POS 101
INSTITUTIONAL FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
This entails the structures and organisations through which political power is distributed and
carried out by the various arms of government in a state. Institutional forms of government
define how political authority is distributed and exercised in a state as well as the relationship
that exists between the executive, legislative, and judicial arms, and the extent of centralization
or decentralization of power. In a nutshell, it emphasizes the streamlining of authorities and
powers among the various institutions and components of government in terms of power
distributions and decisions making.
The major institutional forms of government of government include:
Parliamentary System:
In this form of government, the executive derives its legitimacy from the legislature or
parliament and is accountable to same. The Head of government is selected from the parliament
usually from a political party with the majority seats in parliament. Examples of countries
practicing parliamentary system incules; United Kingdom and Canada; Nigeria experienced this
system of governance between 1960- 1966.
Features of a Parliamentary System:
Fusion of Powers: The powers of the executive and the legislative branches of government are
interconnected since the Head of Government is selected from the parliament and is answerable
to the parliament. This means that members of executive arm such as the Prime Minister and
Cabinet ministers are also members of the parliament (legislature).
Prime Minister is the Head of Government: The leader of the majority party or coalition in
parliament is made the Prime Minister and exercises executive powers. The Prime Minister must
maintain the confidence of the majority members of parliament to remain in office anything
contrary to this, may require him to resign or call for a new election.
Ceremonial Head of State: In a parliamentary system, an elected president or monarch serves as
a ceremonial head or a figurehead who performs symbolic duties and represents the state on
special occasions but does not exercise significant political power.
Collective Responsibility: Members of cabinet are collectively responsible to the parliament.
They are expected to render unflinching support and loyalty to the government by publicly
supporting the decisions made by the government whether they are in agreement with such
decisions or not. This is to ensure a unified character of the government.
Dissolution of Parliament: The dissolution of a parliament occurs after a fixed term expired or
the Prime Minister can advise or request the dissolution of parliament for fresh elections (this
request often comes during political crisis).
Presidential System:
This is a form of government whereby the president is both the head of state and head of
government and he/she is elected independently. In this form of government, there is clear
separation of political power and authority between the executive, legislative and the judicial
arms of government. In this form of government the present preside over an executive arm of
government that is totally independent of the legislative arm. Some countries that practice this
system of government include United States of America, Nigeria, and Mexico.
Features of a Presidential System include:
Separation of Powers: Governance responsibilities of the different arms of government are
clearly defined by the constitution so that the three arms of government coexist independently to
avoid any situation of overlapping. For instance, the Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary
perform their separate functions without any interference.
Fixed Term: Elected officials are elected for a fixed term in office and cannot be removed by
mere vote of no confidence but through a rigorous process as prescribed by the constitution of
the country concern. This is necessary for the purpose of ensuring political stability and
accountability in governance.
Direct Elections: The President and other elected officials are elected directly and independently
elected by the people to enhance democratic legitimacy through political participation and
equality. The aforementioned is to ensure the entrenchment of core tenets of democracy where
everyone is carried along.
Checks and Balances: This system upholds the principle of checks and balances in order to
checkmate the arbitrary abuse of power. It is aim at preventing any branch of government from
gaining excessive power. By this, each arm of government has its own defined functions and
powers and is also empowered to limit the actions of the other arms for the purposes of ensuring
accountability and to prevent tyranny.
Independent Cabinet: The structure and function of the executive cabinet members is different
from that of the parliamentary system where cabinet members are selected from the parliament.
Here, cabinet members are appointed by the president and are not necessarily from the
legislature.
Unitary System:
This is a form of government or political structure in which most or all political power are vested
or concentrated at center. In this system the central government wields absolute power over the
sub-national components (that may exist but solely derives their powers from the central
government). Examples of countries that practice this form of government are United Kingdom,
Japan and China.
Features of the Unitary System are:
Centralized Authority: Political power resides with the central government which has total
control over regional authorities. In this sense, the local authorities exist primarily to implement
the directives issued by the central government.
Uniform Laws or Policies: Laws are generally consistent throughout the country. This means
that laws and policies are typically uniform across the country since sub-national governments
have no power to make laws or policies.
Administrative Divisions: Regional or local governments implement, rather than Make Laws.
Flexibility: This system is easier to manage and more adaptable in small or culturally
homogeneous countries. Since the bulk of power and instructions emanates from the central
government.
Federal System:
A federal system is a form of government in which power is divided between a central
government and other sub-national government with each having the power to make its own
laws. It allows each level of government to operate independently within its own spheres of
authority. Examples of countries operating federal system are the United States of America,
Nigeria, Canada etc.
Features of a Federal System
Division of Powers: The constitutions grant powers to both levels of government.
Dual Governance Structure: Both the Central and Sub-national governments have their own
separate powers and responsibilities. This means that they can legislate on issues independently
and without interference from one another.
Constitutional Supremacy: The constitution is the supreme law and outlines power distribution
among the various components of governance.
Autonomy: Regional governments have autonomy in certain policy areas as stipulated in the
constitution.
In summary, a good understanding of the institutional forms of government is essential for us to
appreciate the functioning of diverse political or governance structures in the modern. It affords
us the opportunity to understand how states are governed and how power is distributed among
the branches of government.
DEMOCRACY, CONSTITUTIONALISM AND RULE OF LAW
What is Democracy?
The concept of democracy has gained relevance and acceptance in the global domain due to its
promised benefits in running a modern government. Democracy is amplified on the basis of
increased human rights and freedoms of choice worldwide. This position was corroborated by
Kofi Annan, the former UN Secretary General when he stated that “human rights are foreign to
no culture and native to all nations; they are universal.” The concept of democracy has been a
subject of debate among scholars, however for our consumption we will look at democracy from
a view point source of state authority, a process of leadership recruitment, and the provision of
common good.
From the forgoing, we defined democracy as a concept of popular sovereignty, in which
government authority got its power and authority from individuals through popular support. In a
democracy political power resides with the people. It is often referred to as ‘rule by the people’.
An example of this is any system of government in which people vote their representatives or
leaders either directly or indirectly.
Perspectives on Democracy
This can be classified into two broad schools namely:
a. Procedural Democracy: which refers to a term used to denote the procedures, such as
regular elections based on universal suffrage that produces an electorally legitimate
government. It is anchored on electoral processes as the basis of democratic legitimacy.
b. Substantive democracy: this is a form of democracy that functions for the interest of the
governed. In this situation, the state functioning reflects the ideals of a democratic
governance.
Types of Democracy
a. Direct Democracy: this is a type of democracy that allows eligible citizens to participate
directly in the nomination, appointment or election of the representatives or elected
leaders. In this type of democracy, citizens participate in decision making without any
form of interference.
b. Indirect Democracy: this type of democracy is also known as representative democracy.
It simply means a pattern of democracy where citizens choose individuals who will take
decisions on their behalf. These individuals could be in form of an electoral collage of
delegates.
Principles of Democracy
Respect for Human Rights: One of basic foundational tenets of democracy is respect for human
rights so far as those will not infringe on another person’s right or threatens another person’s or
societal peaceful coexistence.
Citizen Participation: Every eligible citizen has the right to participate in the electoral process
either directly or indirectly, ensuring that government reflects the most preferred will of the
people.
Majority Rule and Minority Rights: Political decisions are made or taken base on majority
choice or preferences, there are opportunities embedded to protect minority rights in order to
prevent them from being vulnerable to tyranny of the majority.
Periodic Elections: Regular and periodic free and fair elections allows for leadership succession
and provide citizens with the opportunities to influence government policies.
These arrangement fosters political situations where diverse voices can be heard and respected
and thereby, contributing to a more inclusive society.
Constitutionalism:
This is a practice that ensures that governance structure is based on a legal framework enshrined
in a constitution which limits governmental powers and protect individual rights.
Constitutionalism guides and constrains the actions and everyday lives of individuals and the
state. According to Chigudu (2019), constitutionalism is said to be entrenched in a state that does
not encourage or entertain arbitrariness.
It is proper to appreciate what a constitution is for a clearer comprehension of the principle of
constitutionalism. A. V. Dicey defines a constitution as a document with special legal sanctity.
This means a constitution is a sacred body of rules and regulations that guides the actions and
inactions of every modern government worldwide. A constitution prescribes the rights and
obligations of individuals as well as powers and limitations of the various branches of
government to avoid any form of ambiguity. A constitution can be written or unwritten.
Having clarified what a constitution is, it is good to note that constitutionalism is a principle that
ensures the legitimate use of power as prescribed in the constitution for the benefit of the general
public while protecting the fundamental rights of the general public.
Constitutionalism ensures the following:
a. That a constitution delineates the scope of governmental authority, so that power is not
exercised arbitrarily by the authorities concern but within the provisions of the law. This
is one of the important features of constitutionalism that ensures the recognition and
protection of the rights of citizens.
b. The upholding of separation of powers to ensure division of government responsibilities
among the different branches in order to prevent a particular arm of government from
wielding excessive power. One of the fundamental indices of constitutionalism is the
application of the doctrine of separation of powers and the principles of checks and
balances as mechanisms to monitor and curtail the ill tendencies or actions of the various
branches of government so as to promote accountability and transparency in governance.
c. Tolerance of the opposition is another important aspect of constitutionalism which
opposes nepotism and the oppression of opposition elements.
d. Independence of the Judiciary: independence of the judiciary is essential in the
protection of individuals’ rights and liberty. This is because the independence of the
judiciary and non-interference with same allow judges to dispense justice without fear or
favour.
e. Constitutional Amendment Procedures: constitutionalism ensures a well spelled
constitution amendment procedure. A concrete process and procedure for an amendment
of an existing constitution will solve the problem of political instability and build
confidence among the citizenry.
Constitutionalism is necessary in the maintenance of order and tranquility in the society while
safeguarding the freedoms and rights of individuals against potential abuses by those in power.
Through constitutional provisions, equal opportunities for all citizens, freedom, liberties of the
people are guaranteed and promoted, which are necessary in maintaining a stable polity.
Rule of Law:
The constitution provides for rule of law in a modern governance structure to mean that
everyone, irrespective of who they and their power or the position they hold are seen as equal
before the law. The principle presupposes that the laws should be fair, impartial and must be
consistently enforced by an independent legal system.
In other words, the principle of rule of law is a foundational principle that asserts that all
individuals irrespective of their political, social and economic status as well as legal entities are
accountable to laws of the land. It entails that everyone, including government officials, is
subject to and accountable under the law, ensuring no one is above it and that laws are applied
fairly and consistently. In another sense, rule of law entails that, all people and institutions within
a polity are accountable to the law including those that make the laws. This is to say both the
government and the governed are guided by the provisions of the laws.
The Basic Principles of Rule of Law are:
a. Equality before the law: No one is above the law; it ensures fairness in legal proceedings
and protects against discrimination based on primordial sentiments.
b. Legal Certainty: laws must be clear, publicized, and stable over time, and applied
consistently. This will allows all and sundry to know and understand their rights and
obligations under the law.
c. Protection of rights: The rule of law encompasses protections for civil liberties and
human rights. It provides mechanisms for individuals to seek redress when their rights are
violated.
Conclusively, rule of law is a mechanism, process, practice, or norm that supports the equality of
all citizens before the law. It is a principle of governance in which all persons, institutions,
entities, public and private; including the state itself is subjected to the dictates of the law. At the
end, rule of law helps in fostering trust in the legal system while promoting justice and social
order.
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE GROUPS
In modern democracies, political parties and pressure groups are essential in the sustenance of
governance structure and the setting of political agenda. These two are sacrosanct in the
actualization of democratic fortunes. Enojo and Ogbuke (2007) reiterated that there can be no
meaningful democracy without political parties and pressure groups. We add that political parties
and pressure groups are necessary in every clime that intends to practice genuine democracy.
Political Parties
Political parties are organized groups of individuals that have the common intention or aim of
gaining political power by participating in elections. In this sense, the primary objective of every
political party is to contest and win elections and eventually control the government of the day
through a competitive process of electioneering.
Countries all over the world practice party politics differently. While some countries practice one
party system, some practice two party systems and yet others practice a multi-party system. In all
of these, it has been widely said that democracies thrives better in a competitive political system.
Party Structure: Political parties have similar structures as follows:
i. Party Leader: Usually a prominent party figure who foresees the party’s activities and
strategies.
ii. Party Executive Committee Members: These are elected individuals who held sway
the administrative and organizational affairs of the Party e.g. Party Chairman etc.
iii. Party Members: These are registered members of a political party and are the major
sponsors of their respective political parties. They pay dues and make different kinds
of donations to sustain the party.
Features of Political Parties
a. Political parties are group of individuals who have a common intention of controlling the
government through winning an election.
b. Political parties have an ideology that defines their intentions.
c. Political parties enlighten the populace through political rallies and conventions,
symposia and campaigns.
d. Objectives of political parties are translated into government policies when they win
elections.
Functions of Political Parties
i. They serve as platforms for leadership recruitment.
ii. The formulate public policies when elected.
iii. They perform watchdog roles.
iv. They bring stability in the polity.
v. They perform the roles of enlightenment.
Types of Political Party
a. One-Party System: In this situation, only one political party is recognized and registered
to contest elections. This type of arrangement is peculiar in authoritarian states. The
Communist Party and the Liberal Democratic Party of Cuba and Japan respectively are
good examples of One- Party System.
b. Two- Party System: In this situation, there are two major political parties that are
capable of forming government though other smaller political parties may exist. A good
example of a two-party system is the United States of America where you have the
Republicans and the Democrats. Also, in Nigeria during the defunct Babangida regime,
the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the National Republican Convention (NRC) were
registered as the only political parties.
c. Multi- Party System: In this system, more than two political parties are registered to
contest for elections. The Nigerian situation is good example of a multi-party system
where there are about 18 registered political parties.
PRESSURE GROUP
According to Mark, Masaki and Rachel (2022), a Pressure group is an interest group that
influences government to act on issues of interest to them. Meaning that a pressure group seeks
to pressurize government or decision makers in order to tilt decisions or policies in their favour.
In order words, pressure groups are individuals who come together with similar reasons for the
purpose of influencing government policies and decisions through different means.
Features of Pressure Groups
a. They protect and promote the interest of their members.
b. They have a cardinal intention of influencing government policies and decisions.
c. They are pressure- focused.
d. Pressured groups are well structured.
Functions of Pressure Group
i. They provide political education and enlightenment to the populace.
ii. They participate in political decision.
iii. They engage in interest articulation.
iv. They are sometimes engaged in policy implementation.
Types of Pressure Groups
a. Associational Groups: this type of pressure group focuses on the interest of its members
for instance, the Academic Staff Union of Universities etc.
b. Ideological Groups: this type pressure group share similar philosophy or ideology on
certain issues that brings them together. For example the Democratic Socialist of America
and the Civil Human Rights Front.
c. Anomic Groups: this type of pressure group emanates due to certain situations of
frustration and disappointment which makes them mobilized to register their grievances
and are disbanded once their concern is addressed. For example the End SARS protest of
2020 in Nigeria.
d. Institutional Groups: these are found within government settings. They try to influence
government policies from within. They care less on forming a government but are
involve in political matters to influence government policies to their favour.
Importance of Pressure Group
a. They serve as link between the government and the people.
b. They educate the general public on issues that matters.
c. They provide technical advice to the government of the day.
d. They help in fostering and entrenching the principles of democracy.
e. They provide a platform or means through which people can express their grievances.
Means employed by Pressure Groups in advancing their Interest
i. Lobby
ii. Mass media
iii. Demonstrations
iv. Strikes
v. Propaganda
vi. Intellectual Debates and Discussions etc.
Differences between Political Parties and Pressure Groups
a. Political parties aggregate interest whereas pressure groups articulate interest.
b. Political parties have a wider interest range of seeking to improve the wellbeing of the
general populace while pressure groups only pursue the interest of its members.
c. Pressure groups may disappear as soon as they achieved their aim whereas political
parties are permanent features of democratic politics.
d. The main interest of a political party is to form a government while the main purpose of
pressure group is to influence government policies and decisions in favour of its
members.
e. Political parties use campaigns, manifestoes and programme to woo supports while
pressure groups use diplomatic means to achieve its aim.
Summarily, political parties and pressure groups are indispensable in a democratic domain,
because their roles and purpose cannot be overemphasized. Both political parties and pressure
groups are interested in upholding and strengthening the principles of democracy for a more
robust governance structure.
Pressure Groups: on the other hand pressure groups are organized entities that seek to influence
government policy without aiming to take control of the government through elections. Their
primary goal is to advocate for specific issues or causes, representing particular sections of
society.