarding the number of units it represents on the ground. By
example: one centimeter on the map equals 10 kilometers on the ground, which indicates that it is a
small scale, due to the significant reduction in dimensions. Another scale may be for
an example that 1 cm on the map equals half a meter in the field, which represents a scale
big.

On a graphic scale

It is represented by a line or bar drawn in the same plane of the elevation.

topographic, with divisions that represent the relationship of units on the plane to units in
the ground. It can be open or full. Normally, the first division of the graphic scale has
smaller or secondary subdivisions and the rest of the divisions are called divisions
Primary. Every plan must include a graphic scale, as any reduction or enlargement is made.
From the drawing, the graphic scale will proportionally make it easier to measure at scale between two
any points in the reduced or enlarged plane

For a representative fraction

It is the method commonly used to indicate the scale in numerical form. The fraction has
for numerator the number of units in the plane which is generally always one (1) and by
denominator the number of equivalent units on the ground. Example: The scale 1/100 or 1:100.
This scale means that one (1) centimeter on the map represents 100 centimeters in the field, or that
One (1) inch on the plan equals 100 inches on the ground. How is the scale deduced?
expressed as a representative fraction is dimensionless, or in other words, the units
the numerator and the denominator must be equal.

The scales expressed earlier in words, when converted into representative fractions
they would remain as follows:

1 cm on the map represents 10 km on the ground: 1 cm on the map represents 1,000,000 cm on the ground, that is,
numeric scale would be 1: 1,000,000.

1 cm in the plane is 0.5 meters in the terrain: 1 cm in the plane is 50 cm in the terrain, that is the scale.
numeric is: 1:50

If the fraction of scale or numerical scale is expressed in the form 1:E, the value of E is known as
like the scale factor.

Scale Fraction = 1 / Scale Factor = Number of Units on the plan(1) / Number of

units on the ground

In general terms, the magnitude of the scales for surveying work can be of the
next order of magnitude:

Small scales: Greater than 1:10,000

Intermediate scales between 1:10,000 and 1:1,000

Large scales, less than 1:1,000

 For the drawing of lifting plans of cadastral plans, scales are usually used of
1:10,000 for city maps, 1:50,000 for departments, and scales of 1:500,000.
geographical at scales greater than 1:500,000. In reality, the scale depends on the size of the land to
represent and the size of the sheet of paper on which the plan will be drawn.

1.6.2. Conversion of Areas by Representative Fractions

When measuring the area of a lot on a plan, directly on a plan, either by dividing it into
known geometric figures (triangles, rectangles, trapezoids, etc.) or using a planimeter
whether mechanical or electronic, the area is obtained in the plane in cm2or in mm2To obtain the
In the real area on the land, it is necessary to take into account the scale factor E, which was considered.
for the drafting of the respective drawing. For example, suppose a rectangle of 12 was measured
cm x 15 cm on the plane, resulting in an area of 180 cm2, if the scale of the plan is 1:500, or it
what is the same as the scale factor is 500, means that each of the dimensions in
the plan is equivalent to five hundred times the distance measured on the ground. Therefore:

Area in the land = (12x500)(15x500)=12x15x(500)245,000,000 cm24.500 m2

From the previous expression, it is deduced that the general expression for the conversion of areas by
representative fractions, using a consistent system of units is as follows:

At = Ap (Fe)2

Where:

At = Area in the land

Ap = Area measured in the plane

Scale factor

.7. DEFINITION OF SOME OTHER TERMS

1.7.1. Degree of Precision

1.7.2. Field Checks
1.7.3. Field Record Notes and Types of Wallets
1.7.4. Level Surface
1.7.5. Plans, Lines and Horizontal Angles
1.7.6. Plans, Lines and Vertical Angles
1.7.7. Height, Level or Elevation of a point
1.7.8. Contour Lines
1.7.9. Slope of a Line
1.7.10. Vertices, Stations and Stakes
1.7.11. References of a Topographic Point

[Link] of some other terms

In order to facilitate the understanding of the previous topics, a small glossary will be presented.
terms

1.7.1. Degree of Precision

Precision represents the possibility of repetition among several measurements of the same quantity.
concordance among several measured values of the same quantity implies precision, but not
accuracy. The measure of how close the measurement is to the average value is expressed as precision of
the measurement and the approach to the real exact value. There are many degrees of precision depending on the
The degree of precision obtained in a field measurement depends on the
sensitivity of the equipment, the skill of the observer, and the environmental conditions
ruling.

The degree of linear precision for a distance measurement is expressed in the form 1:K, where
K is a specified number that represents the measured length at which an error occurs.
unitary. For example, a degree of precision obtained in a linear measurement of 1:1,000 means
that for every 1000 meters measured, an error of one meter is made, or in other words, for every
measured metro, an error of one millimeter is committed. To guarantee the result of the measurements,
The degree of precision obtained in the field must be compared with a value of the degree of precision.
specified, which is provided for the different types of topographic surveys.

In the case of angular measurements in closed polygons, the degree of precision is obtained
calculating the angular closure error (difference between the observed angle values and the value
theoretical), and comparing it with the specified maximum value, called angular closure error
maximum permissible.

1.7.2. Field Checks

In all topographic jobs, one must find a way to verify the measurements as much as possible.
from a procedure, since using the same method or the same person makes it very easy to incur
in the same type of error. Likewise, the calculations made must have arithmetic checks and
checks in order to determine errors or discover mistakes to
correct them or make the decision to repeat the measurements. Then if the degree is determined
precision obtained. There are no results that deserve trust, unless it has been verified and
A measurement should not be considered well done until it has been verified. During
the measurements are commented errors both in distance and in angle. The magnitude of the error is
compared the observed value with the expected or theoretical value and is known as
closure error.

[Link] Record Notes and Types of Wallets

The most important part of fieldwork is the collection of data from angular measurements or
linear and their corresponding record in special notebooks called 'wallets'. The
Field notes correspond to the permanent record of the survey, they are kept "clean" and
As such, they must appear with complete clarity and neatness, and must contain the greatest amount of data.
descriptive, possible complementary ones, to avoid confusion, and they must have an interpretation
easy and unique for anyone who understands topographic work, as it is very common that
the calculations and drawings should be done by different people than those who did the work of
field.

Field data is not only numerical, but also consists of explanatory notes.
observations, sketches or 'monkeys' of the survey and alignment schemes are taken with
pencil, even though they later have to be transferred to ink. They are considered a permanent record of
lifting.

Other information that must appear on the cover includes the name of the entity, name and mission of the
members of the surveying brigade, purpose of the survey, location reference, dates of
initiation, termination and delivery of the work. Likewise, the status of the time must be recorded,
 equipment or instruments used and the general specifications of the equipment, such as brand,
model, approach or sensitivity, etc.

Field wallets are special design notebooks, of good quality, that withstand heavy use.
and extended during fieldwork. The different types of portfolio depend on the type of
annotations or topographical work that is going to be carried out. Each of its pages will have a
striped both horizontally and vertically and the pertinent headings. The types of wallets
common use in surveying work are the following:

Transit Wallets

They are used for general type planimetric surveys. The page on the side
on the left are divided into several columns with horizontal stripes by rows, where
they record the numerical data of the measurements and the corresponding observations. Each
the column has a header that indicates the type of measurement or annotation. On the right page is
grid-like and with a vertical red line down the center of the page. On this page, the
sketches, alignment diagrams, angular measurement diagrams, directions, references
from vertices or stations and the corresponding notes or clarifying observations are placed.

Level Wallets

They are used for recording measurements or readings taken with the appropriate equipment (levels
topographic and sights), for the determination of the heights of points with a defined position in
the ground. The two pages (left and right) are divided into columns with a striped pattern.
more spaced horizontally.

Wallets for Topographic Surveying.

They are used for recording the leveling operations of plots, lots, or strips of land.
where the relative position of points of equal elevation, break points of the terrain, or of
points at fixed distances measured from a reference line and used for the
graphic representation of the topographic configuration or relief of the terrain. The two pages come
squared and on each page four columns are marked with highlighted division lines. The
the central column between pages represents the axis of alignment and the left and right pages
They are used for recording measurements on both sides of the axis.

Wedge wallet

They are used for recording data of cross-sections of longitudinal works such as
roads and canals and that for their construction it is necessary to carry out excavations and
earth movements. The scribbling and the heading are designed to record the abscising and
axle pending, data of the cross sections such as cutting and filling heights,
break points and position of chamfer points, areas of cross sections
volumes of earth between abscissas.

Electronic wallets.

Modern theodolites and total stations come equipped with a collecting device
data automation, which are the size of a calculator or come directly integrated
the team, which magnetically stores data, such as point identification,
distances and horizontal and vertical angles and some descriptive notes. This data
they can be transferred to a computer file via direct interface or via modem for their
post-processing. E-wallets have the advantage of eliminating mistakes.
 in the reading and recording of angles and distances and reducing typing and processing time,
but there is always the risk of accidental data deletion.

1.7.4. Level Surface

If it is assumed that all irregularities of the Earth's surface can be eliminated,

it will obtain an imaginary spherical surface, each of whose elements would be normal or
perpendicular to the direction of the plumb line in the same. To the surface of this type that
the average height of the sea is called 'mean sea level' and is the surface of
reference for leveling and topographic measurements. It is actually an arch but for
The effects of the topography assume the chord subtended by it as the reference surface.

1.7.5. Plans, lines and Horizontal Angles

A horizontal plane is a plane tangent to or parallel to a level surface and represents the base.
productive for the projection of all the points measured in the field.

A horizontal line is a line contained in a horizontal plane and therefore tangent to a

level surface. In topography, it is understood that any horizontal line is a straight line. In the
planimetric applications of topography (calculation and drawing) only distances are considered
horizontal. In case inclined distances are measured, the corresponding reduction must be made.
to the horizon or the calculation of the horizontal projection of the measurement.

A horizontal angle is formed by two straight lines situated in a horizontal plane. The value
the horizontal angle is used to define the direction of an alignment based on a line that
it is taken as a reference.

1.7.6. Plans, lines, and vertical angles (zenith, elevation, depression)

A vertical plane is a plane perpendicular to a horizontal plane. A vertical line is contained

on a vertical plane but which is normal to a horizontal plane, measurements are taken along this line
level differences between points. The vertical angles are also contained in a plane
vertical, but they are measured with respect to a vertical line or with respect to a line parallel to one.
level surface.

The vertical angle is used to define the degree of inclination of an alignment over the terrain. If
the horizontal line is taken as a reference, the vertical angle is called the angle of slope, which
It can be positive or uplifting, or negative or depressing, and this is the angle that is known.
as the slope of a line, which can be expressed both in angle and in percentage.

If the upper end of the vertical line is chosen as the reference, the angle is called zenithal and if
the lower extreme the angle is called nadir. The zenith is a point perpendicular to the surface
from the earth. The point opposite to the Zenith is the Nadir.

[Link], Level or Elevation of a Point

The altitude of a point is the vertical distance measured from sea level. If the distance
Vertical is measured from any other plane taken as reference, usually referred to as
quota.

The elevation difference between two points is given by the difference in altitude or height between those points.

[Link] Lines
They are lines drawn on floor plans in order to represent the relief or configuration.
Topography of a land. A contour line connects points of the land that have the same elevation or height.
therefore represent the intersection of the land with a horizontal plane. The separation between the
contour lines on the floor plan, as is obvious, represent the horizontal distance between them and
the vertical distance or interval is deduced by the difference of the annotated elevations. The elevation or height of
A contour line is the elevation or height of the horizontal plane that contains it.

[Link] of a Line

The slope of a line is defined as the tangent of the angle it forms with the horizontal.
which can be expressed both in degrees and as a percentage.

[Link], Stations and Stakes

A vertex forms at the intersection of two lines, like the one found in an angle or in
a corner of an open or closed polygon. If in a topographic job, a device is installed
topographical, such as a theodolite or transit, directly over a vertex, this point is called
station. The vertices, stations, and other auxiliary points required during the
field operations of the topographic survey must be materialized either in the form
permanent or provisional. Typically, the following types of points are distinguished:

Instant Points: They are the ones needed momentarily during the development of the
field operations, to leave a provisional reference mark for continuity of the
measurements and orientation of the alignments.

The elements used are the stakes or tokens, which are rods shaped like rings.
and a tip of 25 to 35 cm in height. Also used are markers or beacons which are rods 2 to 3
metros, built in wood or metal, with alternating divisions of red and white of 20 cm,
with a steel reinforcement at the tip called a metal regatón.

Transitory points: They are the points that must remain for as long as required.
The fieldwork is desirable to be preserved until the construction stage of the works.
In most cases, these stakes are lost during that period or are pulled out during the work.
of a roof when starting construction. They are usually stakes, which can be made of the
following types:

Transit tacos: they are short stakes, between 8 and 12 cm, with a thickness of five (5) cm that
They are used to mark the stations or sites where a theodolite is installed, they have a thumbtack.
nailed at the top and driven flush with the floor. If the ground where it is to be placed is very
When loose, there is a need to place longer stakes, around 30 cm.
- Witness stakes: They are 30 cm long stakes with a carved face for recording identification.
from a point that is level with the floor.

Level stakes: They are used for turning points in leveling operations.
differential, to fix the position of a provisional point of known height.

- Chamfer Stakes: They are used in field operations to mark the points from which
which must initiate earthmoving operations, whether cutting or filling in
an engineering work. They are also stakes 30 cm long with two carved faces, where
the distance from the chamfer point to a reference axis and the height of the embankment or the
cut depth. A chamfer point represents the intersection of the natural ground with the
surface of a slope designed for a civil work.

Definitive points: These are the points that remain fixed or permanent even after the
topographic survey, before, during and after the construction work and that is
they are used together with other references to reposition them in the same position
transitory points of the topographical survey that have been lost or removed. This operation
It is called rethinking. The definitive points can be of two types:

Natural: They are points that are materialized on the ground, such as intersections of
riverbanks, roads, paths, rocks, large stones, prominence of hills, etc.

Artificial: They are precast or cast in situ concrete parallelepipeds called

my stones, which remain buried leaving 5 cm above the surface or buried
completely with a protective cover. If the ground is very loose, also place a
fixing rod. Bronze plates or elements are embedded on the marker that
identify the respective marker and its relative position (coordinates and height).

[Link] point references

They are the measurements of distances and angles that are made in the field, from a notable point of
a topographical survey (vertex or station) up to a stable and permanent detail for the purpose
to define the relative position of the point. These measurements are later used to re-establish the
point, in case it is lost.

.8. ALIGNMENT DIRECTIONS

1.8.1. Types of Reference Meridians

1.8.2. Concepts of Azimuth and Bearing
1.8.3. Types of Horizontal Angles Measured at the Vertices of Polygonal Lines

[Link] of Alignments

An alignment in topography is defined as the line drawn and measured between two points over the
land surface. It should not be confused with alignment, which is the set of operations of
fields that are used to orient or guide the measurements of distances, in such a way that the
intermediate points used should always remain on the alignment.

The direction of an alignment is always given in terms of the horizontal angle formed between
the alignment and a line that is taken as a reference. The direction is always measured in plan or
on a horizontal plane. There are several ways to give the direction of a line:
 The angle formed by the line with the adjacent alignment, indicating the direction of the angle.
measured, whether in an hourly form, in the direction of the clock hand or positive (+) or in
counterclockwise, opposite to the hands of the clock or negative (-).

The angle that each of the alignments forms with respect to a single line of
reference, called 'reference meridian'. This is the commonly used method
used.

[Link] of Reference Meridians

The reference meridians for measuring the direction or orientation on a plan of a

Alignments in topography can be of various types: true, magnetic, and arbitrary.

True geographic meridian

It is a line oriented along the geographic poles of the Earth and is determined by
astronomical observations. These meridians have a permanent constant orientation
or fix.

Magnetic meridians

They are lines oriented in the direction of the Earth's magnetic poles, and it is the direction that gives
the compass. The orientation of this line is not constant because the magnetic north pole does not
It has a fixed position and slowly shifts over time. The magnetic meridian
It suffers different types of variations: Secular (every 300 years), annual, daily, irregular, and
Lunar. The magnetic directions are those determined with the help of a compass.

The compass has a magnetized needle resting at the center on a pivot, which allows it to rotate.
freely and is guided by the attractive forces of the Earth's magnetic poles, indicating
directly the north south address.

The difference that exists between true meridian and magnetic meridian is known as the
magnetic declination name. This deviation can be to the left or west declination.
West (W), or to the right East Declination (E). The magnetic declination varies depending on the position of the
line on the surface of the earth. If lines are drawn in a large area of the earth that connect
points of equal magnetic declination are known as isogonic line planes or
isogonal maps. The zero magnetic declination lines are called agonic lines, that is
where the true and magnetic meridians coincide.

The needle of the compass is also attracted vertically leaning towards the side of the pole that is.
closer, that’s why the compass needle has a counterweight at one end on the opposite side
of the hemisphere where the workplace is located. If in a map of an area of the earth they come together
Points that have the same magnetic inclination are called isoclinic line planes.

Arbitrary meridians:

When in a topographic survey none of the above orientation is available

meridians and the work to be done do not require it, any line can be adopted as a reference
for the measurement all the directions of the lines that are necessary to make the
respective topographic survey. The arbitrary reference meridian can be the line of
starting point to a tower, a tree, or any other detail that can be easily materialized in
the field.
 1.8.2. Concepts of Azimuth and Bearing

The direction of alignments in surveying is given in relation to the angle formed with the
reference meridian and can be of two types: azimuths or bearings.

Azimuth of an alignment

It is the horizontal angle measured clockwise from the upper end.

from a meridian, commonly known as NORTH, to the respective alignment. Its value
It can be between 0 and 360° in the sexagesimal system or between 0 and 400 gons in the system.
centesimal.

Direction of an alignment

It is the horizontal angle that the given alignment forms with respect to the reference meridian.
measured with the line of the northern or southern extremes, depending on the orientation it has
alignment. It is expressed as an angle from 0 to 90°, indicating the quadrant in which it
located.

To calculate the bearings from the azimuths, the obvious relationships deduced in the
next figure and that is presented in the accompanying Table.

Conversion of Azimuths to Bearings

Value of the Azimuth Value of the Course

Az° = 0° = 360° North (N)

0° < Az° < 90° NAz°E

Az° = 90° This (E)

90° < Az° < 180 S(180-Az°)E

Az° = 180° South (S)

180° < Az° < 270° S(Az°-180)W

270° West (W)

270 < Az° < 360° N(360-Az°)W

Contrazimuth of an alignment

The contrazimuth of an alignment is the azimuth observed from the other end of it. In the
The figure illustrates the possible cases that may arise. As can be deduced, the
The counter azimuth of a line can be calculated using the following expression:

Counterazimuth of an alignment = Azimuth of the alignment ± 180°.

 The sign (+) is applied if the azimuth of the alignment is less than 180° and the sign (-) if the azimuth is
greater than or equal to 180°.

Contralateral or reverse direction of an alignment

The reverse heading of an alignment is the heading of that alignment measured in the opposite direction.
The figure illustrates the possible cases. It is easily deduced that the counter-rhythm of a
alignment has the same numerical value as its heading, but in the opposite quadrant. They are quadrants
opposites NW with SE and NE with SW.

[Link] of Horizontal Angles Measured at the Vertices of Polygons

A polygon in topography is understood as a succession of alignments, which can be

open or closed and serve as a geometric reference scheme for the surveys
topographical. At each vertex, three types of angles can be measured: Angles of
right, left angles and deflection or turning angles.

Right angles: They are the angles measured in the clockwise direction or of the hands.
of the clock, which are considered positive signs, as they have the same direction as the
azimuth.

Left angles: They are angles measured in a counterclockwise direction or opposite to that of
the clock hands. They are considered to have a negative sign because they move in the opposite direction to
azimuth.

Deflection or turning angles: They are the angles measured between the prolongation of the
previous alignment and the next alignment and can be either left sense I(-) or
law D(+).

While right and left angles are between 0° and 360°, deflection angles or
the turns are between 0° and 180°. If a deflection angle measured to the right is greater than
180°, for example 200°D, should be considered as 160° or to the left.

.9. RELATIVE POSITION OF POINTS ON THE GROUND

 [Link] Position of Points on the Ground

It is known that one of the purposes of plane surveying is the determination of position.
relative to the points on the ground, both in plan and in elevation or profile.

If the position and orientation of a given line AB are known and one wishes to know the relative position
From point P, the following methods can be used:

Radiation: Measurement of an angle and a distance taken from one end of the
reference line.

Trilateration: Measurement of the two distances taken from the two ends of the line.
for reference.

Intersection of visuals: Measurement of the two angles measured from the ends of the
reference line, which is also known as the measured base. It is formed by a
triangle, where three elements are known: a distance and two angles, which through the
application of the law of sines can calculate the distances from the ends of AB
to point P.

Direct intersection: Measuring the distance from one end and measuring the angle
from the other end. Missing data can be calculated through generalization.
of the Pythagorean theorem or the law of cosines.

Measurements from the Left and Right: Measurement of the perpendicular distance in a
defined point of a defined line.

Inverse Intersection: Measuring two angles from the point to locate three points
of known position control, a method known as trisection. If the determination of
The coordinates of a point are determined by observing only two positional points.
known as bisection.