NERVOUS SYSTEM PART 1 6-1-25

- Sympathetic: controls your response to stress

Divisions of the Nervous System (both starts w/ S”). Aka “fight/flight”

- Parasympathetic: when your body relaxes. Aka

(1) information coming in, (2) us processing that info in some way,
“rest & digest”
and then (3) doing something with it.

(1) RECEPTORS: Sensory Receptors: has 2 categories

(A) Special senses: consciously detect; using 5 senses Types of Neurons
(B) Visceral receptors: receptors throughout internal organs Neurons, or nerve cells, are cells in our body that help different
monitoring (blood pressure, blood sugar levels) parts communicate. Most neurons—about 100 billion—are found in
These “Sensory cells” throughout the body detect info & constantly the brain, but many also connect the brain to the rest of the body.
send signals through part of the peripheral nervous system called
“Sensory division.” Let’s use blood pressure as an example of how neurons help organs
talk to each other.
(2) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: has 2 categories
(A) Sensory Division [afferent]
The sensory division is bringing information from your sensors or
your receptors and sending that info toward the brain and the spinal Our body needs to keep blood pressure steady.
cord. Found in the nerves. - If it’s too low, we can faint.
(B) Motor Division [efferent] - If it’s too high, it can hurt our arteries and raise the risk of
Takes information from the brain or spinal cord and sends it out to a heart attack or stroke.
effectors throughout the body. Found in the nerves.
***Whenever you think of nerves in body, think of “peripheral.” The heart helps control blood pressure with the help from the brain.
Here’s what happens:
(3) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: includes brain & spinal cord which - If sensors near the heart notice that blood pressure is too
are the main organs for taking info and making decisions. Once the high, they send a message to the brain.
decision has been made, the brain or spinal cord will send info out - The brain then sends a message back to the heart, telling
through the motor division to cause the change to happen in the it to slow down.
body. This motor division (efferent division) of the nervous system This helps bring the blood pressure back to normal.
has two parts to it.
3 types of neurons:
Motor Division: [efferent] has 2 parts Neurons come in three types: unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar.
(a) Somatic Division (voluntary): controls skeletal muscles
(mov’t of body: run, dance) Let’s start with the cell body, also called the soma.
This round part of the neuron holds important parts of the cell, like
(b) Autonomic Division (involuntary): automatic; happens the nucleus.
subconsciously. (regulating bp, blood sugar) Has 2 parts:
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Recap:
● Sensory neurons detect changes and send signals to the
brain
● Interneurons in the brain and spinal cord process the
information
● Motor neurons carry signals from the brain to the body to
make a change
(1) Unipolar neuron: has just 1 branch coming from the cell Neuron Structure and Function
body. A neuron has a cell body (soma), just like other cells. Attached to
On one side are the dendrites. These look like tree branches and the cell body are branch-like structures called dendrites. These
receive signals from other neurons. On the other side is the axon, dendrites receive information from thousands of other neurons—
which sends signals away from the cell body to other neurons. whether they're in the brain, spinal cord, or cranial nerves—and
send that information to the neuron's cell body for processing.
Here’s the path of a signal: (1) Dendrites get the signal. (2) The cell
body processes it. (3) The axon carries the signal to the next neuron.

(2) Bipolar neuron: which has 2 branches is a rare type of

neuron in humans. It has the same parts as other neurons:
dendrites, a cell body, and an axon.
The axon is a long part that sticks out from the neuron's cell body.
(3) Multipolar neuron: have more than two branches coming Its job is to carry messages away from the neuron to other neurons,
from the cell body. muscles, or organs.

GROUP NEURONS BY THEIR FUNCTION At the start of the axon is a small bump called the axon hillock. This
is where the neuron decides whether or not to send a signal. The
Let’s go back to the blood pressure example.
dendrites bring in messages—some tell the neuron to send a signal
(1) Sensory neurons
(excitatory), and others tell it not to (inhibitory). It's like a tug-of-
- These neurons bring information from the body to the brain.
war, and whichever side is stronger decides what happens.
- They sense things like temperature, blood pressure, or light, and
If the neuron decides to send a signal, it travels down the axon to
send that information to the brain.
the next neuron. This signal is called an action potential, and it
moves very fast.
- Most sensory neurons, like the one in this example, are unipolar.
For example, if blood pressure is too high, a sensory neuron will
Special cells wrap around the axon to form the myelin sheath,
detect it and send a signal to the brain.
which acts like insulation. This helps the signal, called an action
potential, move faster. Instead of traveling smoothly down the
(2) Interneurons
axon, the signal jumps from one open spot to the next. These gaps
- Once the signal reaches the brain, it needs to be processed.
are called the Nodes of Ranvier. Jumping from node to node makes
the signal travel up to 10 times faster.
- Interneurons are the neurons that help the brain and spinal cord
make decisions, even automatic ones like adjusting blood pressure.

- These neurons are mostly multipolar and are found in the brain
and spinal cord. They compare the incoming information to the
body's "normal" levels (like the normal blood pressure) and decide
what needs to happen.
There’s a disease called multiple sclerosis (MS) where the myelin
(3) Motor neurons sheath breaks down. The body’s immune system attacks the myelin,
- After the decision is made, the brain sends a signal back to the which slows down or even blocks the signals (action potentials) sent
body using motor neurons. by the brain. That’s why MS can cause many different symptoms.
- Motor neurons carry messages from the brain to organs that need
to respond. These are usually multipolar too. The myelin sheath is very important because it helps the neuron
In our example, the signal goes to the heart to adjust the heartbeat send signals faster to other neurons and muscles. In the diagram,
and bring blood pressure back to normal. the type of myelin sheath cell is called a Schwann cell. A Schwann
cell is a single cell that wraps around the axon to insulate it. There’s
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another myelin called an oligodendrocyte, but for now, just The term "gradient" is crucial. Without these concentration
remember that Schwann cells help speed up the action potential. gradients, nerve cells (neurons) couldn't generate electrical signals.
In fact, without them, the brain wouldn't function at all. Gradients
are essential for the action potential and for normal cell and brain
function.

When the signal reaches the end of the axon, it arrives at the axon
terminal. At the axon terminal, the signal is passed on to the next
neuron. The place where this happens is called a synapse. A synapse
is the connection point between one neuron's axon terminal and
another neuron's dendrites. Even though the neurons don’t actually
touch, they are very close. The tiny gap between them is called the (1) RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
synaptic cleft, and this is where the signal is passed across.
At this stage, the neuron is at rest, and we call this the resting
membrane potential.

● There is a sodium gradient: the concentration of sodium

ions (Na⁺) is much higher outside the cell than inside.

● There is also a potassium gradient: the concentration of

potassium ions (K⁺) is much higher inside the cell than
outside.

It's important to note that:

● There is some sodium inside the cell and some potassium

ACTION POTENTIAL outside.
4 stages of action potential: (1) Resting Membrane Potential, (2)
Depolarization, (3) Repolarization, (4) Refractory Period ● However, the amounts are not equal, and this uneven
distribution is what we call a concentration gradient.
Along the neuron's cell membrane, there are protein channels.
These channels allow specific ions to move in or out of the cell, and Although we’re talking about the action potential, resting
they are selective—each type only allows certain ions through. membrane potential is not the first stage of an action potential.
Instead, it's the "off" setting—the condition of the neuron before
● Sodium channels (shown in yellow on the diagram) allow the action potential begins.
only sodium ions (Na⁺) to pass. The first real stage of the action potential will be depolarization,
which we’ll cover shortly.
● Potassium channels (shown in purple) allow only
potassium ions (K⁺) to pass. Now, because of the differences in ion distribution, especially the
presence of more negatively charged ions inside the cell, there's a
In addition to these channels, there's also a third important protein difference in electrical charge across the membrane. This is why we
in the membrane: the sodium-potassium pump. call it a potential.

● This pump actively moves 3 sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the ● The inside of the neuron is more negative than the
cell and 2 potassium ions (K⁺) in. outside.
● The typical resting membrane potential is about –70
millivolts (mV).
● It works continuously, helping to maintain ion balance and
electrical charge across the membrane.

This pumping action creates a concentration gradient, which means

there's a difference in ion concentration on each side of the
membrane:

● More sodium (Na⁺) outside the cell

● More potassium (K⁺) inside the cell

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Now ask: which way will potassium flow?

● Most potassium is inside the neuron.

● So, potassium will flow out of the cell (following its
concentration gradient).

As potassium leaves:

● The inside of the neuron loses positive charges.

This makes the inside become more negative again.
● That’s why we call it repolarization — the membrane is
returning to its resting state.

The voltage goes down, sometimes even slightly below the normal
(2) DEPOLARIZATION
resting level. This happens because potassium keeps flowing out
until there’s about the same amount of potassium inside and
Neurons are always getting signals from other cells. These signals outside — meaning the concentration gradient is gone.
come in through the dendrites from other neurons or from your
senses (like your eyes or skin). These signals can be:

● Excitatory (they tell the neuron to fire)

● Inhibitory (they tell the neuron not to fire)

When enough excitatory signals arrive, they make the inside of the
neuron less negative. If this change reaches -55 millivolts, called the
threshold, something important happens:

● Sodium channels open, and sodium ions (Na⁺) rush into

the neuron.

Why? There’s a lot of sodium outside the neuron and very little (4) REFRACTORY PERIOD
inside, so sodium naturally flows inward. As sodium comes in:
After an action potential happens, the neuron can’t fire again right
● The inside of the neuron becomes more positive.
away.
● This is called depolarization.
● The membrane potential jumps up to about +40 millivolts.
Why not? Because:
This is the start of the action potential — the electrical signal that
travels down the neuron. ● Sodium already rushed into the cell.
● There’s no longer a difference in sodium levels inside and
outside.
● So if sodium channels opened again, nothing would
happen — no new signal.

This “recovery time” is called the refractory period.

To get ready to fire again, the neuron needs to reset.

That’s where the sodium-potassium pump comes in.

The pump:

● Pushes 3 sodium ions out

● Brings 2 potassium ions in
(3) REPOLARIZATION
This takes energy (ATP). The pump works until:
After a section of the axon has depolarized (turned "on"), the next
step is repolarization. ● Sodium is back outside
● Potassium is back inside
Here’s what happens:
Then, the neuron is ready to send another signal (action potential)
1. Sodium (Na⁺) channels close. again.
2. Potassium (K⁺) channels open.
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reaches the axon terminal—the end of the axon—it must cross a

small gap called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft to reach the next
neuron. This process is called synaptic transmission.

Understanding how synapses work is essential for exploring how

substances like drugs, alcohol, and nicotine affect the brain. These
chemicals alter synaptic activity—some by enhancing it, others by
blocking it—which can lead to changes in mood, behavior, and
cognition. This is also how addiction begins: repeated exposure to
certain substances changes how synapses function.

Furthermore, imbalances in neurotransmitter levels—such as having

too few "pleasure" neurotransmitters like dopamine—can lead to
RECAP mental health conditions such as depression.
======
1. Resting Membrane Potential
○ Voltage: about -70 mV Neurons don’t physically touch—there’s a tiny gap between them
○ Sodium is outside, potassium is inside. called the synaptic cleft. The presynaptic neuron ends in the axon
○ Channels are closed; the neuron is at rest. terminal, and the postsynaptic neuron begins with a dendrite. The
2. Threshold signal travels across this gap using neurotransmitters.
○ Voltage rises to -55 mV if enough excitatory
signals arrive.
1. Voltage-gated sodium (Na⁺) channels line the axon of the
○ This triggers the action potential
presynaptic neuron and open during an action potential.
3. Depolarization
○ Sodium channels open, and sodium rushes into
the cell. Voltage rises sharply from -55 mV up to 2. Near the axon terminal, voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺)
+40 mV channels open, letting calcium in.
○ This makes the inside of the neuron more
positive. 3. Calcium triggers vesicles in the terminal to release
○ Depolarization continues until the sodium levels neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
equal out inside and outside the cell.
4. These neurotransmitters bind to ligand-gated sodium
4. Repolarization channels on the postsynaptic neuron, causing them to
○ Sodium channels close, and potassium channels open and continue the signal.
open.
○ Potassium flows out of the cell, which brings the 5. A reuptake pump on the presynaptic neuron then recycles
voltage back down to -70 mV. the leftover neurotransmitters.
○ This ends the action potential in that section of
the neuron. Neurotransmitters act like chemical messengers, and the channels
work like gates—some open with electricity, others with chemical
5. Hyperpolarization keys.

● Voltage dips slightly below -70 mV (briefly more negative)

● Too much potassium leaves the cell.

6. Refractory Period

○ During this time, the sodium-potassium pump

uses ATP (energy) to restore the original
balance:
■ 3 sodiums out, 2 potassiums in.
○ This is called active transport.
○ Once the gradients are reset, the neuron is
ready to fire again. STEPS OF SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION

SYNAPSES (PARTS) Step 1: It all starts with an action potential.

As the action potential travels down the axon, it opens voltage-

Synapses are the connections between neurons in the brain. When
gated sodium (Na⁺) channels, allowing sodium to rush into the
an action potential (a nerve signal) travels along the axon and
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neuron. This makes the inside of the cell more positive—a process When ligand-gated sodium channels open, sodium rushes into the
called depolarization. postsynaptic neuron, causing slight depolarization—the inside
becomes more positive.

When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers

voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels to open. Since there’s more
calcium outside the cell than inside, calcium rushes into the If this depolarization reaches threshold, voltage-gated sodium
terminal. channels open rapidly, triggering a new action potential in the
postsynaptic neuron.

This type of response is called an excitatory synapse, because it

increases the chance that the next neuron will fire its own signal.

Step 2: Neurotransmitter Release

Inside the axon terminal, vesicles are held in place by special

proteins. When calcium enters the terminal, it causes these proteins
to release the vesicles. Inhibitory Synapses

The vesicles then move toward the edge of the axon terminal and Not all synapses excite the next neuron—some are inhibitory. In
release their contents—neurotransmitters—into the synaptic cleft. these, instead of positive sodium ions entering, negative ions like
In the video, you can see the neurotransmitters being released. It chloride (Cl⁻) enter the postsynaptic neuron.
kind of looks like a sneeze. Once released, the neurotransmitters
diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the This makes the inside of the neuron more negative, moving the
ligand-gated sodium channels of the postsynaptic neuron. This is membrane voltage further from threshold. As a result, the neuron
how the signal continues to the next cell. In simple terms, a becomes less likely to fire an action potential.
neurotransmitter will bind to the postsynaptic cell and cause the
sodium channels to open.
Think of it like a tug-of-war between excitatory and inhibitory
signals. Whichever side "wins" determines if the neuron fires or
stays silent.

Quick summary:

● Excitatory synapse → sodium (Na⁺) in → more likely to

fire

● Inhibitory synapse → chloride (Cl⁻) in → less likely to fire

Step 3: Postsynaptic Activation

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neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

4. Neurotransmitter Binding:
The neurotransmitters diffuse across the cleft and bind to
ligand-gated receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

5. Postsynaptic Response:

○ If it’s an excitatory synapse, sodium enters,

depolarizing the postsynaptic neuron and
making it more likely to fire an action potential.

○ If it’s an inhibitory synapse, negative ions like

chloride (Cl⁻) enter, making the inside more
Step 4: Neurotransmitter Cleanup negative (hyperpolarized) and reducing the
chance of firing.
The postsynaptic channels don’t stay open forever.
Neurotransmitters bind briefly to receptors, then detach and start 6. Neurotransmitter Removal:
to diffuse away. After binding, neurotransmitters detach and diffuse
away. Many are recycled by reuptake pumps into the
To avoid wasting them, the body recycles many of these presynaptic neuron, where they’re repackaged into
neurotransmitters using reuptake pumps on the presynaptic vesicles for reuse.
neuron. These pumps pull the neurotransmitters back into the axon
terminal, where they’re repackaged into vesicles—ready to be This entire process happens extremely fast—within milliseconds.
released again the next time an action potential arrives.

RECAP

While we've looked at neuron-to-neuron communication, this also

applies to communication between a neuron and a different type of
cell, like a muscle cell. In that case, the connection is called a
neuromuscular junction (“neuro” = nerve, “muscular” = muscle).
The process works similarly in both cases.

Recap of the Steps:

1. Action Potential Initiates:

An action potential travels down the presynaptic neuron,
opening voltage-gated sodium channels, which lets
sodium rush in and depolarize the membrane.

2. Calcium Channels Open:

The depolarization triggers voltage-gated calcium
channels to open at the axon terminal, allowing calcium
to enter the cell.

3. Vesicle Release:
Calcium causes proteins holding the vesicles to release
them. The vesicles move to the membrane and release