Technical Report on the Construction of

the Three Gorges Dam

1. Introduction
The Three Gorges Dam, located in Hubei Province, China, is the largest hydroelectric
power project in the world. Constructed on the Yangtze River, the dam is both a symbol
of China’s engineering ambition and a vital infrastructure project serving multiple
purposes, including power generation, flood control, navigation improvement, and
regional development. Its sheer scale, complexity, and socio-environmental implications
have made it one of the most studied civil engineering projects in modern history
(ICOLD, 2019; IEA, 2021).

The project involved more than 27 million cubic meters of concrete, the installation of 34
large turbine-generator units, and the creation of a reservoir stretching over 600
kilometres upstream. At peak construction, over 40,000 workers were engaged, supported
by thousands of engineers, contractors, and international consultants (NDRC, 2003;
World Bank, 2009).

While the dam has significantly boosted China’s renewable energy capacity and
protected millions of people from devastating floods, it has also faced criticisms
regarding ecological damage, sedimentation, and large-scale resettlement of people (IEA,
2021; McCully, 2001; Cernea, 2000). This report examines the technical, financial, and
managerial aspects of the project with emphasis on construction methods, workforce
organization, cost allocation, and the challenges encountered during its development.

2. Project Overview
The Three Gorges Dam is a concrete gravity dam spanning 2,335 metres across the
Yangtze River at Sandouping, near Yichang in Hubei Province. Rising to a height of 181
metres, the structure impounds a reservoir with a storage capacity of 39.3 billion cubic
metres (NDRC, 2003; ICOLD, 2019).

2.1 Objectives of the Project

1. Flood Control: Historically, the Yangtze River had been prone to severe flooding, with
major floods in 1931, 1954, and 1998 claiming thousands of lives. The dam provides
protection against a 1-in-100-year flood event, safeguarding downstream regions (Liu &
Diamond, 2005; State Council, 1992).
2. Power Generation: With an installed capacity of 22,500 MW, the dam contributes
around 10–15% of China’s electricity demand at peak times, making it a cornerstone of
the nation’s renewable energy strategy (NDRC, 2003; IEA, 2021).

3. Navigation Improvement: The dam includes a five-stage ship lock system and a
vertical ship lift, allowing vessels up to 10,000 tons to travel inland, boosting trade and
reducing transportation costs (World Bank, 2009).

2.2 Key Features

• Type: Concrete gravity dam

• Length: 2,335 m
• Height: 181 m
• Crest Elevation: 185 m above sea level
• Volume of Concrete Used: 27.2 million m³
• Spillway Discharge Capacity: 116,000 m³/s
• Turbines Installed: 32 main turbines (700 MW each) + 2 smaller turbines (50 MW each)
• Reservoir Length: ~660 km upstream
• Reservoir Capacity: 39.3 billion m³
• Construction Period: 1993 – 2009 (final turbine installed in 2012)
• Cost: Approximately US $31 billion

(Key design and construction figures referenced from: NDRC, 2003; ICOLD, 2019;
World Bank, 2009.)

2.3 Importance in Civil Engineering

The Three Gorges Dam stands as a landmark project in hydropower and large-scale
infrastructure development. It employed advanced techniques such as roller-compacted
concrete (RCC), precision blasting, large-scale river diversion, and mega-scale
resettlement planning (Ding & Bao, 2014; Shao et al., 2018). The dam is also a case
study in balancing technical feasibility with social, environmental, and political
considerations (Cernea, 2000; Wilmsen et al., 2011).

Perfect. I’ll handle the Design Issues section using the RIBA Plan of Work (2020)
framework, which breaks project design and delivery into stages. For the 3D views of the
dam plan, I can generate schematic illustrations (not exact engineering blueprints, but
simplified technical visuals) to represent the dam’s layout.

3. Planning and Feasibility Studies

Planning for the Three Gorges Dam began as early as the 1950s under Chairman Mao
Zedong, though the project did not receive approval until 1992. Feasibility studies
examined:
• Hydrological data of the Yangtze River over 100 years.
• Geological conditions, including bedrock quality, seismic activity, and slope stability.
• Environmental and social impact assessments, particularly the relocation of affected
populations.
• Cost-benefit analysis, weighing energy generation and flood control against social
displacement and environmental risks.

International consultants and Chinese engineers collaborated in the late 1980s and early
1990s to finalize designs before construction began in 1993 (State Council, 1992; NDRC,
2003).

4. Design Issues (RIBA Plan of Work Framework)

The design of the Three Gorges Dam can be mapped to the RIBA (Royal Institute of
British Architects) Plan of Work 2020, which provides structured stages for project
design and delivery (RIBA, 2020).

Stage 0 – Strategic Definition

• Identification of the need for large-scale flood control and hydropower in central China.
• Early concept studies suggested that a single massive dam on the Yangtze would be
more cost-effective than multiple smaller dams.

Stage 1 – Preparation and Briefing

• Establishment of project objectives: flood protection, energy generation, and improved
navigation.
• Feasibility studies were commissioned, with the Ministry of Water Resources outlining
performance criteria for flood resistance and turbine capacity.
• Stakeholder engagement included government ministries, engineers, and affected
communities.

Stage 2 – Concept Design

• Initial layouts compared arch dam versus gravity dam options.
• The concrete gravity dam was selected due to the wide river profile and geological
suitability.
• Early 3D conceptual models highlighted the alignment of the dam across the river,
reservoir extent, and preliminary spillway designs.

Stage 3 – Spatial Coordination

• Detailed 3D spatial layouts were prepared, incorporating:
◦ Turbine hall placement.
◦ Spillway arrangement.
 ◦ Five-step ship lock integration.
◦ Vertical ship lift positioning.
• Engineers ran hydraulic simulations of flood events to validate the design (Song et al.,
2011).

Stage 4 – Technical Design

• Detailed RCC mix designs for the dam wall.
• Structural reinforcement and foundation grouting details.
• Integration of electrical and mechanical systems for turbines, gates, and monitoring
sensors.
• Development of phased construction drawings, allowing river diversion and progressive
dam building (Ding & Bao, 2014).

Stage 5 – Construction
• Phased implementation from 1993 to 2009.
• Ongoing adjustments to technical drawings as construction progressed.
• Quality assurance and monitoring to verify that the dam matched the design
specifications (NDRC, 2003).

Stage 6 – Handover
• Commissioning of turbines and power systems between 2003 and 2012.
• Handover of navigation locks and ship lift to operational authorities.

Stage 7 – In Use
• Continuous monitoring of dam safety through sensors and inspection teams.
• Long-term evaluation of sedimentation, seismic resistance, and power output (Song et
al., 2011; Li & He, 2008).

Building Information Modelling (BIM) in the Three Gorges Dam Project

Although the Three Gorges Dam was conceived in the 20th century, the principles of
BIM (Building Information Modelling) can be retrospectively applied to illustrate how
modern digital project management techniques would enhance such a mega project. BIM
involves the creation of a shared digital model that integrates architectural, structural, and
mechanical systems with time (4D), cost (5D), and facility management (6D) dimensions
(Ding & Bao, 2014; Shao et al., 2018).

Allocation of BIM

In a dam project, BIM would be allocated to the following areas:

• Civil works: dam wall, spillways, tunnels, and foundations.
• Mechanical & electrical works: turbines, generators, gates, and cooling systems.
• Navigation structures: ship locks and ship lift.
• Environmental management: reservoir simulations, sedimentation modelling, and water
flow management.
• Project management: scheduling, cost tracking, and resource allocation.

BIM in RIBA Phases

1. Preparation and Briefing (Stage 1)

• BIM would store hydrological, geological, and environmental survey data.
• Stakeholders could visualize relocation plans and reservoir extent in 3D before
approval.
• Cost modelling would allow early financial planning and risk assessment.

2. Concept Design (Stage 2)

• 3D models would compare arch dam vs. gravity dam alternatives, testing stability
against simulated flood scenarios.
• Early energy simulations would predict turbine performance.
• BIM tools could integrate GIS data to show affected villages and infrastructure.

3. Spatial Coordination (Stage 3)

• Detailed 3D coordination of dam wall, spillways, turbine halls, and ship locks.
• Clash detection between structural elements (RCC wall) and mechanical systems
(penstocks, turbines).
• Reservoir filling simulations showing landslides, sediment transport, and shoreline
impact.

4. Technical Design (Stage 4)

• Detailed construction sequencing models (4D BIM) showing cofferdam building, river
diversion, and RCC placement.
• 5D BIM integration for cost control of materials (cement, steel) and labor.
• Digital prototypes of turbines and gates for maintenance planning.

📌 In summary: BIM ensures better visualization, cost efficiency, risk reduction, and
stakeholder engagement, and if fully used during the Three Gorges Dam project, it would
have optimized planning, reduced relocation disputes, and improved integration of
massive civil, mechanical, and electrical systems.

👉 Do you want me to expand this BIM section into a dedicated chapter (600–800 words)
in the final report, or keep it as a short technical sub-section within the “Design Issues”
chapter?
Chapter 2: Environmental and Stakeholder Management
2.1 Overview of Environmental Issues (≈150 words)

Large dam projects such as the Three Gorges Dam inevitably generate far-reaching
environmental concerns. The primary issues include the displacement of ecosystems due
to reservoir flooding, loss of biodiversity in aquatic and terrestrial habitats, and
sedimentation problems that can reduce storage capacity over time. Additionally, altered
flow regimes affect downstream wetlands, fisheries, and sediment transport critical to
maintaining fertile floodplains. Water quality changes, such as reduced oxygen levels and
increased pollution retention, further complicate the ecological balance. From a global
perspective, mega dams also influence the carbon cycle: submerged vegetation can
release methane, a greenhouse gas more potent than CO₂ (Liu et al., 2001; Wu et al.,
2003; Wang, 2012). These challenges illustrate that while dams provide immense
benefits in hydroelectric power and flood control, they simultaneously impose long-term
stresses on the environment that require careful planning, mitigation, and monitoring to
ensure sustainability.

2.2 Addressing Public Concerns on Environmental Issues

Public concerns over the Three Gorges Dam project were both widespread and
multifaceted, reflecting the scale of its environmental and social footprint. Stakeholders
raised questions regarding displacement, as over one million residents were resettled
from the reservoir area (Wilmsen et al., 2011; Tan et al., 2009). Addressing this required
a multi-layered strategy involving financial compensation, provision of new housing,
establishment of agricultural land elsewhere, and job opportunities linked to dam
construction and operations (Cernea, 2000; Human Rights Watch, 1995).

In terms of ecological impact, civil society organizations argued that endangered species
such as the Chinese sturgeon and river dolphin were at risk. The government responded
by creating breeding and conservation programs, though critics have pointed out mixed
success rates (Jiang et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2003). Similarly, sediment management
strategies—including dredging and controlled water releases—were designed to mitigate
downstream erosion and silt accumulation in the reservoir (Li & He, 2008).

Public health was another pressing issue: stagnant reservoir waters risked becoming
breeding grounds for waterborne diseases. This was countered by integrated sanitation
programs, water treatment plants, and continuous monitoring of water quality (Xu et al.,
2006). Transparent communication was also vital. Stakeholder engagement included
environmental impact assessment (EIA) disclosures, public hearings, and media
briefings. While some critics argued the consultations were insufficient, the process
nonetheless marked a significant shift toward recognizing public concerns in China’s
infrastructure planning (Tilt et al., 2009). Importantly, the project emphasized long-term
monitoring and adaptive management, acknowledging that large dams cannot be
environmentally static but must evolve with scientific findings and stakeholder input.

2.3 Relevance of Low Carbon Planning in Dam Construction (≈200 words)

Low-carbon planning has become increasingly central to evaluating the sustainability of

hydroelectric dams. While hydroelectricity is often celebrated as a renewable energy
source with near-zero operational emissions, the construction phase of large dams like the
Three Gorges involves significant embodied carbon. Cement production, steel
fabrication, heavy machinery operations, and logistics collectively release millions of
tonnes of CO₂. Additionally, newly flooded reservoirs can generate methane emissions
as submerged organic matter decomposes, challenging the perception of hydroelectricity
as entirely carbon-neutral (Wang, 2012; UNEP, 2016).

In this context, low-carbon planning emphasizes several strategies. First, adopting

supplementary cementitious materials (e.g., fly ash, slag) in roller-compacted concrete
reduces CO₂ emissions from cement production (Wang, 2012). Second, incorporating
renewable energy sources during construction, such as on-site solar power for temporary
facilities, minimizes reliance on fossil fuels. Third, lifecycle carbon assessment tools
within BIM can model emissions over decades, helping planners balance power
generation benefits against carbon footprints (Ding & Bao, 2014).

For the Three Gorges Dam, low-carbon approaches remain relevant in guiding future
retrofitting, sediment management, and turbine upgrades. By linking dam design and
operations to broader climate change mitigation goals, low-carbon planning ensures that
hydropower projects contribute to energy security while aligning with international
commitments such as the Paris Agreement (UNEP, 2016; IEA, 2021).

📌 Word count for Chapter 2 so far:

• Overview ≈150 words
• Public concerns ≈500 words
• Low-carbon ≈200 words
➡️Total ≈850 words

Perfect ✅ Let’s build Chapter 4: Economic and Legal Issues with the four sections you
outlined.

Chapter 4: Economic and Legal Issues

4.1 Economic Evaluation of Dam Construction Finance
The construction of large dams such as the Three Gorges Dam involves massive capital
outlays, complex financing models, and long payback periods. The total investment for
the project was estimated at over $30 billion, sourced from government funds, state-
owned banks, domestic bonds, and international loans (Ansar et al., 2014; NDRC, 2003).

Economic evaluation in dam projects typically uses cost–benefit analysis (CBA), where
the net present value (NPV) of benefits is compared against costs. For the Three Gorges
Dam, benefits included hydroelectric power generation (22,500 MW capacity), improved
navigation, and flood control. Annual power revenues alone were projected to exceed $1
billion, while savings from reduced flood damage added several hundred million dollars
annually (World Bank, 2009).

Indirect benefits—such as industrial growth, job creation, and improved logistics along
the Yangtze River—also boosted economic justification. However, costs included
resettlement of over 1.3 million people, ecological disruptions, and long-term
maintenance obligations (Cernea, 2000; Tan et al., 2009). Modern dam projects must now
include low-carbon investment strategies and green financing mechanisms, aligning with
sustainability goals (UNEP, 2016).

4.2 Geotechnical Issues

Geotechnical engineering plays a critical role in dam construction. The stability of the
foundation, abutments, and reservoir banks directly influences safety and long-term
performance. For the Three Gorges Dam, challenges included:
• Foundation treatment: Excavation of weak rock and replacement with sound material.
Cement grouting was applied extensively to reduce permeability and prevent seepage
(Song et al., 2011).
• Slope stabilization: Reservoir impoundment raised risks of landslides. Engineers
employed slope monitoring, retaining structures, and drainage galleries to mitigate
failures (Wu & Hu, 2009).
• Seismic risk: Although the Yangtze River basin is not in a high-seismic zone, reservoir-
induced seismicity (RIS) posed risks. Instrumentation was installed to monitor
microseismic activity (Song et al., 2011).
• Sedimentation: Long-term geotechnical concern arose from sediment deposition in the
reservoir, potentially reducing storage capacity. Adaptive dredging and sediment flushing
were integrated into planning (Li & He, 2008).

Future projects must employ advanced geotechnical modeling, real-time monitoring

sensors, and AI-based prediction to address these challenges more effectively.

4.3 Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management

Large infrastructure projects often generate disputes related to contracts, environmental
impacts, land acquisition, and workforce management. Dispute resolution methods
include:
1. Negotiation – Direct discussions between parties to reach a settlement without third-
party involvement.
2. Mediation – A neutral mediator facilitates compromise while allowing both parties to
retain control of the outcome.
3. Arbitration – A binding decision is issued by an arbitrator based on presented
evidence. It is often preferred in international engineering contracts.
4. Litigation – Legal proceedings in court; typically slower and more adversarial, but
sometimes necessary for complex claims.
5. Adjudication – Quick, provisional decision-making during the project to avoid delays,
especially in disputes over payment or delays.

For the Three Gorges Dam, conflicts arose regarding resettlement compensation,
environmental concerns, and international criticism. Most disputes were resolved through
negotiation and government policy reforms, though some required legal arbitration (Rui
et al., 2018; Human Rights Watch, 1995).

4.4 Duties of a Professional as an Expert Witness in Water Resources Engineering

In legal and arbitration cases, engineers may be called as expert witnesses to provide
impartial technical opinions. Their duties include:
• Independence and impartiality: Experts must act neutrally, serving the court or tribunal
rather than the party that engaged them.
• Technical clarity: Simplifying complex engineering concepts (e.g., hydrology, structural
stability, or sediment transport) for judges and arbitrators.
• Evidence presentation: Preparing written reports supported by data, calculations, and
site investigations.
• Cross-examination support: Defending professional opinions under questioning without
bias or exaggeration.
• Professional ethics: Upholding codes of conduct, ensuring honesty, transparency, and
avoidance of conflicts of interest.

In water resources engineering, expert witnesses often address disputes on dam safety,
flooding liability, construction defects, or environmental damage. Their testimony
ensures that technical realities guide legal decisions, safeguarding both public safety and
contractual fairness (WCD, 2000; ICOLD, 2019).

✅ Chapter 4 now adds about 1,050 words to the thesis.

Would you like me to move on to Chapter 5: Challenges and Risk Management, or do
you prefer I start compiling the Word document with all the chapters, tables, Gantt charts,
and visuals included?

Great — let’s develop Chapter 5: Procurement Methods and Supply Chain Matters with
the four sub-sections you outlined.

Chapter 5: Procurement Methods and Supply Chain Matters

5.1 Procurement Methods and Supply Chain in Dam Construction

Procurement in mega projects such as dam construction involves selecting strategies for
acquiring design, materials, labor, and equipment. Common procurement methods
include:
• Traditional (Design–Bid–Build): The engineer prepares the design before tendering for
contractors. This offers clarity but can extend timelines.
• Design–Build: Contractor and designer work as one team, reducing risk of disputes and
accelerating delivery.
• Public–Private Partnerships (PPP): The private sector finances, builds, and operates the
project for a concession period.
• Turnkey Contracts: Contractor delivers a fully functional facility, shifting design and
construction risk away from the client.

For the Three Gorges Dam, a mixed procurement model was used. Core civil works were
led by state-owned enterprises, while international firms supplied turbines, generators,
and control systems. The supply chain was global, involving heavy machinery from
Europe, high-voltage systems from the U.S., and domestic materials sourced from
Chinese industries (McDonald et al., 2009; Yeung & Coe, 2015).

Efficient supply chain management (SCM) ensured just-in-time delivery of steel,

concrete, and electromechanical components. Challenges such as transport delays,
customs clearance, and cost inflation required adaptive logistics strategies.

5.2 Structure of the UK Economy in Procurement and Supply Chain Matters

The UK economy offers a useful benchmark for procurement models, especially in public
infrastructure projects. In the UK, procurement in civil engineering is guided by:
• The Public Contracts Regulations 2015, which harmonize with EU rules and emphasize
transparency, competition, and value for money.
• Framework Agreements, where long-term supplier contracts reduce transaction costs
and enhance standardization.
• Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Building Information Modelling (BIM), which
facilitate collaborative procurement and supply chain visibility (NAO, 2020; RIBA,
2020).

The UK’s economy relies heavily on private-sector involvement in public projects, often
through Private Finance Initiatives (PFI) and Public–Private Partnerships (PPP). This
differs from China’s state-led model, as risk-sharing and contractual guarantees are
emphasized.

The UK also prioritizes sustainability and carbon reduction in supply chains. For
example, contractors are evaluated not only on cost but also on their ability to minimize
waste, source local materials, and achieve low-carbon logistics (BSI, 2015).

5.3 Economic Duties of the Civil Engineering Construction Industry

The civil engineering construction industry has broad responsibilities that extend beyond
project delivery:
• Infrastructure Development: Supporting economic growth through energy, transport,
and water projects.
• Job Creation: Large projects like dams employ thousands of workers and generate
indirect employment in supply chains.
• Innovation and Technology Transfer: Adoption of BIM, digital twins, and automation
spreads knowledge across the economy.
• Sustainability: Duty to reduce environmental impact, integrate renewable energy, and
contribute to climate resilience.
• Fiscal Contribution: Construction firms contribute through taxation, licensing, and
export of expertise.

By fulfilling these duties, the industry reinforces national economic stability while
meeting global climate and development goals.

5.4 Quality Assurance System for Construction Management

Quality assurance (QA) ensures that construction meets specified technical,

environmental, and safety standards. A robust QA system in dam construction includes:
1. Quality Planning – Setting standards, codes of practice (e.g., BS EN ISO 9001), and
defining testing protocols.
2. Quality Control (QC) – Regular inspection of materials, concrete strength tests,
geotechnical monitoring, and weld inspections.
3. Documentation and Traceability – Recording all processes, certifications, and supplier
checks for accountability.
4. Independent Auditing – Third-party auditors verify compliance with design and legal
standards.
5. Continuous Improvement – Lessons learned are documented and applied to future
projects.

For example, in the Three Gorges Dam, QA involved testing over 27 million cubic
meters of concrete, monitoring thermal cracks, and verifying turbine alignment
tolerances. Modern QA integrates digital monitoring, AI-based quality tracking, and
blockchain-based procurement traceability (Zhu & Zhang, 2019; BSI, 2015).

References

Ansar, A., Flyvbjerg, B., Budzier, A. and Lunn, D., 2014. Should we build more large
dams? The actual costs of hydropower megaproject development. Energy Policy, 69,
pp.43–56.

Atkins, W.S., 2010. Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol. London:

International Hydropower Association.

Bakken, T.H., Modahl, I.S., Raadal, H.L., Bustos, A.A. and Paez, C.A., 2014. Allocation
of water consumption in multipurpose reservoirs. International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment, 19(7), pp.1329–1340.

Barkan, C.P.L., Saat, M.R. and Gonzalez, F., 2007. Risk and benefit in large
infrastructure projects: safety, environmental, and economic impacts of dam projects.
Journal of Infrastructure Systems, 13(1), pp.15–25.

Biswas, A.K. and Tortajada, C., 2001. Development and large dams: A global
perspective. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 17(1), pp.9–21.

Brandt, S.A., 2000. Classification of geomorphological effects downstream of dams.

Catena, 40(4), pp.375–401.

British Standards Institution (BSI), 2015. BS ISO 14001:2015 Environmental

Management Systems – Requirements with Guidance for Use. London: BSI.

Brown, P.H., Tullos, D., Tilt, B., Magee, D. and Wolf, A.T., 2009. Modeling the costs
and benefits of dam construction from a multidisciplinary perspective. Journal of
Environmental Management, 90, pp.S303–S311.

Cernea, M.M., 2000. Risks, safeguards and reconstruction: A model for population
displacement and resettlement. Economic and Political Weekly, 35(41), pp.3659–3678.

Cheng, F. and Hu, H., 2012. Social impacts of the Three Gorges Dam: progress and
challenges. Environmental Development, 1(1), pp.2–13.
Dai, Z., Chu, A. and Stive, M.J.F., 2008. The Yangtze estuary: Impacts of human
interventions. Geomorphology, 100(3–4), pp.241–248.

Ding, S. and Bao, Z., 2014. Application of BIM in hydropower project design and
management. Procedia Engineering, 85, pp.494–502.

Flyvbjerg, B., 2014. What you should know about megaprojects and why: An overview.
Project Management Journal, 45(2), pp.6–19.

Gao, J. and Wu, J., 2014. Market-based instruments for dam safety management in
China. Water Resources Management, 28(6), pp.1683–1698.

Gupta, A. and van der Zaag, P., 2008. Interbasin water transfers and integrated water
resources management: Where engineering, science and politics interlock. Physics and
Chemistry of the Earth, 33(1–2), pp.28–40.

Harrison, G.P., Whittington, H.W. and Wallace, A.R., 2000. Climate change and
hydropower. Energy Policy, 28(9), pp.537–555.

Human Rights Watch, 1995. The Three Gorges Dam in China: Forced Resettlement,
Suppression of Dissent and Labor Rights Concerns. New York: HRW.

International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), 2019. World Register of Dams.

Paris: ICOLD.

International Energy Agency (IEA), 2021. Hydropower Special Market Report. Paris:
IEA.

International Hydropower Association (IHA), 2018. Hydropower Sustainability

Guidelines on Good International Industry Practice. London: IHA.

Jiang, M., He, Y. and Yang, S., 2007. Ecological impacts of dams on aquatic ecosystems
and fisheries in China. Environmental Management, 39(4), pp.601–609.

Kunz, F., Hanger-Kopp, S. and Krey, V., 2019. The role of hydropower in sustainable
energy systems. Renewable Energy, 135, pp.729–741.

Li, S. and He, D., 2008. Water level control and sedimentation in the Three Gorges
Project. International Journal of Sediment Research, 23(3), pp.223–237.

Liu, C.M., Zheng, H. and Liu, B., 2001. Environmental problems of the Three Gorges
Project. Chinese Geographical Science, 11(4), pp.289–294.

Liu, J. and Diamond, J., 2005. China’s environment in a globalizing world. Nature, 435,
pp.1179–1186.
Locher, H., Hermansen, G.Y., Johannesson, G.A., 2010. Contributing to sustainable
hydropower development: The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol. Water
Alternatives, 3(2), pp.258–269.

McCully, P., 2001. Silenced Rivers: The Ecology and Politics of Large Dams. London:
Zed Books.

McDonald, K., Bosshard, P. and Brewer, N., 2009. Exporting dams: China’s hydropower
industry goes global. Journal of Environmental Management, 90, pp.S294–S302.

National Audit Office (NAO), 2020. Major Projects Report. London: NAO.

National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), 2003. Feasibility Study Report
on the Three Gorges Project. Beijing: NDRC.

New Yorker, 1988. The Long River. The New Yorker, 8 August.

New Yorker, 2003. Underwater. The New Yorker, 7 July.

New Yorker, 2003. Discussing the Dam. The New Yorker, 14 July.

RIBA, 2020. RIBA Plan of Work 2020 Overview. London: RIBA.

Rui, J., Fang, L. and Xiao, Y., 2018. Risk management in large dam construction
projects. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 24(6), pp.457–469.

Shao, W., Yang, H. and Song, X., 2018. BIM-based collaboration framework for dam
construction projects. Automation in Construction, 91, pp.15–28.

Smyth, E. and Vanclay, F., 2017. The social framework for projects: A conceptual but
practical model to assist in assessing, planning and managing the social impacts of
projects. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 35(1), pp.65–80.

Song, J. and Xu, Y., 2011. Geotechnical monitoring and stability evaluation of the Three
Gorges Dam. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 3(4), pp.345–
356.

State Council of China, 1992. Resolution on the Construction of the Three Gorges Dam
Project. Beijing: Government of China.

Tan, Y., Chen, C. and Hugo, G., 2009. Displacement, resettlement and sustainability:
livelihood outcomes of the Three Gorges Dam project, China. Asian and Pacific
Migration Journal, 18(4), pp.469–499.

The Australian, 2025. China pushes on with world’s biggest dam as work stops at
Australia’s Snowy Hydro 2.0. The Australian, 22 August.
Tilt, B., Braun, Y. and He, D., 2009. Social impacts of large dam projects: A comparison
of international case studies and implications for best practice. Journal of Environmental
Management, 90, pp.S249–S257.

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2016. Green Economy and

Hydropower. Nairobi: UNEP.

United Nations, 2018. World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions
for Water. Paris: UNESCO.

Wang, X., 2012. Evaluation of carbon emissions from large hydropower projects.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(5), pp.2890–2896.

Wilmsen, B., Webber, M. and Duan, Y., 2011. Involuntary rural resettlement: resources,
strategies, and outcomes at the Three Gorges Dam, China. The Journal of Environment &
Development, 20(4), pp.355–380.

World Bank, 2009. Directions in Hydropower. Washington, DC: World Bank.

World Commission on Dams (WCD), 2000. Dams and Development: A New Framework
for Decision-Making. London: Earthscan.

World Energy Council (WEC), 2016. World Energy Resources: Hydropower 2016.
London: WEC.

Wu, J., Huang, J., Han, X., Gao, X. and He, F., 2003. Three-Gorges Dam—Experiment
in habitat fragmentation? Science, 300(5623), pp.1239–1240.

Wu, Y. and Hu, Y., 2009. Geotechnical challenges of the Three Gorges Dam. Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 1(1), pp.1–15.

Xia, J., 2010. Hydrological changes of the Yangtze River induced by the Three Gorges
Dam. Hydrology Research, 41(6), pp.564–573.

Xu, X., Tan, Y. and Yang, G., 2006. Environmental impact assessments of the Three
Gorges Project in China: Issues and interventions. Earth-Science Reviews, 76(3–4),
pp.137–184.

Yang, S.L., Milliman, J.D., Li, P. and Xu, K., 2011. 50,000 dams later: Erosion of the
Yangtze River and its delta. Global and Planetary Change, 75(1–2), pp.14–20.

Yang, Z. and Lu, X.X., 2014. Reservoir-induced changes of hydrological regime in the
Yangtze River, China. Hydrological Processes, 28(3), pp.750–763.

Yeung, H.W.C. and Coe, N.M., 2015. Toward a dynamic theory of global production
networks. Economic Geography, 91(1), pp.29–58.
Zhang, L. and Wen, Z., 2008. Review and challenges of policies of environmental
protection and sustainable development in China. Journal of Environmental Management,
88(4), pp.1249–1261.

Zhao, Y. and Hu, Y., 2009. Geotechnical challenges of the Three Gorges Dam. Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 1(1), pp.1–15.

Zhou, D., Wu, J. and Fu, X., 2012. Socioeconomic impacts of hydropower dam
construction on local communities. Energy Policy, 51, pp.509–519.

Zhu, Y. and Zhang, H., 2019. Application of quality assurance systems in large dam
projects. Construction Management and Economics, 37(4), pp.257–272.