DC Machines 427

Chapter
521 DCgenerator
Working
principle
works on the principle off
Faraday's law of ectromagnetic induc-
conductor cuts the magneticelflux
generator

DC Machine Adc statesthat when a

induced
tion

can
init, called
that

be
lines, an emf is
dynamically induced emf. The direction of the induced emf
determined by the Fleming's right hand rule and the magnitude of the
givenby
inducedemfis sin volt
e= Blv
density inWb/m?
ghere B= flux length of the conductor in m
|= active
v=relative velocity of the conductor in m/s
5.1 Introduction A= angle between the direction of motion of the conductor and the
magnetic field
Electrical energy is one formn of hand rule, if hree fingers of right hand, nameBy
According to Fleming's right finger, are outstretched so that they are mutually
controlled. It can be energy that is most flexible and
from other energy converted into other forms of energy can be easi humh. index finger and middle
to point in the direction
the generating end forms. Thus, and
energy conversion devices are converted ha nerpendicular to each other, and if theindex finger is made conductor, then the
and the receiving direction of motion of the
of magneticfield, the thumb in the
generating end, energy obtained fromenda of the electrical powerrequired systems.
botha
outstretched 'middle finger gives the direction of
theemfinduced in the conductor.
clear energy) is first
converted into natural source (e.g., heat, water, orAtheNI: Consider the arrangement as shown in
Fig. 5.1(a). If we move the conductor
as shown in Fig. 5. l(a),
tre, and then
converted into requiredelectrical energy, transmitted to the load cen in a magnetic field in a direction
at right angle to the field
(as
mechani cal, chemical energy). form of energy (e.g., heat, sound, ligt,
or induced in it, called dynamically induced emf
it cuts the flux lines, and emfis Fleming's right hand ruie, it is found
In conductor is in motion), By applying the
tions),generating
mechanical
stations (such as
or thermal hydroelectrical and that the direction of the
ofthe piane. This
induced current (or induced emf) is out the conductor.
help of
be donegenerators.
energy is
converted
When electrical energy is into diesel-electric
electrical energy
power sta direction is shown by puttingthe dot
inside the cross section of
by it, a device witi tut
cal energy into called electrical motoravailable
is
and mechanical work is to S

Thus, the mechanical energy. needed, which converts electri-

electrical Flux
form
poratesmechani
a
discussion machinesgenerators
cal powerof into electrical power andand vice
motorsa-are devices that trans- Motion
Conductor

working,electrical machines. Aspecial emphasis is ontheir

basic principles, versa. This chapter incor Motion
types, and given of conductor

5.2
Principle and WNorking of DC applications. N
conductor

(b)Current going in
Electrical
machinesarerelated to electrical
TheseA machines Machines (a)Current coming out
prncipleofadc
generator
Fig.5.1 Working direc
de
isclassified as dc energy of
direct type? are called de machines conductor reverses the
generator a
electrical energy (or power), generator and
machine that converts dc motor, S Seen that reversal ofdrection of
motion ofthe
5.l(b)}.
trical current[see Fig.
of view, power) into whereas de motormechani
point energy cal
(or a energy (or power) into tion of the induced
is a machine elec- consisting of a
there is no basic mechanical energy (or power). thát converts simple dc generator
Any de
machine can act as a Working schematic diagram
of a
and rotating about its
own axis
difference between a
From
or a dc dc generator and
construction
Figure 5.2 shows the ABCD mounted on a shat magnets. The coil is rotated
de'generator moto.
a dc motor

(Shaft) in a
copper coil
rectangular magnetic field produced by permanent
428 Basic Electrical Engincering
)PM DC Machines 429
V

N N

AP
Fig. 5.3 Voitageinducedin the coii of adc generator
R1 irection of the induced emf can be
B2 B
The 5.2(a), as the conductor AB of determined Fleming's
the coil ABCD
by ight hand rule.
B B2 Fig.
In upward,the direction of the moves downward
mOves induced emf in the coil is iong [Link] CD
terminal P(i.e., commutator segment R) is
positive and the coilterminaiThe
W
I Load Load coil commutator
(a) (ie., segment R) is negative. The Current in the extenal load circuit
(b) B, to brush B. The direction of the
flows from brush current remains the same
Fig. 5.2 Schematic diagram of adc generators for half
revolution of the coil starting from its
vertical position. in the next haif
evolution[see Fig. 5.2(b)], the irection of the induced current is
with constant angular velocity by means of a prime mover (PM). The coil k reversed and
two identical conductors AB and CD. The two ends of the coil P and o. thecoilterminal Q(i.e., commutator segment R)is positive and the coil terminai
P(i.e., commutator segment R,) is negative. As the commutator
connected permanently to two commutator segments R, and R, respectiyveh
The commutator segments are well insulated from each other. The commutator interchangetheirrpositions,the current direction inthe externalload circuitsegments
remains
same, i.e., from brush B, to brush B,.
placed on the same shaft and rotates along with the coil. Two stationary catbn The commutator segments are so arTanged that during haif revolution of the
brushes B, and B, are pressed against the commutator. These brushes are furth coil. each segment remains in contact with a particular brush., whereas during the
connected to the external load circuit. Their function is to collect the curent next half cycle, when the current is reversed, the same segment is in contact with
induced in the coil and deliver it to the external circuit.
the other brush. It is seen that in the first half revoution (Fig. 5.2(a)l, brush B.
Let the coil be rotated in an anticlockwise direction with constant angulr
in contact with segment R, acts as the positive end of the suppiy and brush B
velocity. So, its conductors AB and CD cut the lines of flux and according to acts as the negative end. In the next half revolution Fig. 5.2 (b), the direction of
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, an emf get induced in them. the induced current in the coil has reversed. But at the same time, the positions of
Now, emf induced in one conductor = Blv sin volt
segments R, and R, are also reversed with the resuit that brush B, comes in con
By Fleming's right hand rule, it is seen that at any instant, the emf's inducedn
the two conductors are additive in nature. As the coil has two identical conductors, actwith the segment that is positive, i.e., segment R, in this case, and brush B
COmes in contact with the segment that is negative, i.e., segment X in this case.
emf induced in the coil, Vpo=2Blv sin volt (.) tHence, the current in the external load circuit remains unchanged.
When @=90°, emf induced is maximum. The maximum value of induced enfs ne nature of current in the extermal load circuit with the rotation ofthe coil,
expressed by V Thus, when =90°, v= V.m* i.e., with time, is shown in Fig. $.4. This current is unidirectional but not constant
So, Vm =2 Blv sin 90° like a pure direct
V,, =2Bly
current.
Now, Eq. (5.1) becomes
(62)
Vpo = V sin volt
Equation (5.2) gives the instantaneous value of the voltage induced inthe
which appears across the coil terminals Pand 0. This voltage is a sinusoid
alternating voltage as shown in Fig, 5.3.
ig.5.4 Current in the external load circuit of adc generatar
The prime mover, which drives the generator, may be a turbine, a diesel engine, or Thus, the alternating but due to the
commutatorand
motor.
2A commutator is a cylindrical drum mounted on ashaft. The surface of the drumismade
ofzlsg
her
çurrent
he brushes, the current
inducedflowing
in the through
coil is the external circuit is unidirectional. In
'number of segments of harddrawn copper. words, the COmmutator acts as a rectifier.
 Engineering DC Machines 431
430 BasicElectrical
S
5.2.2 DCMotor N

Workingprinciple principle that when a

motor is based on the
The working
conductor
force,
of a
is placed
whose
de
in aismagnetic
direction
field, the conductor experiences a cur ent-mecacrhyaiinkod
given by Fleming's left hand rule and magnitude i
F F

given by S
F= BIl sin newton
experience by the conductorrin N (b) (c)
where F= mechanical force (a) (d)
B= flux density in Wb/m Fig. 5.6 AA
conductorplaced in amagnetic fieldunder different situaions
m
l=active length of the conductor in
I=current through the conductor in
A reversedsee Figs 5.6(a) and (b)]. But if directions of both magnetic field and
9= angle between the direction of the current and the magnefio f currentthroughthe conductor are reversed, then the direction of force experienced
Consider asingle conductor placed in a magnetic field produced by permanet bythe
conductor remains unchanged [see Figs 5.6(a) and (d)].
magnets as shown in Fig. 5.5(a). If current is passed through the conductt: Working
the direction shown in Fig. 5.5(b), i.e., into the plane, then according to the hai the schematic diagram of a simple de motor consisting of a
principle, the conductor will experience a mechanical force. If the force is euR Figure 5.7 shows
cient, then the conductor will move in the direction of the force. By Fleming' rectangular copper coil ABCD mounted on ashaft and placed in a magnetic field
4B and
left hand rule, it is observed that the direction of motion of the conductor or the Droduced by permanent magnets. The coil has two identical conductors
force towards the right direction (from left to right). CD Two ends of the coil are connected permanently to two commutator segments
from each
R,and R, respectively. The commutator segments are well insulated
on the same shaft along with the col. Two
other. The commutator is placed
Current stationary carbon brushes B, and B, are pressed against the commutator.
carrying conductor
Flux
(current going in) Direction B
Conductor >of force
experienced
N
S
N

N Magnet D
RA
-R2
(a) (b) B B2
B B2
Fig. 5.5 Working principle of adc motor dc supply
dc supply +
Fleming's left hand rule is as follows: mi (b)
Outstretch the three fingers of left hand, namely thumb, index finger andinder (a)
the
dle finger, such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the diagram of adcmotor
in Fig. 5.7 Schematic switched on,
finger is made to point in the direction of. magnetic field, middle fingerexper- B, and B, is
direction of the current, then the thumb gives the direction of the force When the de across the brushes result, cach
Supply connected shown in Fig. 5.7a). As a let hand
enced by the conductor.
a single Current flows through the coil ABCDas Fleming's
mechanical force. By direction, while the
Apply the above rule to verify the direction of force experienced byand
conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in Figs 5.6 (a), (b),(cc), chang
(4) Conduct
ule, theor
of the coil experiences a
conductor AB experiences upward a forcein
downward
direction. Theseforces
collectively
anticlockwise
It can be seen that if the
direction of magnetic field is reversed withoutoffore Conduct
produce or torque,
in
ing the direction of current direction the
CD experiences aforce in about its OWnaxis(shat)
through the then the a and the coil rotates
experienced also gets reversed [see Figs conductor,
5.6(a) and (c)]. Similarly,
keeping
condutor
irectAsiosoonn. completed,segmentbrush
commu
R, ofthe thereby
direction of magnetic field same, if the direction of current the
as half a rotation of the cojlis segment R, with
B,,
direction of force experienced througn
conductorge
is reversed, then also the tator and
by
the
comes in Contact with brush B,
432 Basic Electrical Engineering DC Machines 433
shown in
reversing the direction of
current in the coil as Fig. 5.7(b). de
position of the conductors AB
and CD of the coil are also
remains unchanged and the coil interchanged, thSeince e Voke
tis
theouterframe ofthe
iron. For large
machine. It is
machines, normaly made of a
tion of rotation of the coil keeps on ire cast rolled magnetic
steel, cast steel, or material
the same direction.
Thus, function of the
commutator is to reverse the direction
the of rotatingin suchas
whichprovides high
used,mechanicalstrength. permeability, i.e., low
mechanical support to theserves two
silicon steel is
Yoke generally reluctance for the flux and gives
to decvuerleonptina poles and purposes: .
another. It good provides
cach conductor as it passes
from one pole to helps () t the whole machine, so that ithe acts as a
continuous and unidirectional torque. for inner parts of the machineprotgetecting cover
harnmful atmospheric elements such as
from moisture, ust, and acidicprotected
part of magnetic circuit and carries
5.3 Construction of DC Machine () forms
t. a the magnetic fux fumes.
bythe poles. It
t provides the path of low reluctance for produced
Whether the dc machine is agenerator or a motor, the basic
magneticflux.
construction remains
cross-sectional view showing various Poles
the same. Figure 5.8(a) shows the parts of a poles are bolted to
two-pole de machine. Figure 5.8(b) shows the equivalent circuit of the de An even number of
machine, yoke. Each pole is divided into
the
three parts, namely pole core, pole Field winding
Yoke
Flux Pole shoe fieldI winding. This is shown
Shaft Field shoe,and
winding inFig. 5.9.
are
A+ | The poles of the machine
electromagnets. A winding is placed
Pole over the poles to excite them. This
winding is called exciting winding or -Poie shoe
field winding or magnetizing winding.
A F However, more commonly used name Pole core
-Armature is field winding. As the poles are Fig. 5.9 Pole
conductor excited by the winding, they produce
Armature core
amagnetic field in the machine.
(a) CrosS-sectional view (b) Equivalent circuit Ihe pole cores, which support the field windings, are mounted on the inside
Fig. 5.8 DC machine Circumference of the yoke. The'core is made of cast steel or sheet stel lamina
uons of high permeability, so that it provides the low reluctance for the tlux.
A dc machine consists of the Ine pole faces are shaned to fit the curvature of the armature as shown n
following parts:
Stationary parts: 3 J.8(a) and are known as the shoes of the pole. The pole shoes serve two
(i) Yoke cross
(ii) Pole purposes: (i) they spread out the flux in the air gap also, being of larger excit-
(a) Pole shoes section, reduce the reluctance of the magneticpathand(ii) they supportthe
Ing coils (or field
The field coils,coils).
(b) Pole core tormer-wound for
strip, are
(c) Field winding which consist of copper Wire orand the wound coilis putinto
(iii) Brushes he CoTTect dimension,. Then the former is removed
series, sothat finally
Rotating parts: place over the core. These field coils are connectedin F-The field wind-
We get the Ft and
(i) Armature
field winding having twoterminals called or may be
connected
(a) Armature core g external dc source
receives the current either currentflows throughthe field armaturecore
from an winding, mag-
(b) Armature winding
(ii) Commutator airectly across the armature. When
hetic flux lines are established inthe yoke, pole pieces, air-gap and
(i) Bearings SShown in
Fig,
5.8(a).
 434 Basic Electrical Engineering
surface of the commutator.
DCMachines 435
Armature .A flexible
It is further divided intotwo parts, namely armature core and
the carriesthe current. The
on copper pigtail mounted at
brush holders,
Ihe armature core is cylindrical in shape, nounted on thearshaftmature winding
as
brush
together withthe spring, hold the
piecesWhen a dc machine acts as
which are
brushes in their position
the top of
attached to the brush
receive the armature conductors (winding).The armature core is madeslsohot wedninty
Fig. 5.10(a) and rotates in the magnetic field. The outer surface a
is ator. from the commutator
and generator, the brushes are on the commu-
supply it to the used to
collect
of the of lami.
nations of sheet steel as shown in Fig. 5.10(b). The thickness
current
amotor,thebrushes are used to send the current toexternal
the circuit. When it acts as
varies from 0.4to 0.6 mm. Theinsulation between the core and the la minationg commutator. armature winding through
provided by placing thin sheets of solid insulation in the slots. Theconductorsis Bearings
conductors connected in specific manner form the armature coils. which arearmature
a
caled bearingsform an important part ofiall types of
armature winding. The ends of the armature coils are brought to the The supportthe, rotating part and allow rotating machines. Their main
tor segments. The armature windings are made up copper and they form a
closed
commuta- functionis to
and
its smooth
fiction. Ball i roller bearings are usedfor small- and
motion with minimum
the great medium-size
circuit. reduce the bearing losses to de machines.
These beearings extent. For medium-size
Commutator -Shaft machines, roller bearings may be used: at the driving end and ball
segments
Slot non-drivingend (commutator end). Pedestal bearings are bearings at the
de machines.
normally used for large
Brush Key
Armature Hole for 53.1 Types of Armature Winding
Core the shift ede machine, there are a large number of armature conductos, which are
Air holes
Commutator
Slot connected in specific manner as per the requirement. These are called armature
Teeth windings. According to the way of connecting the conductors, arnature wincing
(a) Armature core are basically of two types, namely lap winding and wave winding.
(b) Armature lamination ott
lap winding
Fig. 5.10 Armature
In this. type of winding, the armature conductors are divided into parallel paths,
Commutator and brushes whose number equals the number of poles. In a simple lap winding, the connec
As shown in Fig. 5.10(a), the commutator is a cylindrical drum mounted on the tion is made from one commutator segment through the sides of the coil to the
shaft, along with the armature drum. The surface of the drum is made of alarge iExt commutator segment [see Fig. 5.12 (a)]. If an armature with lap windng has
number of wedge-shaped segments of hard-drawn copper. The segments ar Ppoles and Zconductors, then the number of parallel paths will also beP, cach
insulated from one another by thin layer of mica. The armature winding is tappeu wSng of Z/P conductors, connected in series between the positive and negative
at various points and these tapings S, he current carried by each path is IJP., where I, is the total armature
are successively connected to Clock springj Pressure Coil
various commutator segmnents. Pigtail adjustment
span
The brushes generally are lever
made to rest on the
by placing them incommutator
the brush
Brush
holder against the action of spring
whose tension can be
shown in Fig. 5.11. adjusted as
The brushes are
of carbon and can usually made
| | Box |
slide on the 234 5 67 8 9
10
commutator
the brush
with the rotation of
12345
Commutator
segments
be fixed atgears, so that they can (b) Wave winding
any (a) Lap winding
desired position Fig. 5.11 Brush armaturewinding
Fig.5.12 Types of
436 Basic Electrical Engineering
DC Machines 437
current. Due to the presence of alarge number of parallel paths. p= Number of ppoles of generator

showslap thewinhing
produced by each pole in
more suitable for generating large currents. Figure 5.13(a) Let ) = Flux weber (Wb)
Speed of armature in rpm
connections in armature of lap winding.
Wave winding
intema N=
Total number of armature
A=Number of parallel paths inconductors
In this type of winding, the armature conductors are divided into divided.
which the total number of conductors are
two
paths. Thus, the armature current entering the negative brush finds two paral e type of winding, A= P
carriesparale
paths while going to the positive brush. Hence, each parallel path Forlap type of winding, A=2
wave
rent of L/2, where I, is the total armature current. In wave Accordingto Faraday's law of
For

conductor (say under N-pole) is connected directly to another

winding. the fir electromagnetic induction,
conductor,
(ie., S-polwhie chn
occupies a similar position, but under the opposite polarity pole Average value of emfiinduced in single conductor =
dt (:: N= l)
the above example). The winding advances forward|to the next N-pole:
[see Fig. 5.12(b)]. This type of winding is so named because it travele andiso on Now, consider one revolution of a conductor. In one revolution, the conductor
flux produced by all the poles (= PD).
progressive wave. As the number of parallelpaths is less, it is preferable fd will cut the total
by the conductor in one revolution, do =Po weber
current, high-voltage capacity generators. Figure 5.13(b) shows the internalo Fluxcut
nections in armature of wave winding. 60
Time required to complete one revolution. dt= N
sec
ZP

ZP
Po PON
Hence, average value of emfinduced in single conductor=
+Ve -Ve

dt 60
voit
60
Brush Brush
wwwW
This is the emf induced in one conductor. Now, the conductors in one parallei
Load
path are always in series. There are Z conductors with Aparallel paths. Hence.
ZAnumber of conductors are always in series and emf remains same across all
(a) Lap winding the parallel paths.
1J2 Z2 So, total emf can be expressed as
+Ve
PÕN Z volt
Brush Brush bg 60 A
l/2 Z2
Ihis equation is called emf equation of the dc generator.

Load
write E,= OZN
We can also
60
P yolt
(b)Wave winding
Where A= P for lap Eb
Fig. 5.13 Internal connections in armature winding
A=2 for wavewinding winding
5.4 EMF Equation of DCGenerator Dc MotoY
[Link] lypes of DC Generators
dc
When field winding is excited, magnetic field is established in theconstantangula The symbolic representation of a de generator is shown in Fig. 5.14. The arma-
with
use this machine as a generator, the armature is rotated rotates, conductos ture is denoted by a circle with two brushes, The armature is driven by prime
its
velocity withthe help of prime mover. When the armature electromagneti
ofinducedemfi moverfieldwithwi speed Nrpm. The two ends as A+ and4-.
of thearmature are denoteddenoted by F+
cut the magnetic flux lines and according to Faraday's law The ends are
induction, emf induced in the conductors. The equation off
total and F Winding is shown near armature and the two
dc generator can be calculated as follows.