Lecture 0: Basic Physics

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 Goals
• Synchronize basic materials for the CGGS course
• Target audience: students without any high-school
(or basic university) background in mechanics.
• Topics
• Basic elements of kinematics: position, velocity,
acceleration
• Basic elements of dynamics: forces, momentum, energy
• Gravity and mass
• Newton’s three laws

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 Position
• A system: a collection of objects in space and time
• Given a coordinate system
• Static objects: “sit” in given coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦)
• Dynamic objects: move through a trajectory (𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡))
• Tracing a curve in space
• How does the choice of coordinates matter?
• Initial assumption: objects are pointwise
• Neglecting their shapes
𝑦
(1,3)
𝑡=1 𝑡=2
𝑡=0

(2,1)

𝑥
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 Velocity
• Velocity: Instantaneous change in position 𝑣⃗ = ! #⃗$!$
• Suppose object position 𝑥% and constant velocity 𝑣⃗
After time step ∆𝑡:
• 𝑥) 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 = 𝑥) 𝑡 + 𝑣∆𝑡
⃗
• ∆𝑥) = 𝑥) 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 − 𝑥) 𝑡 = 𝑣∆𝑡.
⃗
• …𝑣⃗ is never constant in practice
• A function of time 𝑣⃗ 𝑡
+
• Position is integrated in time: 𝑥) 𝑡 = 𝑥) + ∫* 𝑣⃗ 𝑠 𝑑𝑠
• Velocity SI (standard international) units: ,⁄-./

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 Acceleration
• Instantaneous change in velocity: 𝑎⃗ = !&$!$
• Constant acceleration: ∆𝑣⃗ = 𝑎∆𝑡
⃗
+
• Otherwise, integrate: 𝑣⃗ 𝑡 = 𝑣* + ∫* 𝑎⃗ 𝑠 𝑑𝑠

• Note vector quantities!

• Position: trajectory of a point
• Velocity: tangent to trajectory curve
• Speed: absolute value of velocity
• Acceleration: the change in the tangent

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 Relative Quantities
• Using coordinates, our vector quantities are
relative to the chosen axis system (origin + xyz
direction)
• They are viewpoint dependent
• The derivation/integration relations are equivariant!

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 Forces
• Acceleration is induced by a force 𝐹⃗

• Direction of force = direction of

associated acceleration

• Net force (and net acceleration): the

sum of all acting forces: F = ∑ 𝐹⃗'

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 Newton’s laws of motion
• In the late 17th century, Sir
Isaac Newton described 3 laws
that govern all motion on Earth
• ...ultimately, an approximation
• Small scale: quantum mechanics
• Big scale: theories of relativity

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 1st Law of Motion
• Sum of forces on an object is null ó there is no
change in the motion

If 𝐹()$ = 0, there is no change in motion

• With zero force sum:

• An object at rest stays at rest
• A moving object perpetuates in the same velocity
• Behavior of objects in the outer space
• …relative to a given system!

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 2nd Law of Motion
• Each force induces a co-directional acceleration in
linear to the mass of the object:

𝐹⃗()$ = 𝑚 . 𝑎⃗
𝑚 is the mass and 𝑎⃗ the acceleration
• Consequently:
• More force ó faster speed-up
• Same force ó lighter objects accelerate faster than
heavy objects
• This is the most important physical rule of the
course!
• The dynamics-kinematics relation

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 3rd Law of Motion
• Forces have consequences:

When two objects come into contact, they exert

equal and opposite forces upon each other.

• All forces are actually interactions between bodies!

Gravity pulls book down (book-earth

relation)

Table constrains book from passing

What happens here? through it (book-table relation; both solid
objects!)
Book presses on table (table-book
relation; load!)

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 Gravity
• Newton’s Law of Gravitation: the gravitation force
between two masses 𝐴 and 𝐵 is:
𝑚+ 𝑚-
𝐹⃗* = 𝐹⃗+→- = −𝐹⃗-→+ = 𝐺 .
𝑢+-
𝑟
𝐺: gravitational constant 6.673×10/00 [𝑚1 𝑘𝑔/0 𝑠 /. ]
𝑟 = 𝑝⃗+ − 𝑝⃗- : the distance between the objects
𝑢+- = 2⃗!/2⃗"$ 2⃗!/2⃗" : the unit direction between them

𝐹⃗!→" 𝐹⃗"→!
𝑚! 𝑚"

𝑟 12
 Gravity on Earth
• By applying Newton’s 2nd law to an object with
mass 𝑚 on the surface of the Earth, we obtain:

𝐹⃗()$ = 𝐹⃗* = 𝑚 . 𝑎⃗
343#$%&'
𝐺 =𝑚.𝑎
5#$%&' (
3#$%&'
𝐺 ( =𝑎 Mass of object is canceled out!
5#$%&'

[Link]

𝑎 = 𝑔675$8 = [Link]

5.98×10.9
6.673×10/00 ≈ 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 .
6.377×10: .
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 Gravity on Other Planets
3#$%&'
• On Earth at altitude ℎ: 𝑎 = 𝐺 5#$%&' ;8 (
• On the Moon
• 𝑚,))4 = 7.35×1055 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑟,))4 = 1738 𝑘𝑚
• 𝑔,))4 = 1.62 𝑚/𝑠 5
• On Mars
• 𝑚,67- = 6.42×1058 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑟,67- = 3403 𝑘𝑚
• 𝑔,67- = 3.69 𝑚/𝑠 5

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 Weight
• Weight ó gravitational force

𝑊 = 𝑚 . 𝑔⃗
• We weigh different on the moon (but have the
same mass…)

3
• Force units: [𝑘𝑔 . ]
<)= (
• Denoted as Newtons [𝑁]

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 Free-Body Diagram
• To get acceleration: sum forces and
divide by mass (D'Alembert's principle):
𝐹⃗()$ = I 𝐹⃗' = 𝑚 . 𝑎⃗

• Forces add up linearly as vectors.

• Important: when all are represented in the
same axis system!
• The Free-Body Diagram includes:
• Object shape: center of mass, contact
points
• Applied forces: direction, magnitude, and [Link]
s/Faculty/rallain/plab193/files/a8312fbf3b

point of application [Link]

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 Normal force
• Force acting as a reaction to contact
• Direction is normal to the surface of contact
• Magnitude enough to cancel the weight so object
doesn’t go through the plane

• Here, 𝐹⃗! = 𝑊 cos(𝛼) = 𝑚𝑔⃗ cos(𝜃)

• Related to constraints and collision handling (more later)
• Object slides down plane with the remainder force: 𝑊 sin(𝜃)

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 Friction
• Can the object stay in total equilibrium?
• An extra tangential friction force must cancel 𝑊 sin(𝜃)
• Ability to resist movement
• Static friction keeps an object on a surface from moving
• Kinetic friction slows down an object in contact

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 Friction
• Static friction: a threshold force
• object will not move unless tangential force is stronger

• Kinetic friction: when the object is moving

• Depends on the materials in contact

• smoother ó less friction

• Coefficient of friction 𝜇 determines friction forces:

• Static friction: 𝐹- = 𝜇- 𝐹9
• Kinetic friction: 𝐹: = 𝜇: 𝐹9

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 Friction

• The kinetic coefficient of friction is always smaller

than the static friction.

• If the tangential force is larger than the static

friction, the object moves

• If the object moves while in contact, the kinetic

friction is applied to the object

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 Friction
Surface Friction Static (𝝁𝒔 ) Kinetic (𝝁𝒌 )

Steel on steel (dry) 0.6 0.4

Steel on steel (greasy) 0.1 0.05

Teflon on steel 0.041 0.04

Brake lining on cast iron 0.4 0.3

Rubber on concrete (dry) 1.0 0.9

Rubber on concrete (wet) 0.30 0.25

Metal on ice 0.022 0.02

Steel on steel 0.74 0.57

Aluminum on steel 0.61 0.47

Copper on steel 0.53 0.36

Nickel on nickel 1.1 0.53

Glass on glass 0.94 0.40

Copper on glass 0.68 0.53

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 Springs
• React according to Hook’s Law on extension and
compression, i.e. on the relative displacement

• The relative length 𝑙 to the rest length 𝑙L

determines the applied force:

𝐹M = −𝐾 𝑙 − 𝑙L

• 𝐾 is the spring constant (in 𝑁/𝑚)

• Scalar spring: two directions

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 Work
• A force 𝐹⃗ does work 𝑊 (in 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 𝑁 . 𝑚), if it
achieves a displacement ∆𝑥⃗ in the direction of the
displacement:
𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . ∆𝑥⃗

• Note dot product between vectors

𝐹
• Scalar quantity
𝛼
𝐹 cos 𝛼

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 Kinetic energy
• The kinetic energy 𝐸N is the energy of an object in
velocity:
1
𝐸N = 𝑚 𝑣⃗ .
2
• The faster the object is moving, the more energy it has
• The energy is a scalar (relative to speed 𝑣 = 𝑣⃗ ,
regardless of direction)
• Unit is also Joule:
,
𝑘𝑔(𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐)5= 𝑘𝑔 ∗ -./ " 𝑚 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝑚 = 𝐽

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 Work-Energy theorem
• The Work-Energy theorem: net work ó change in
kinetic energy:

𝑊 = ∆𝐸N = 𝐸N (𝑡 + ∆𝑡) − 𝐸N (𝑡)

i.e.
1
𝐹⃗ . ∆𝑥⃗ = 𝑚 𝑣(𝑡 + ∆𝑡). − 𝑣(𝑡).
2

• Very similar to Newton’s second law...

• In fact, just the integrated/variational version

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 Potential energy
• (Gravitational) Potential energy is the energy
‘stored’ in an object due to relative height
difference
• The amount of work that would be done if we were to set
it free
𝐸O = 𝑚 . 𝑔 . ℎ

• Simple product of the weight 𝑊 = 𝑚 O 𝑔 and height ℎ

,
• Also measured in Joules (as here 𝑘𝑔 O " O 𝑚)
-./

• Other potential energies exist (like a compressed

spring)

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 Conservation of mechanical energy
• Law of conservation: in a closed system, energy
cannot be created or destroyed.
• Energy may switch form
• May transfer between objects
• Classical example: falling trades potential and kinetic
energies

𝐸N (𝑡 + ∆𝑡) + 𝐸O (𝑡 + ∆𝑡) = 𝐸N (𝑡) + 𝐸O (𝑡)

i.e.
1 1
𝑚𝑣(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣(𝑡). + 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑡
.
2 2

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 Conservation: Example
• A roller-coaster cart at the top of the first hill
• Much potential energy, but only a little kinetic energy
• Going down the drop: losing height, picking up speed
• At the bottom: almost all potential energy switched to
kinetic, cart is at its maximum speed

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 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• External forces are usually applied:
• Friction and air resistance
• Where does the “reduced” energy go?
• Converted into heat and air displacements (sound
waves, wind)
• We compensate by adding an extra term 𝐸P to the
conservation equation:
𝐸N 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 + 𝐸O 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 + 𝐸P = 𝐸N 𝑡 + 𝐸O 𝑡
• if 𝐸? > 0, some energy is ‘lost’

[Link]

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 Momentum
• The linear momentum 𝑝: ⃗ the mass of an
object multiplied by its velocity:

𝑝⃗ = 𝑚 . 𝑣

• Heavier object/higher velocity ó more

momentum (more difficult to stop)

• unit is [𝑘𝑔 . 3⁄<)= ]

• Vector quantity (velocity)

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 Impulse
• A change of momentum:
𝚥⃗ = ∆𝑝
• Compare:
• Impulse is change in momentum
• Work is change in energy

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• Unit is also [𝑘𝑔 . ] (like momentum)
<)=

• Impulse ó force integrated over time:

+ +
𝐽⃗ = S 𝐹𝑑𝑡
⃗ = 𝑚 S 𝑎𝑑𝑡
⃗ = 𝑚Δ𝑣⃗
* *
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 Conservation of Momentum
• Law of conservation: in a closed system (no
external forces\impulses), momentum cannot be
created or destroyed
• Compare: conservation of energy
• Implied from 3rd law
• Objects react with the same force exerted on them
• Special case of Noether’s theorem: every physical
system (With a symmetric action) has a
conservation law

Emmy Noether
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