GENETIC ENGINEERING/MODIFICATION
I. Is the transfer of genes from one organism to another of a different species.
II. Is the transfer of genes from one organism to an unrelated species.
III. Is changing the genetic material of an organism by moving or changing or inserting individual
genes.
Genetic engineering make use of the plasmid of the bacterium and the enzymes released by the
bacterium eg restriction enzymes.
a) Genetic control in a bacterium is controlled by a circular double strand of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) called plasmid. The plasmid is not enclosed in a nuclear
membrane. Plasmids are small circles of DNA. The plasmid carries genes in harmless
bacterial cell that control bacterial metabolism.
Plasmids also carry g enes which give bacterium resistance to particular antibiotics such
as tetracycline and ampicillin.
b) Restriction Enzymes
Are produced by the bacteria.
These enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific sites e.g between the A and the T in the
sequence GAA-TTC.
Restriction enzymes are extracted from bacteria and purified.
Restriction enzymes cut the DNA molecules from different organisms at predictable sites
and then used to produce lengths of DNA which contain specific genes.
GENETIC MODIFICATION
Genetic engineering allows transfer of genes between totally unrelated species eg from
humans to bacteria and from bacteria to plants.
The plasmids carry genes that give the bacterium resistance to particular antibiotics eg
tetracycline and ampicillin.
Genetic modification/engineering is also referred to as recombinant DNA technology.
The recombinant DNA – The plasmid is placed back onto the bacterium now has the
gene to code for human insulin.
The bacterium can multiply very rapidly in an industrial fermenter producing insulin.
The bacteria modified to produce the human protein (insulin) is known as an expression.
Yeast can be used instead of bacteria.
Benefits/ Advantages Of Genetic Modification
I. Genetic engineering makes it possible to produce insulin quickly (and cheaply on
a large scale).
II. The product is very pure and can be the human version of a protein rather than
a version produced by another animal.
III. The product can be made in large quantities making it less expensive and readily
available.
IV. The process can be switched on or off easily as the bacteria can be stored until
needed again.
V. The product can be made as required rather than adjust when animal carcasses
are available.
APPLICATIONS OR EXAMPLES OF GENETIC MODIFICATION
Genetic engineering is applied to solve problems which includes:-
a) The insertion of human genes into bacteria to produce human proteins.
Is used to make insulin for people (diabetic) who are unable to produce it.
Human insulin from bacteria is purer than from pigs or cattle.
Then insulin from pigs/ cattle triggers allergic reactions.
Insulin from bacteria is acceptable to people with different religious beliefs.
Some beliefs do not allow the usage of insulin from cows or pigs.
b) Insertion of genes into crop plants to transfer resistance to insect pests.
Crops are modified to become resistant to pests.
The toxin produced by Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria kills caterpillars and some insect
larvae.
The gene for the toxin has been successfully inserted into maize, cotton and soya bean
plants using a bacterial vector.
The modified plants have increased resistance to pests such as insect larvae.
Some pests (insects) are developing resistance to the toxin.
c) The insertion of genes into crop plants to confer resistance to herbicides.
Some herbicides kill green plants (glyphosate) and become harmless when they reach
the soil.
A gene for an enzyme that breaks down glyphosate is inserted into plant cells culture.
Disadvantage/limitations: Glyphosate is suspected to be carcinogenic and is being
banned.
d) Insertion of genes into crop plants to improve nutritional qualities.
Genetic modification has made it possible to improve the protein, mineral or vitamin
content of food and increase its shelf life.
The technique helps populations to achieve a balanced diet.
Examples include golden rice with a
I. gene inserted to increase Vitamin A content
II. Wheat inserted with a gene to make it gluten free. Gluten is a protein in wheat
responsible for (many) food allergy.
III. Maize and cassava are modified to increase iron uptake to prevent the
occurrence of anaemia. An enzyme in some plant roots that enables them to
extract some iron from the soil, Plants such as rice can be inserted with the gene
enabling them to take in iron from iron-deficient soils.
IV. Vegetables are inserted with a gene to boost Vitamin E levels to help fight heart
diseases.
e) Gene therapy
Involves the transfer of healthy human genes into a person’s cells that contain mutant
alleles which cause diseases.
The coat (empty) of an influenza virus can be used as a gene vector to introduce a
healthy gene into a diseased cell.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS
Are plants whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering techniques.
Micro-organisms such as bacteria are used to transfer DNA or sections of genetic
material between individuals of same or different species to introduce new or desirable
traits in a way that does not occur naturally.
eg transferring a gene for drought resistance into a maize plant.
Advantages
I. GMCs offer high yields from fewer resources.
II. Genetic modification offers more nutrition and flavor to crops.
III. Pest resistance in GM crops reduces the need for pesticides and fertilizers.
IV. Drought resistant crops can grow in new areas which were not used for
cultivation hence reduce the risk of famine.
V. Genetic engineering gives more predictable results than selective breeding.
VI. Genetically modified is more friendly as crops require less herbicides and
pesticides.
VII. Genetic modification could eliminate allergy-causing properties in some foods
eg gluten free wheat.
DISADVANTAGES
I. Herbicides resistant and pesticides-resistant crops could give rise to super-
weeds and super-pests that would need newer and stronger chemicals GM
crops could cross-pollinate non-GM crops.
II. Reduces genetic biodiversity (gene pool) within a crop.
III. There is fear of unknown in GMCs.
iv. There is a sense of unease about introducing genes from one species into a
totally different species.
v. The consequences of use of GM crops are not fully understood.