Earth Science Notes
Atmospheric Layers & Theories of Life
Mesosphere – (31-50 miles / 50-80 km); temperature is -90°C; important in protecting
Earth from planetary debris; breaks down most space rocks into smaller pieces; burns up
meteors.
Thermosphere – hottest layer because it absorbs highly energetic solar heat; contains
auroras.
Exosphere – outermost layer of the atmosphere; 'exo' means outer/external; where
exosphere ends, space begins; air density is extremely thin; outer edge blending into space.
Biosphere – includes all living components on Earth; subsystems that comprise all living
things, including those not yet identified.
Primordial Soup Theory – life began from non-living matter; primitive earth contained a
“soup” viable for energy transformation.
Deep-Sea Vent Theory – life began not on surface but deep in the sea, in hydrothermal
vents.
Panspermia Theory – life came from space via meteorites carrying microorganisms.
Earth Materials & Minerals
Earth Materials – include soil, water, air, and organic matter; essential for growth and
survival of organisms, land structure, and civilization development.
Minerals – naturally occurring inorganic solids with crystalline structure and definite
composition. Physical properties include:
• Color – least reliable property; result of light absorption.
• Streak – mineral color in powdered form; tested by streak plate.
• Hardness – resistance to scratching; measured by Mohs scale (1-10).
• Cleavage – mineral breaks along smooth, flat surfaces.
• Fracture – mineral breaks unevenly.
• Crystalline – arrangement of atoms in mineral's crystal.
• Transparency – extent light passes through mineral.
• Magnetism – ability to attract/repel other minerals.
• Tenacity – resistance to stress (brittle, malleable, elastic).
• Luster – reaction to light (brilliance/dullness).
• Odor – smell released during chemical reaction.
• Specific Gravity – density relative to water.
Chemical Properties & Mineral Classes
Chemical Properties – classification began in 1848 by James Dana.
Mineral classes include:
• Silicate – largest group; contains silicon, oxygen, plus aluminum, magnesium, iron,
calcium.
• Carbonate – marine deposits; formed from shells/plankton.
• Sulphate – high evaporation areas; gypsum for plaster.
• Halide – lakes/ponds; low hardness; poor conductors.
• Oxide – forms as precipitates or oxidation products.
• Sulphide – electrical wires, industrial materials.
• Phosphate – contains phosphorus; important biologically.
• Native Element – pure metals, semimetals, nonmetals.
Rocks & Rock Cycle
Rocks – aggregates of minerals formed through natural processes. Types:
• Igneous – from magma/lava (Latin: ignis = fire).
• Sedimentary – from sediments; records Earth’s history; may contain fossils.
• Metamorphic – from other rocks under heat/pressure.
Rock Cycle – processes forming igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Earth’s Subsystems
Geosphere – solid parts of Earth including rocks, minerals, and structure.
Internal Structure:
• Crust – 5-70 km thick; oceanic thinner than continental.
• Moho – boundary above upper mantle; discovered by Andrija Mohorovičić (1909).
• Asthenosphere – upper mantle layer under crust.
• Mantle – 84% of Earth's volume; silicate rocks.
• Gutenberg Discontinuity – boundary between mantle and outer core; discovered by Beno
Gutenberg (1913).
• Core – iron and nickel; magnetic field deflects solar wind.
• Outer Core – liquid iron/nickel.
• Lehmann Discontinuity – discovered by Inge Lehmann (1929).
• Inner Core – solid iron/nickel.
Seismic Waves:
• P-waves – longitudinal; travel through solids/liquids.
• S-waves – transverse; travel only through solids.
Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere – all water on Earth; 70% of surface; mostly oceans.
Importance of Water: liquid form, neutral pH, heat conductor, high specific heat, universal
solvent.
Hydrological Cycle – water movement through evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
runoff.
Distribution:
• Surface water – minerals from contact with rocks.
• Marine water – high salt content.
• Freshwater – low salt; drinking water source.
• Groundwater – water beneath surface.
• Aquifer – underground water-bearing rock.
Atmosphere
Atmosphere – gas layer around Earth.
• Troposphere – 0-7 miles; densest layer; weather occurs here.
• Stratosphere – 7-31 miles; strong steady winds; ozone layer in upper region.