Experiment - 1

Verification of Different Characteristics of Digital Inverse-Time

Overcurrent Relay
1.1. Aim:
To verify different characteristics of Digital Inverse-time overcurrent relay.

1.2. Circuit Diagram:

The power and control circuit diagram for verifying various characteristics of the
digital overcurrent relay is shown in Fig. 1.1 (a) and (b), respectively.
CT (10/5 A)
(0-5) A P1 P2 L2 T2
A

Control Circuit
Variac

S2 RL= RF =
230 V V 150Ω (0-75)Ω
(0-230) V
S1

(a)

Ph
PB(NO)
Control Circuit
L1
2 6
Auxiliary 5
T1 Relay AUX
Contacts
10 7 Timer
PB(NC)
1 2 4 Contacts
L3
A7 SEL Relay
A9 NC Contacts
T3
 P N

230 V AC Supply
N
(b)
Fig. 1.1. (a) Power circuit (b) control circuit
1
1.3. Apparatus Required:

The number of apparatus required for performing the experiment is listed in Table
1.1.

Table 1.1. Apparatus required with rating and quantity

Sr. No. Name of Apparatus Rating Quantity
1 Single phase AC Supply 1 − 𝜙𝜙, 230 V, 50 Hz 1
1 − 𝜙𝜙, (0 – 260) V
2 Single phase auto-transformer 1
Output
3 Voltmeter (0 – 230) V 1
4 Ammeter (0 – 5) A 1
5 Current Transformer 10/5 A, 5 VA 1
SEL-751 Digital Feeder Protection
6 - 1
Relay
7 Load Resistance 150 Ω, 2 A 1
8 Fault Resistance (0 – 75) Ω, 5 A 1
9 Push buttons (PBs) - 2
10 Connecting Wires 1.5 mm2 As required

1.4. Theory:
The overcurrent relay operates and closes its contacts when the current exceeds
the predetermined threshold, called pickup value. or plug setting (PS). This pickup/PS
is defined as the threshold beyond which a relay operates. However, the
characteristic of overcurrent relays can be plotted between multiples of pickup
currents (MP) and time of operation instead of current versus time. The operating
time for inverse time–current relays differs for different current values. The
operating time is specified in seconds at 10 times the plug setting with Time Dial
Setting (TDS) at 1.0. If a lower time of operation is required, the TDS can be
changed, which is given from 0 to 1.0.
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (1.1)
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 x 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
In inverse-time overcurrent relays, the time of operation of a relay is inversely
proportional to the current passing through the relay coil. This is very important
as the more severe faults are cleared quickly. Fig. 1.2 shows various characteristics
of the inverse time overcurrent relay. These characteristics are obtained using the
corresponding equations given in Table 1.2.
Working of Control Circuit:
To create a fault, the Green Push Button is pressed in Fig. 1.1 ( b), which changes
its state from Normally Open (NO) to close. As the control circuit receives a 230 V

2
supply, pressing the Green Push Button closes the left arm of the control circuit,
energising the contactor coil (A1-A2).

The contactor has four contacts namely L1-T1, L2-T2, L3-T3, and L4-T4, which are
initially in the NO state. When the contactor coil is energised, these contacts
instantly change to the close state. Consequently, even after the Green Push Button
is released, L1-T1 comes in the close state and in parallel with the Green Push
Button, as the closed path is maintained, ensuring a continuous supply to the
contactor coil (A1-A2).

Furthermore, L2-T2 also moves to the close state simultaneously. Since it is in series
with the fault resistance, this creates a fault as the fault resistance is now in parallel
with the load resistance, increasing the overall current in the circuit.

Additionally, the transition of L3-T3 to the Normally Close (NC) state completes
the right arm of the control circuit, energising the coil of the Auxiliary Relay. The
NO contacts (5 and 7) of the auxiliary relay also change to NC, initiating the timer.

If the fault current exceeds the pickup value of the SEL 751a relay, the relay detects
the fault and, based on its type of characteristics, sends a trip command after a
certain time instant. Following this, the NC contacts (A7-A9) of the SEL 751a change
to NO upon relay tripping. This opens the left arm of the control circuit, causing
the contactor coil (A1-A2) to de-energise.

As a result, L2-T2 opens, removing the fault resistance from the circuit.
Additionally, L3-T3 also opens, de-energising the Auxiliary Relay coil and
stopping the timer. Consequently, the timer reading displays the relay's operation
time.

NOTE: The Red Push Button's NC contacts are connected in series with the left
arm of the control circuit. In the event of a contingency, pressing the Red Push
Button changes its state from NC to NO, thereby opening the circuit and de-
energising the contactor coil.

Table 1.2. Equations associated with various characteristic of inverse time

overcurrent relay
Curve Type Operating Time
0.14
C1 (Standard Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 0.02 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 −1
11.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1
80
C3 (Extremely Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 2 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1
0.14
C4 (Long-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇. � 0.02 �
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 −1

3
 Extremely
Inverse

Time of operation, top (s)

Long-Time
Inverse
Very
Standard Inverse
Inverse

Multiples of Pickup (MP)

Fig. 1.2. Various characteristics of inverse time overcurrent relay

1.5. Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.1. (a).
b) In the SEL 751a relay, set the value of PS = 0.5A and TDS = 0.9 with the type of
curve as C1.
c) Increase the supply voltage using auto-transformer so that the primary current
exceeds 0.5A (say Ip = 0.6A) with a fixed load resistance, RL = 150Ω.
d) Set the fault resistance, RF = 75Ω (maximum). Now, when RF comes in parallel
with RL, the primary current (now fault current) gets increased and if the CT
secondary current exceeds the PS value, the relay will trip.
e) Press the Green push button (Fault switch) to create a fault. The relay senses
the fault and the timer starts.
NOTE: Red push button is only provided to remove fault manually.
f) Once the relay trips, the timer stops, and that time is the operating time of the
relay for that MP and TDS. Compare this time with the equation of C1 given in
Table 1.2.
g) After one reading, press “TARGET RESET” in the relay and long press the RST
button on the timer.
h) Now, lower the fault resistance and repeat the procedure mentioned in e) to
g). Take at least 8 readings by varying the fault resistance till the fault current
reaches 5A (rating of fault resistance).
i) Repeat procedures c) to g) for curve types C2 and C3 and verify the operating
times obtained experimentally and by calculation.
j) Plot the time of operations (top) v/s MP for C1, C2 and C3 in a single plot.

4
 Observations:
Sr. Curve 𝑰𝑰𝑭𝑭 Experiment Calculated Error
𝑴𝑴𝑃𝑃 =
No. Type 𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪𝑪 × 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 al top (in s) top (in s) (%)

C1
1 (Standard
Inverse)

C2
2 (Very
Inverse)

C3
3 (Extremely
Inverse)

Plot: Time of operations (top) v/s MP for C1, C2 and C3 in a single plot
1.6. Conclusion:

5
 Experiment-2
Vacuum Circuit Breaker
2.1. Aim:
To observe the operation of the vacuum circuit breaker with the help of an overcurrent
relay.
2.2. Apparatus Required:
The apparatus required is shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Number of apparatuses required
Sr. No Apparatus Quantity
1 3-phase, 440 V, 50Hz AC Supply 1
2 Vacuum circuit Breaker panel 1
3 Resistive load/ Induction motor 1

2.1. Theory:

Fig. 2.1 shows a panel connection diagram of the Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCB). It
contains various blocks namely 3-phase variac, VCB, 3-phase AC motor as a load, current
relay, voltage relay and multi-function relay.

Fig. 2.1. Panel connection diagram of VCB

A VCB panel is used to check the relay operation. The trip command from the relay is
sent to the vacuum circuit breaker. The connection for overcurrent, overvoltage, multi-
function, timing and resistance measurement should be made individually for each

6
function. All the required terminals for the connections are taken out on the panel board.
Fig. 2. 2 shows the connection of the VCB with an overcurrent relay. As shown in Fig.
2.2., Current Transformer (CT) terminals from the panel are connected with overcurrent
relay CT terminals. The overcurrent relay setting is done as per the requirement and the
trip command is sent to VCB from the overcurrent relay.

Fig. 2.2.

Connection of VCB with an overcurrent relay

Fig. 2.1. VCB and relay’s auxiliary contact details

7
Fig. 2.3 shows the contact details of the VCB and trip/close coil and spring charge
mechanism. The terminals of the trip coil, close coil and spring charge mechanism from
the panel are connected to the VCB input terminals. The spring charge mechanism can be
on auto or manual mode. The overcurrent/ Overvoltage / Multi-function auxiliary
Normally Open (NO)/Normally Close (NC) contacts are connected to the input of the
control circuit. Further, the operating mechanism of a VCB is shown in Fig. 2.4. The
auxiliary contacts, main contacts, spring charging and discharging mechanism are also
shown in Fig. 2.4.

A-Open/closed auxiliary contacts

B-Geared motor for closing spring
charging
C-Built-in closing spring charging
lever
D-Mechanical signalling device for
circuit-breaker open/closed
E-Mechanical operation counter
F-Plug-socket connectors of electrical
accessories in the truck
G-Signalling device for closing
springs charged/discharged
H-Service releases
I-Closing pushbutton
L-Opening pushbutton
M-Operating mechanism locking
electromagnet
N -Additional shunt opening release
O-Transient contact
P-Contacts for signalling spring
charged/discharged

Fig. 2.4. Operating mechanism of VCB

The vacuum circuit breaker does not require an interrupting and insulating medium. In
fact, the interrupters do not contain ionisable material. In any case, on separation of the
contacts, an electric arc is generated made up exclusively of melted and vaporised contact
material. The electric arc remains supported by the external energy until the current is
cancelled in the vicinity of natural zero. At that instant, the rapid reduction in the load
density carried and the rapid condensation of the metallic vapour leads to extremely
rapid recovery of the dielectric characteristics. Therefore, the vacuum interrupter
recovers the insulating capacity and the capacity to withstand the transient recovery
voltage, definitively extinguishing the arc. Since high dielectric strength can be reached
in the vacuum, even with minimum distances, interruption of the circuit is also

8
guaranteed when separation of the contacts takes place a few milliseconds before the
passage of the current through natural zero.
2.4 Procedure:
1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 2.2. and Fig. 2.1.
2. Set the overcurrent relay settings according to ratings of the load and select the required
time-overcurrent curve.
1. Create various faults and observe whether a circuit breaker is operating in the desired
manner.
4. Repeat the procedure for other time-over-current curve settings and note down the
operating time.
Curve Type Operating Time
0.14
C1 (Normal Inverse 1.0) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀0.02 − 1
11.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 − 1

Observation Table:
Table 2.2. Measured and calculated value of circuit breaker operating time

Selected time Fault Current Measured Calculated

overcurrent Load (If) seen by value of value of % Error
characteristics the relay VCB top VCB top

Definite

Normal Inverse

Very Inverse

2.2. Conclusion:

9
 Experiment-3

Radial Feeder Protection

3.1. Aim:
To carry out radial feeder protection by using electromechanical (CDG21) and
Digital/Numerical (SEL-751) feeder protection relays.
3.2. Circuit Diagram:

Fig. 3.1 shows single line diagram of a radial feeder network in the form of power
circuit. Two electromechanical relays and two digital/numerical relays are connected
on distribution feeder network. The control circuit of the same radial feeder network
is shown in Fig. 3.2. As observed from Fig. 3.1, both electromechanical and digital
relays are connected in parallel and only one of them can be operated at a time. When
the push button ‘PB1’ is pressed, the contactor C1 is energized and normally open
(NO) contacts of C1 i.e. C1-3 C1-4 are closed. Similarly, when the push button ‘PB4’ is
pressed, the contactor C2 is energized, and NO contacts of C2 i.e. C2-3 C2-4 are closed
and the circuit is completed. When a fault occurs between bus A and bus B (anywhere
between F1 and F1’), the relay (either electromechanical or digital) sends a trip signal
due to which NO contacts of R1 or DR1 i.e. R1-3 and R1-4 or DR1-3 and DR1-4 are
closed, which energizes auxiliary relay A1 . Hence, NO contacts of A1 i.e. A1-11 and
A1-9 are closed. The auxiliary relay provides the supply to the contactor and it opens
the contact (isolating the fault). Similar is the case when fault occurs between bus B
and bus C (anywhere between F2 and F2’).
6.5 Ω MCB 500 Ω
A B 6.5 Ω C
(0-10) A C1-3 C1-4 C2-3 C2-4 9 A F2’
0.5A 1A
A
P1 P2 F1 9 A F1’ P1 P2 F2 FL FL’

S1 S2 S1 S2

R1 DR1 R2 DR2

230 V, 1- Ø AC
Supply

25 Ω Fault circuit
9A

Fig. 3.1. Power circuit of radial feeder network

 Ph
A1-5 A2-5

PB3(Reset) PB4(Reset)
A1-6 A2-6

DR1-3 R2-3 DR2-3

A1-11 R1-3 A2-11
LOAD
C1-3 C2-3 500 Ω
A1-9 R1-4 A2-9 R2-4
DR1-4 DR2-4
230 V C1-4 C2-4
AC
PB1(Start) PB4(Start)

C1 A1 C2 A2

Fig. 3.2. Control circuit of radial feeder network

3.3. Apparatus Required:

Table 3.1 shows the list of apparatus required for experimenting on a radial feeder
network.
Table 3.1. List of apparatus required
S. No Apparatus Quantity
1 1-phase, 230 V, 50Hz AC Supply 1
2 MCB,0.5A 1
3 Feeder Resistance, 4.5 Ω/9 A 2
4 Load Resistance, 500 Ω/1 A 1
5 Fault Resistance, 25 Ω/9 A 1
6 Ammeter, (0-20) A 1
7 Electromechanical relays (CDG21) 2
8 Digital/Numerical (SEL-751) relays 2
9 Current Transformers, 10/5 A, 15 VA 2
10 Contactors, 240 V, 18 A 2
11 Push Buttons, Start (Green) 2
12 Push Buttons, Stop (Red) 2

3.3. Theory:
In radial feeders, non-directional relays are used as they operate when the CT
secondary current exceeds the pickup setting of the relays. This type of relay operates
irrespective of the direction of the current flow.
3.5. Analytical calculations of relay settings:
During normal condition (no fault/pre-fault condition), the load current (IL) is given
by,
230
𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = = 0.45 A (3.1)
4.5 + 4.5 + 500
Hence, the rating of the MCB is selected as 0.5A.
3.5.1. Calculation of Plug Setting (PS) for relays 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 :
Here, the rated current of both relays 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 is 1A. Conversely, the current
transformer (CT) ratio is 10/5 A. Usually, the relay rated current and CT secondary
current are same. However, due to practical limitations, the relay rated current is 1 A
whereas CT secondary current is 5 A.
The secondary current of CT (where relay is connected) is 0.45/2 = 0.225A. Assuming
the normal plug setting range of both relays 𝑅𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑅2 are 50% to 200% in steps of
25%, the plug setting of 𝑅𝑅2 comes out to be 22.5%. Hence, the selected value of plug
setting of the relay R2 is 50%.
Now, coordinating relay 𝑅𝑅2 with relay 𝑅𝑅1 , the plug setting of relay 𝑅𝑅1 is greater than
or equal to 1.3/1.05 times of the relay 𝑅𝑅2.
Therefore, the selected value of plug setting of 𝑅𝑅1 will be next higher value available
in the relay setting i.e. 75%.
1.3
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ × 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 (3.2)
1.05
1.3
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ × 50% (3.3)
1.05
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 ≥ 61.9%
(3.4)

3.5.2. Calculation of time Dial Setting (TDS) for relays 𝐑𝐑 𝟏𝟏 𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚𝐚 𝐑𝐑 𝟐𝟐 :

Case 1: Coordination between MCB and the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐

To coordinate between MCB and relay 𝑅𝑅2 , it is required to consider the fault at bus C
at the location FL . However, there is no provision to simulate the fault at the above
location in the laboratory. The fault current value (IFL) at this location can be given by,
230
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = = 4.24 A (3.5)
4.5 + 4.5 + (25||500)
According to the standard time-current characteristics of MCB, as shown in Fig. 3.3.
time of operation of MCB for the above fault current is 1.3s approximately.
Considering 1.0 s as the Coordination Time Interval (CTI) between MCB and relay 𝑅𝑅2 ,
the required time of operation (Top) of R2 comes out to be 1.3 + 1.0 = 2.3 s.
The Top of the relay 𝑅𝑅2 is given by,
 0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 (3.6)

where, PSM is known as Plug Setting Multiplier and defined as the ratio of fault
current referred to CT secondary to the plug setting (PS) of the relay.

Further, TDS is the time dial setting of the relay and its usual range is 0-1 s in steps of
0.05 s. Hence, the TDS of the relay R2 is obtained by,
5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 4.24 × 10
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = = 4.24
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 0.5 (3.7)
0.14
2.3 = × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2
(4.24)0.02 −1

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 = 0.612. Hence, the selected value of TDS of R2 is 0.4.

Case 2: Coordination between the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟏𝟏 and the relay 𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 :

To coordinate relay 𝑅𝑅2 with relay 𝑅𝑅1 , it is necessary to consider the fault at bus B at
the location 𝐹𝐹2 . The fault current (IF2) at this location is given by,
230
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹2 = = 7.58 A (3.8)
4.5 + (25||(500 + 4.5))
The PSM is given by,

5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 7.58 × 10 (3.9)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = = 7.58
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 0.5
The Top of the relay 𝑅𝑅2 for the above fault location (𝐹𝐹2 ) is given by,
0.14 0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅2 = (7.58)0.02 −1 × 0.6 =2.03 s (3.10)

For a fault at 𝐹𝐹2 , the relay 𝑅𝑅2 should operate as the primary relay and the relay
𝑅𝑅1 should act as a back-up relay if the relay R 2 fails for the same fault location.
Therefore, the time of operation of relay 𝑅𝑅1 for a fault at 𝐹𝐹2 should be greater than that
of the relay 𝑅𝑅2 . Considering 2.0 s as the CTI between the relay R2 and the relay R1, the
required time of operation of the relay R1 for the above fault is 2.03 + 2.0 = 3.03 s. It is
to be noted that the CTI between two successive relays is usually taken as 0.25 to 0.4
s. However, due to limitations of the equipment used in the practical setup, it is taken
as 2.0 s.
The time of operation of relay 𝑅𝑅1 at the above fault current is given by,
0.14
𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 = (𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃)0.02 −1 × 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 (3.11)
5
𝐼𝐼𝐹𝐹 (𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆) 7.58×
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑅𝑅1 = = 10
= 5.05 (3.12)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 0.75

Inserting values of PSM =5.05 and required Top of R1 as 3.03 s in (3.11),

 0.14
3.03 = (5.05)0.02 −1
× 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 (3.13)

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅1 = 0.95. Hence, the selected value of TDS of R1 is 0.95.
The calculated value of relay settings are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Calculated relay settings

Relay setting Relay R1 Relay R2

PS 75% 50%
TDS 0.95 0.6

3.4. Procedure:
1. Do the connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2).
2. Carryout the relay settings according to the analytical calculations.
3. Create faults at various location i.e. 𝐹𝐹1 ,𝐹𝐹1′ , 𝐹𝐹2 ,𝐹𝐹2′ and observe the operation of relays.
3. Observe the backup protection by blocking operation of contactors C2-3 and C2-3.
Observations:
Observations in terms of primary are shown in Table 3.3 and Table 3.4, respectively.
And backup protection is shown in Table 3.5.

Table 3.3. Observing the primary protection with the Fault between F1 and F1’

Fault
Current %
Fault Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
(If) seen
location top top Error=
by the 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-
end
Mid-
point
Far-end

Table 3.3. Observing the primary protection with the Fault between F2 and F2’

Fault
Fault Current (If) Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
%Error=
location seen by the top top 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-end
Mid-
point
Far-end
 Table 3.5 Observing the backup protection with the Fault between F2 and F2’

Fault
Fault Current (If) Observed Calculated 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐) −𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
%Error=
location seen by the top top 𝒕𝒕𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐(𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄)
relay
Near-end
Mid-
point
Far-end

1.7. Calculations:
 1.8. Conclusion:

3.8. Appendix:
(a) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) Overcurrent Relay

This type of relay is widely used by the utilities in the field. Initially, the
characteristic of the relay follows inverse law, and thereafter, when the current
becomes very high, it follows definite minimum operating time pattern. This is
because of the constant operating torque due to the saturation of flux at a high value
of current in the electromechanical relay. Its characteristic is given in (3.6). Time-
current characteristics available in the SEL-751 are given in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5. Time- current characteristics available in SEL-751 relay

Curve Type Operating Time

0.14
C1 (IDMT) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.02 × TDS
𝐼𝐼 −1
13.5
C2 (Very Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 − 1

80
C3 (Extremely Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 2 − 1

120
C4 (Long-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝑀𝑀 − 1

0.05
C5 (Short-Time Inverse) 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = × TDS
𝐼𝐼 0.04 − 1

(b) Time current characteristics of MCB

Fig. 3.3. Time current characteristics of MCB
 Experiment - 4
Transmission Line Protection
4.1. Aim:
To understand the protection of transmission line using digital distance relay.
4.2. Circuit Diagram:
Fig. 4.1 shows schematic diagram of a three-phase transmission line network (power
circuit) including grid supply and load connection. To acquire sending end three
phase voltages and currents, a digital distance relay (IED) is connected at Bus-1.
Grid supply
Load MCB
Bus-3 Bus-2 Bus-1 MCB
∏
R

3-ø supply 440V, 50 Hz

∏ A
R R 2 1
3-phase RLC load

V F
∏
Y
∏
Y Y 4 3

∏
B
∏
B B 6 5

N
N N

R L

∏ C/2
C/2

R Y B G
IA IB IC IN
R = 1 Ω, L = 10mH, C= 10µF 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
VA VB VC N

Fault control

SEL 351

Fig. 4.1. Schematic diagram of three-phase transmission line network

4.3. Apparatus Required:

Table Ⅰ shows number of apparatus required for performing the experiment on a
transmission line protection network using digital distance relay.
Table 4.1. Number of apparatus required
Sr. No Apparatus Quantity
1 3-phase, 440 V, 50Hz Auto 1
Transformer
2 Series resistance 1 ohm 6
3 Variable series inductance of 10 mH 6
4 Shunt capacitance 5uF 6
5 Three phase RLC load 1
6 Ammeter, (0-5) A 2
 7 Voltmeter, (0-600) V 2
8 SEL make digital distance relay 1
9 Current Transformers, 10/1 A 3
10 Fault switch 1
11 Rheostat of 100 ohm, 3.5A 1

4.4. Theory:
Depending on the requirements, transmission lines are protected by overcurrent,
distance relaying systems. The current-based scheme fails in many situations and does
not provide instantaneous protection to the entire line. Moreover, the coordination of
overcurrent relays is very difficult, particularly for a large, interconnected power
system.
4.4.1. Distance protection

Distance relaying scheme has been widely used for the protection of transmission lines
for the last five decades. The operation of distance relays is mainly based on the
impedance measured at the relaying point. The voltage-to-current ratio of the
fundamental frequency components seen at the relaying point is an indicator of the
system’s normal or fault condition.

KS
Z2
A B
Z1
ZM VS CBS dZ L F1 (1-d)ZL F2 ZN
IS
RF
RS
F3 EN
EM

Fig. 4.2. Single line diagram of transmission line protected by distance relay.

Figure 4.2. shows a single line diagram of a faulty power network. A distance relay is
connected at bus A to protect the transmission line having an impedance ZL = RL +
jXL. KS is the set value of impedance. For an internal fault at F1, the measured
impedance at bus-A lies in the first quadrant of the impedance plane and is less than
the set value of impedance (Z1 < KS). For an external fault at F2, it lies in the first
quadrant of the impedance plane, but it is greater than the set value of impedance (Z2
> KS). For a backward or reverse fault at F3, it lies in the third quadrant of the
impedance plane (negative impedance). The faults F1–F3 are assumed not to have any
fault resistance value. For an internal fault, the fault trajectory of the measured
impedance moves from its pre-fault condition (load area) to its post-fault steady state
measurement. As soon as the fault trajectory enters the trip area and settles down on
a line defined by the transmission line angle (φL = tan-1(XL/RL)), the relay sends a trip
signal to the breaker.

4.4.2. Three zone distance characteristics

Backup protection is made possible in distance protection by stepped distance
characteristics. It is one of the most commonly used backup protection schemes for
EHV/UHV transmission lines. In such a scheme of protection, a distance relay has
three zones of protection as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Zone-Ⅲ of RS

Zone-Ⅱ of RS

Zone-Ⅰ of RS
A B C

RS RN RP RQ

Fig. 4.3. Zones of distance protection scheme.

The first zone or the high-speed zone, designated as zone-I, is set to trip without any
intentional time delay and provides primary protection for the line section to be
protected. To avoid unnecessary operation on faults beyond the remote end due to the
transient overreach and errors in the instrument (current and voltage) transformers
(CTs and VTs), zone-I is adjusted to reach 80–90% of the length of the line section. The
second zone, designated zone-II, is used to provide high-speed protection for the
remainder of the line with an adequate margin. It gives instantaneous protection for
the line section that is uncovered by zone 1 and time-delayed protection for half of the
following line section. It should be adjusted so that it will be able to operate even for
arcing faults at the end of the line. Even if the arcing faults did not have to be
considered, the under reaching tendency of the relay because of the effect of
intermediate current sources and the errors in the data, CTs, potential transformers
(PTs), and relays, should be considered. It is customary to have the second-zone unit
reach 50% of an adjoining line section. The second-zone relays have to be time delayed
for coordinating with relays at the remote bus, and the typical time delays are of the
order of 0.3–0.6 s. The third zone, designated as zone-III, is used to provide remote
backup to the first and second zone of an adjacent line sections when a relay or breaker
fails to clear the fault locally. The usual practice is to extend its reach beyond the end
of the largest adjoining line section or more than double the line section to be
protected. The third-zone operation is usually delayed by about 1.4–1.8 s. The third-
zone reach setting is a more complex problem. It has been observed that the zone-III
unit trips under heavy and unusual loading conditions, and thereby leads to the
cascade tripping of the power system. The third-zone setting must be blocked in case
of extreme loading conditions. In certain conditions, its reach can be modified. There
are certain critical locations where zone-III protection can be removed if alternative
protection functions in other forms are available.

The discrimination of fault condition against heavy load and such other conditions
when the relay is not required to operate requires the measurement of not only the
magnitude, but also the angle of the impedance of the line up to the fault point. Many
types of distance relays have therefore been developed and applied for line protection.
These are as follows:
1. Impedance relay
2. Reactance relay
3. Mho or admittance relay
4. Ohm or angle impedance relay
5. Offset mho relay
6. Quadrilateral and other special characteristics
4.4.3. Mho Characteristics
A relay which measures admittance of the line is called mho relay or admittance relay. This
relay can overcome the limitation of impedance relay by providing a unidirectional feature.
The mho characteristic of distance relay is the boundary of a circle passing through the origin
of R-X plane. This is achieved by polarizing the impedance relay with additional voltage which
provides current biasing to offset the characteristics and makes it directional. Hence, the
quantity Y∠θ is measured by mho unit, where θ is the characteristic angle of the relay. Mho
elements are inherently directional, and no separate directional unit is required. Fig. 4.4 shows
the operating characteristic of mho relay with the three-zones.
The function of zone-III is to provide backup protection in case a relay or a breaker in the next
bus section fails to clear a fault. Inaccuracy due to the loads and power infeed’s is worse with
zone-III because there are two buses between the relay and the cut-off point of the relay.
Overreaching can cause the third-zone unit to trip undesirably for a fault on the other side of a
large distribution transformer. Further, if the setting is too long, the third-zone unit becomes
susceptible to operation on power swings. In addition, the discrimination between faults and
loads becomes poor. Therefore, at certain lines, the recent practice is to omit the third zone of
the distance relay and use only the two zones of the distance element.

Fig. 4.4. Mho relay characteristics

4.5. Analytical calculations
4.5.1. Zone settings of the distance relay

With reference to the three-phase transmission network, as shown in Fig. 4.1, the line
impedance is given by, ZL = 3.16 + j9.92 Ω. Hence, the zone settings of the distance
relay are given by,
Zone-1 setting, 80% of line impedance = ZL1 = 2.528+ j3.936 Ω
Zone-2 setting, 120% of line impedance = ZL2 = 3.792+j5.904 Ω
4.5.2. Calculations impedance seen by the relay

Utilizing three-phase voltages (VA, VB, VC) and currents (IA, IB, IC) at the relay
location, the measured value of phase impedance at the relaying point is given by
(4.1).
𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵/𝐶𝐶
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵/𝐶𝐶 = (4.1)
𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵/𝐶𝐶

where, A, B, and C represents phase-A, phase-B and phase-C of the three-phase

transmission line.
As the measured value of phase impedance contains line impedance along with fault
resistance (which has a higher value compare to line impedance due to utilization of
rheostat for limiting the magnitude of fault current), the value of fault resistance (RF)
should be subtracted from the measured value of phase impedance. Hence, the value
of fault resistance is calculated by using (4.2).
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑉𝑉𝑆𝑆 × (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 × 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 )∗ )
𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 =
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 × (𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 × 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 )∗ ) (4.2)

where, VS and IS are line to neutral voltage and phase current, respectively.
Finally, the impedance seen by the relay is given by (4.3).
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴/𝐵𝐵/𝐶𝐶 − 𝑅𝑅𝐹𝐹 (4.3)

4.4. Procedure:
• Do the connections as per circuit diagram.
• Increase the supply voltage up to 110 V line to line by using three-phase
autotransformer.
• Switch on three-phase RLC load with R-load as 3A and L-load as 4.2A.
• Acquire the three-phase voltages and currents at the relay location during healthy
condition and calculate the impedance seen by the relay as per (4.3).
• Create the faults at different location (25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) and acquire the
three-phase voltages and currents at the relay location.
• Repeat the calculations of impedance seen by the relay for various locations of the
faults as per (4.3).
• Draw the MHO operating characteristics of the distance relay using transmission
line impedance.
• Mark the point of the impedance seen by the relay at different fault location on
the MHO operating characteristics.
4.3. Observations:
Table 4.2. Observing the impedance seen by the relay
Para- Fault location from Bus-1
meters No fault 25% 50% 75% 100%
VA
VB
VC
IA
IB
IC
ZA/B/C
as per
(9.1)
RF
as per
(9.2)
Zcal
as per
(9.3)

4.8. Conclusion:
 Experiment - 5

Differential Protection of Transformer

5.1. Aim:

To study the operating principle of the differential protection scheme for a transformer.

5.2. Circuit Diagram:

The power and control circuit diagram for differential protection scheme of a single-
phase transformer is shown in Fig. 5.1 (a) and (b), respectively.
CT1 (10/5 A) CT2 (10/5 A)
P1 P2 L2 T2 (0-5)A (0-5)A P2 P1
A A
S1 S2 S2 S1 SWext

230 V, 24 V SWint
Variac

50 Hz Rext = RL =
1–Φ V (0-75)Ω / (0-75)Ω /
Rint =
AC Supply (0-230)V 230 V / 230 V 5A 5A
1-ɸ Txmer
(0-75)Ω /
1 kVA 5A

Z01 Z07

Z02 Z08

(a)

Ph
L1 PB(NO) Control Circuit

T1 A1 L1 L2 L3 NO

STOP
230 V
PB(NC)
AC Supply
A7 SEL Relay A2
A9 NC Contacts T1 T2 T3 NO
A1
C Contactor
A2

N
(b)
Fig. 5.1. (a) Power circuit (b) Control circuit
5.3. Apparatus Required:

The number of apparatus required for performing the experiment is listed in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Apparatus required for performing the experiment
Sr. No. Name of Apparatus Rating Quantity
1 − 𝜙𝜙, (0 – 260) V
1 1 − 𝜙𝜙 𝐴𝐴uto-Transformer 1
Output
2 Voltmeter (0 – 230) V 1
3 Ammeter (0 – 5) A 2
4 1 − 𝜙𝜙 𝑇𝑇ransformer with Tappings 230 V / 230 V, 1 kVA 1
5 Current Transformer (CT ) 10/5 A, 5 VA 2
6 SEL-787 Differential Protection Relay - 1
7 Load Resistance (0 – 75) Ω, 5 A 1
8 Fault Resistance (Internal & External) (0 – 75) Ω, 5 A 2
9 Push Buttons (PBs) - 2
10 Connecting Wires 1.5 mm2 As required

5.4. Theory:
5.4.1 Introduction:
Transformer differential protection is a scheme designed to detect internal faults within
a transformer. It operates based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL), which states that
the algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a node must be zero. Under normal
operating conditions, the per-unit current on the primary side of the transformer should
be equal to the per-unit current on the secondary side, ensuring that KCL is satisfied.
As a result, no differential current is observed, and the protective relay does not operate.
Consider a transformer with a transformation ratio of 1:1 and a Y/Y connection, where
Current Transformers (CT1 and CT2) are installed on both sides to match the
transformer's ratio, as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a). For an ideal transformer, the currents on
the primary side (denoted as 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2 ) and the secondary side (denoted as 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 ) are
equal. It is a standard practice to configure the CT polarities such that they face away
from the differential protection zone. This polarity arrangement causes the primary and
secondary currents (𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2 ) to be 180° out of phase with each other. Consequently,
under normal load conditions, the net current flowing through the differential element
is zero, and the relay remains inactive.
The SEL-787 relay is commonly used for transformer differential protection, as shown
in Fig. 5.1. (a). It calculates following two key current values for detection of a fault
condition:
1. Operating Current (𝑰𝑰𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 )
2. Restraining Current (𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 )

The operating current (𝑰𝑰𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 ) represents the differential current, while the restraining
current (𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 ) helps in preventing the relay operation during external faults or current
transformer mismatches. The values of 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 are calculated as per (1) and (2),
respectively.
 IOP = | 𝑖𝑖1 - 𝑖𝑖2 | (5.1)
| 𝑖𝑖1 | + | 𝑖𝑖2 |
IRT = (5.2)
2

where, 𝑖𝑖1 and 𝑖𝑖2 is the current measured by secondary side of CT1 and CT2, respectively.
5.4.2 Working of Control Circuit:

To close the circuit, the Green Push Button is pressed, as shown in Fig. 5.1. (b). This
action changes its state from open to close. Since the control circuit is supplied with 230
V AC, pressing the Green Push Button completes the control circuit and energizes the
contactor coil (A1-A2).
The contactor has four power contacts: L1-T1, L2-T2, L3-T3, and L4-T4 (NO-NO), all of
which are initially in the open state. When the contactor coil is energised:
• All these contacts change their state.
• Specifically, L1-T1 closes and is connected in parallel with the Green Push
Button. This ensures a holding circuit, maintaining the energisation of the
contactor coil even after the Green Push Button is released, keeping the circuit
closed.
• Additionally, L2-T2 closes, completing the circuit and allowing the system to
operate. Various fault conditions can also be simulated by operating the
respective fault switches connected in the circuit.
If the differential operating current (𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ) exceeds the preset pickup value, the relay
detects an internal fault and sends a trip command based on its characteristic curve.
Upon tripping:
• The NC contacts (A7-A9) of the SEL-787 change their state and become open,
resulting in the de-energisation of the contactor coil (A1-A2). As a result, the
L2-T2 contact opens, disconnecting the main supply.

Note: The Red Push Button has NC contacts connected in series with the left-hand side
of the control circuit. In case of an emergency, pressing the Red Push Button changes
its state (from close to open), opening the control circuit and de-energizing the contactor
coil, thereby stopping the entire setup.
5.4.3 Percentage Restraint Differential Characteristic:
Through several relay settings, the percent dual-slope operating curve, as shown in Fig.
5.2, is used to set the operating and restraining region for the relay. The operating region
is the area above the curve where the relay will trip, ideally only when a fault is present.
While the restraining region is the area below the curve where the relay should restrain
from tripping. Using 𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 values, the relay can make tripping decisions based
on the percent dual-slope operating curve.
The four settings that define the characteristic of differential relay as under:
O87P = minimum IOP level required for operation
SLP1 = initial slope or the first slope, beginning at the origin and intersecting O87P at
 IRT. The value of IRT is given by (5.3).

𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = O87P * 100/SLP1 (5.3)

𝐈𝐈𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 = limit of 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 for SLP1 operation; intersection where SLP2 begins
SLP2 = second slope must be greater than or equal to SLP1
(IOP)
Operating
Region

Dual-Slope
Characteristics
50%
Single-Slope
Characteristics
25%
087P Restraining
Region

IRS1 (IRT)
Fig. 5.2. Percentage Restraint Differential Characteristic

5.5. Procedure:
a) Connect the circuit, as shown in Fig. 5.1. (a), as per the wiring diagram.
b) Configure the settings in the SEL-787 relay as per Table 5.2.

Table 5.2 Various settings of SEL-787 relay

Setting of Relay Description Value
087P Minimum Operating Differential Current 0.2 pu
SLP1 Restraint Slope 1 25 %
SLP2 Restraint Slope 2 50 %
IRS1 Restraint Current Slope 1 Limit 4.0
W1CT / CTR1 Winding 1 CT Connection / CT Ratio WYE / 2
W2CT / CTR2 Winding 2 CT Connection / CT Ratio WYE / 2

c) Press the Green Push Button to complete the control circuit and energize the
contactor (closing contactor contacts).
Note: The Red Push Button is provided to manually open the circuit and de-
energize the contactor if required.
d) Normal Operating Condition:

• Gradually increase the supply voltage using the auto-transformer and observe
the currents 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2 through ammeters connected to the primary and
secondary sides of the transformer.
• Keep the load resistance fixed at RL = 62 Ω. Ensure that no fault resistance is
connected during this step.
e) Internal Fault Condition:
• Switch ON the internal fault switch (SWint) to simulate an internal fault. Set
the fault resistance, Rint = 1.3 Ω.
 • This will connect Rint in parallel with RL, causing a noticeable change in
currents 𝐼𝐼1 and 𝐼𝐼2 .
• Observe and record the change in currents.
• Calculate operating current (IOP ) and restraint current (IRT ).
• Plot the calculated point on the differential characteristic curve to verify
behavior of the relay.
f) Repeat the same procedure for different supply voltages using the auto-transformer
and observe how the relay responds and plot the new operating points on the
characteristic curve for each voltage condition.
g) External Fault Condition:
• Switch ON the external fault switch (SWext) to simulate an external fault.
Set the fault resistance, Rext = 40 Ω.
• This will connect Rext in parallel with RL, but outside the differential
protection zone.
• Observe and record the change in currents.
• Calculate operating current (𝐼𝐼𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ) and restraint current (𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ).
• Check whether the relay remains stable (no trip) and plot the corresponding
point on the characteristic curve.
5.6. Observations:
Operating Supply 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝒊𝒊𝟏𝟏 𝒊𝒊𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝑰𝑰𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 Relay
Condition Voltage Status
Normal

Internal
Fault

External
Fault

Plot: Plot the Percentage Restraint Differential Characteristic and indicate all
operating coordinates.

5.7. Conclusion: