9

9.1

ELECTRONICS
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

THERMIONIC EMISSION 1 Metals contain .. electrons. 2 The free electrons are in . motion. 3 When a metal is heated, the free electrons gain energy. 4 The free electrons move . and faster. 5 Some free electrons can overcome the attraction of the positive ions and . from the surface of the metal. 6 Definition of Thermionic Emission Thermionic emission is the emission of free electrons from the surface of a hot metal . 7 The Cathode Ray Tube

8 9

Cathode rays are a beam of . moving and high . electrons. Properties of cathode rays (a) Move in a . line (b) Deflected by an .. field (c) Deflected by a magnetic field (d) Has . and momentum. The kinetic energy of the electrons will be converted to .. energy when the beam of electrons strike a fluorescent screen. Maltese Cross + 3 kV

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE Filament

Flourescent screen

The Electron Gun (a) Hot filament/cathode emits electrons by emission. (b) Electrons are . and . by the anode. (c) The electrons emerge from the anode as a beam of cathode rays. The Deflection System (a) Y plates - to deflect the electron beam - connected to the external Y-input

(i) The electron strikes the centre of the screen (b) X plates -

(ii) The electron beam is deflected upwards

(iii) The electron beam oscillates up and down

to deflect the electron beam connected to the time base circuit When the time base is switched on, the electron beam is deflected from the left to the right at a constant speed. This motion is repeated over and over again.

The Display which consists of a .. screen (a) When the electron beam strikes the screen, kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to light energy (b) A .. spot is seen on the screen No Y-input Time base OFF DC voltage at Y-input Larger DC voltage at Y-input

Time base ON

Time base ON at higher frequency

No Y-input Time base OFF

AC voltage at Y-input

Larger AC voltage at Y-input

Time base ON

Time base ON at higher frequency

Uses of the Cathode Ray Oscilloscope MEASURING POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE or VOLTAGE (a) Voltage gain is 0.5 V cm1 (b) Voltage gain is 2.0 V / div. (c) Voltage gain is 5.0 V cm1

Type of voltage : .. Peak voltage = MEASURING SHORT TIME INTERVALS (a) Time base is set to 2.0 ms cm1

Type of voltage : .. Peak voltage =

Type of voltage : .. Peak voltage =

(b) Time base is set to 5 ms cm1

Time interval between the two signals =

Period of the wave, T = Frequency,

f =

1 = T

DISPLAYING WAVEFORMS (a) The signal from the waveform to be displayed is connected to the Y-input. The time base is adjusted until a suitable waveform is displayed on the screen.

9.2

Semiconductor Diodes

SEMICONDUCTORS 1 In terms of conduction of electricity, materials can be divided into 3 categories. Conductors Gold Silver Copper Conducts electricity 2 Semiconductors Insulators Air Rubber Polythene Does not conduct electricity

Common properties of semiconductors (a) Elements in Group of the Periodic Table (b) Each atom has .. valence electrons (c) Covalent bonds between atoms (d) Contains free electrons and ... (e) Conducts small currents when a small amount of impurity is added. Does not obey Ohm's law. DOPING is the process of replacing some the atoms in a semiconductor with atoms of other elements. (a) Doping with pentavalent atoms (5 valence electrons) i. Examples of pentavalent atoms are : phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) ii. Each pentavalent atom donates a electron iii. Free electrons become the . charge carrier in the semiconductor iv. The semiconductor becomes a n-type semiconductor (b) Doping with trivalent atoms (3 valence electrons) i. Examples of trivalent atoms are : aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In) ii. Each trivalent atom contributes a .. (which is a positive charge carrier) iii. Holes become the majority charge carrier in the semiconductor iv. The semiconductor becomes a p-type semiconductor

There are 2 types of semiconductors n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor Doping with pentavalent atoms Doping with trivalent atoms Majority charge carrier : electrons Majority charge carrier : holes Minority charge carrier : holes Minority charge carrier : electrons

P-N JUNCTION DIODE = SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

n
Symbol for a diode

When a diode is forward bias: (a) The depletion layer becomes . (b) The resistance of the diode (c) The diode conducts a current

When a diode is reversed bias: (a) The depletion layer becomes . (b) The resistance of the diode (c) No current flows through the diode

Current flows. Bulb lights up.

No current. Bulb is not lighted.

The diode conducts a current when it is bias. The current is NOT directly proportional to the potential difference. Therefore, a diode does NOT obey .. law.

Current

Voltage

RECTIFICATION 1 A diode can act as a RECTIFIER to convert an alternating current to a . current. 2 Half-wave rectification

During the first half-cycle: the diode is forward bias and conducts a current. For the next half-cycle: the diode is reverse bias and no current flows in the circuit 3 The output direct current voltage can be smoothed by connecting a . parallel to the resistor. a. When the diode is forward bias, the capacitor is ... b. When the diode is reverse bias, the capacitor discharges to maintain an almost constant voltage across the resistor.

Full-wave rectification 4 diodes connected in a bridge circuit is used.

R
3

During the first half-cycle: Diodes 1 and 3 are forward bias while diodes 2 and 4 are reverse bias. The current flows through the resistor R from Q to P. For the next half cycle: Diodes 2 and 4 are forward bias while diodes 1 and 3 are reverse bias. The current flows through the resistor R from Q to P also. Therefore the current in resistor R is a direct current.

9.3
1

Transistors
There are 2 types of transistors : n-p-n transistor and p-n-p transistor.

IC
C B E

IC
C B

IB

C B E

IB

C B E

IE
NPN TRANSISTOR 2 Two Important Currents in a Transistor PNP TRANSISTOR

IE

Base current

Collector current

IB

IC

IB + IC

a. If IB = 0, IC = 0 b. IB switches on IC c. IB > IC
Therefore the transistor can act as a .. Therefore the transistor can act as an

The transistor as an amplifier Earphone Microphone

IB

IB

The transistor as a switch Light operated switch C

IB

IB

LDR

R
E The base current IB depends on VBE. As VBE increases, IB also increases. E The resistance of the thermistor decreases when its temperature increases.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

VCB is the voltage across the resistor R VBE is the voltage across the LDR

The 6 V from the power supply is shared by R and the LDR. A higher voltage is applied across the higher resistance.

(e) When conditions are bright: The resistance of the LDR is low. The voltage VBE across the LDR is low. The base current is very small, too small to switch on the collector current. The bulb is not lighted. (f) When the surroundings suddenly become dark : The resistance of the LDR increases rapidly. The voltage VBE across the LDR increases. The base current increases, and switches on the collector current. The bulb lights up.

IC

IC

IC
IE

(b) Heat operated switch C

IC