Building Stones

BUILDING MATERIALS

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Building Stones

Introduction
 Stone has been defined as the natural, hard substance formed from minerals
and earth material which are present in rocks. Rock may be defined as the portion
of the earth’s crust having no definite shape and structure.

 Rocks which have a definite chemical proportion are called Mineral. Some of the
rock-forming minerals are quartz, feldspar, mica, dolomite, etc.

 The various types of rocks from which building stones are usually derived are
granite, basalt, trap, marble, slate, sandstone and limestone.

 As building material stone has gradually lost importance because:

 Invention, usage and advancement of concrete technology which is relatively

economical and easy to use.

 The strength of the structural elements built with stones cannot be rationally
analysed.

 The difficulties in its transportation and dressing which consume a lot of time
resulting in slow pace of construction.

Properties of Rock forming Minerals

 Hardness: It is measured by scratching the mineral with a series of

substances of known variation in hardness using the following scale of Mohs:

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Rating on
Rating on
Mineral Mohs Mineral
Mohs Scale
Scale

Orthoclase: can be
Talc: Easily scratched with the thumb-
cut with knife with
nail.
great difficulty on thin

Quartz: not
Gypsum: Scratched by the thumb-nail. scratched by steel,
scratches glass

Calcite: not scratched by thumb-nail

Topaz
but easily cut by knife.

Fluorite: can be cut by knife with

Sapphire
greater difficulty than calcite

Apatite: can be cut only with difficulty

Diamond
by knife

 Cleavage: It is the measure of the capability of some minerals to split along

certain planes parallel to the crystal faces. The various types of cleavage seen in
the minerals are Basal, Prismatic, Cubic, Rhombohedral and Octahedral.

 Streak: It is the colour of the mineral in powder-form. For some minerals, their
colour is seen to be entirely different from that of their powder, which makes streak
a useful property in the identification of ore-minerals. Streak can be readily
observed by scratching it on a streak plate made of unglazed porcelain or
roughened glass.

 Colour: It is a valuable characteristic of metallic minerals, but less reliable for

non-metallic minerals.

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 Lustre: It is shine on the surface of a mineral and its appearance under

reflected light, is classified as vitreous (glassy), greasy, pearly, resinous, dull, silky
and metallic.

 Crystal: The crystal form is of importance when a mineral has had the
opportunity to develop its natural shape. This is not the normal condition in rock
structure.

Classification of Rocks
 The rocks may be classified on the basis of their geological formation, physical
characteristics and chemical composition.

Classification based on Geological Origin

 Igneous Rock:

 Also known as primary, unstratified or eruptive rocks are of volcanic origin

and are formed as a result of solidification of molten mass lying below or
above the earth’s surface.

 Magma when is forced up as volcanic eruptions and spreads over the

surface of earth where it solidifies forming basalt and trap. Such rocks are
known as effusive rocks.

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 If the magma solidifies below the earth’s surface itself, the solid crystalline
rock is termed as deep-seated plutonic rock. The examples are granite,
syenite, diorite and gabbro.

 If the magma solidifies at a relatively shallow depth, the resultant rock

possesses a finely grained crystalline structure—and is termed as
hypabyssal. Dolerite is such a rock.

 The principal constituents of magma are quartz, mica and feldspar. The
texture of the rock is greatly influenced by the rate of cooling of the magma.

 Sedimentary Rocks:

 These are also known as aqueous or stratified rocks.

 Sedimentary rocks are types of rock that are formed by the accumulation or
deposition of mineral or organic particles at the Earth's surface, followed by
cementation. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause
these particles to settle in place. The properties of the sedimentary rocks
vary considerably depending upon the nature of the sediment and type of
bond between the sediment and grains.

 Usually, the rocks are well stratified and show well defined bedding planes.

 These rocks are soft and can be easily split up along the bedding as well as
normal planes.

 The examples of sedimentary rocks resulting from the precipitation of salts

in drying water basin (chemical deposits) are limestone, dolomites.

 Sedimentary rocks resulting from the accumulation of plant or animal

remains (organogenous rocks) are some limestones, shale, chalk, diatomite
and tripoli.

 The examples of rocks resulting from the deterioration of massive magmatic

or sedimentary rocks (fragmental rocks) are sandstone, sand, gravel,
carbonate conglomerate and breccia.

 Metamorphic Rocks:

 These rocks are formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks as a result of the
action of the earth movements, temperature changes, liquid pressures, etc.

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 The resultant mass may have foliated structure like in case of slate, gneiss,
schist and phyllite or non-foliated structure like in case of Marble, Quartzite
and serpentine.

Classification based on Physical Characteristic

 Stratified Rocks: These rocks show distinct layers along which the rocks can
be split. The examples are sandstone, limestone, shale, slate, marble, etc.

 Unstratified Rocks: These rocks do not show any stratification and cannot be
easily split into thin layers. The examples of such rocks are granite, basalt, trap,
etc.

 Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split up only in a definite

direction. Most of the metamorphic rocks have a foliated structure, except for
quartzite and marble which have granulose structure.

Classification based on Chemical Characteristics

 Argillaceous Rocks: The principal constituent is clay ( ). The rocks are

hard and brittle, e.g., slate, laterite, etc.

 Siliceous Rocks: The principal constituent is silica ( ), i.e., sand. These

rocks are very hard and durable, e.g., granite, basalt, trap, quartzite, gneiss,
syenite, etc.

 Calcareous Rocks: The principal constituent is lime, e.g., limestone, marble,

dolomite, etc.

Quarrying of Stones
 Quarrying is the process of collecting stones from natural rock surfaces. It is
different from mining as mining belongs to underground operation whereas
quarrying is carried out on exposed surface of natural rock.

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Process of Quarrying
 Rocks suitable for the manufacture of stone materials are called useful minerals
and the operations involved in obtaining minerals are called mining.

 In the process of mining, voids formed are called excavations, and the mined
deposits are the quarries.

 Depending upon the nature and surface of rocks and the purpose for which stones
are needed, quarrying is done by excavating, wedging, heating or blasting.

Seasoning of Stones
 A freshly cut stone carries some natural moisture known as quarry sap making it
soft and workable. The quarry sap is a mineral solution and reacts chemically with
the mineral constituents when the stone is exposed to atmosphere after quarrying.

 The stone becomes harder and compact. The process takes about 6 to 12 months
for complete seasoning.

 When the quarry sap evaporates, it leaves a crystalline film on the faces of the
stone and makes them weather resistant.

Dressing of Stones
 A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and
regular shape.

 Dressing of stones is done immediately after quarrying and before seasoning to

achieve less weight for transportation. Also dressing before seasoning improves
the weather resistance.

 Dressing of stones can also be done at site but is not recommended as it is more
expensive.

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 Dressing of stone provides pleasing appearance, proper bedding with good mortar
joints, special shapes for arches, copings, pillars, etc.

 As such, the dressing, carving and moulding, etc. should be done as early after
quarrying as possible.

Characteristics of good Building Stone

 Appearance: For face work it should have fine, compact texture; light -
coloured stone is preferred as dark colours are likely to fade out in due course of
time.

 Structure: A broken stone should not be dull in appearance and should have
uniform texture free from cavities, cracks, and patches of loose or soft material.
Stratifications should not be visible to naked eye.

 Strength: A stone should be strong and durable to withstand the

disintegrating action of weather. Compressive strength of building stones in
practice range between 60 to 200 N/mm2. (100Mpa)

 Weight: It is an indication of the porosity and density. For stability of

structures such as dams. retaining walls, etc. heavier stones are required,
whereas for arches, vaults, domes, etc. light stones may be the choice.

 Hardness: This property is important for floors, pavements, aprons of

bridges, etc. The hardness is according to the Mohs scale.

 Toughness: The measure of impact that a stone can withstand is defined as

toughness. The stone used should be tough when vibratory or moving loads are
anticipated.

 Seasoning: The stone should be well seasoned.

 Porosity & Absorption: Porosity depends on the mineral constituents,

cooling time and structural formation. A porous stone disintegrates as the
absorbed rain water freezes, expands, and causes cracking.

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24 Hour water absorption of stone by volume

Types of Stone Permissible maximum Water Absorption (in %age)

Sandstone

Limestone

Granite

Trap

Shale

Gneiss

Slate

Quartzite

 Weathering: The resistance of stone against the wear and tear due to natural
agencies should be high.

 Workability: Stone should be workable so that cutting, dressing and

bringing it out in the required shape and size may not be uneconomical.

 Fire resistance: Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of

iron, and minerals having different coefficients of thermal expansion. Igneous rock
show marked disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates into
small particles at a temperature of about 575°C. Limestone, however, can
withstand a little higher temperature; i.e., up to 800°C after which they
disintegrate. Sandstones have high fire resistance.

 Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of most of the stones lies between 2.3
to 2.5.

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Placing of Stones
 Natural Bed of Stone: It is the original bed, plane or position occupied by a stone
during its formation in a sedimentary rock.

 The stones should be so placed that the load line is at right angles to the natural
bed.

 In the case of metamorphic rocks, the plane of foliation or the plane of cleavage is
assumed to be its natural bed.

 It is very difficult to trace the natural bed in the case of igneous rocks and the
natural bed is not given due attention.

Preservation of Stone
 Preservation of stone can be done treating stone with one of the following
process:

 Using Coal Tar

 Using Linseed oil

 Using Paint

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 Using Barium Hydroxide

 Barium Hydroxide: Barium hydroxide is used to protects the stone from

gypsum attack:

Further,

Testing of Stones (IS 1121)

 Compressive Strength test:

 Cubical specimen of edge length 5 cm is subjected to UTM.

 Loading Rate = 14 N/mm2/minute.

 Tensile Strength test:

 Split cylinder tensile strength test.

 Dimensions: Diameter = 5 cm, Length = 10 cm

 Hardness test:

 Dorry’s Abrasion Test is conducted to analyse hardness of stones.

 Specimen dimension: Diameter = 2.5 cm and length = 2.5 cm.

 1000 revolutions followed by calculation of weight loss.

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 Hardness can also be determined on Mohs Scale using Knife.

 Toughness Test:

 Specimen dimension: Diameter = 2.5 cm and length = 2.5 cm.

 Hammering is done with gradually increasing fall height:

 First Attempt: 1 cm

 Second Attempt: 2 cm

 Third Attempt: 4 cm

 Fourth Attempt: 8 cm

This process is continued till the breakage of the stone. If stone breaks in ‘kth’
attempt then toughness of stone is designated as ‘k’.

 Smith’s Test: This test is used to analyse the amount of soluble content in-
side the stone. Method: Pour certain amount of stone pieces in a glass of pure wa-
ter and observe if there is any change of colour after a while.

 Water Absorption test: (Similar procedure as that for bricks).

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