Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers

Course code: 20PH102

UNIT-V: LASERS AND OPTICAL FIBERS

Luminescence:
When radiation interacts with matter under appropriate conditions, it leads to an abrupt transition of the
quantum system such as an atom or molecule from one energy state to another. If the transition is from a
higher state to a lower state, the system gives out a part of the energy and if the transition is in the reverse
direction, then, it absorbs the incident energy.
When a substance absorbs energy, a part of the energy may be re-emitted in the form of
electromagnetic radiation in the visible or near–visible region of the spectrum. This phenomenon is
known as luminescence.

Luminescence: Luminescence involves the following two steps:

(i) the excitation of the electrons in the atoms of the solid, and
(ii) the subsequent emission of photons.
These two major steps may be associated with some intermediate steps. Depending on the time interval
between the excitation and the emission processes, luminescence is classified as fluorescence and
phosphorescence.

Fluorescence is a process in which the emission occurs during excitation or the time interval between the
two processes of excitation and emission is less than 10-8 s.

Phosphorescence is the process in which the emission of light occurs with a lapse of time larger than 10-8
s, after the excitation has ceased.

Luminescence is found to be associated with the presence of activators in materials. These activators are
either impurity atoms present in minute quantities or a small excess of one of the constituent elements in a
compound. It is interesting to note that the presence of certain other type of impurity may inhibit
luminescence. Addition of activator impurity in a crystalline solid will give rise to localized energy levels
in the forbidden energy gap (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. Absorption and emission processes and the role of localized energy states in the band gap

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

These levels may be due to the activator atoms themselves or due to the host atoms influenced by the
presence of activator atoms. They may also be associated with lattice defects induced due to the addition
of activator atoms. In case of fluorescence, the excitation and emission processes involve these localized
energy levels in addition to inter band transition. In case of phosphorescence, the localized energy levels
present in the band gap may be metastable states. A transition to a metastable state results in trapping of
the electron and an emission can occur when the electron is released back into the conduction band. This
accounts for the delay in the emission process.

The process of luminescence is further classified on the basis of the mechanism of excitation.
➢ If the carriers are excited by photon absorption, the resulting emission is called photoluminescence.
➢ In cathodo-luminescence, the excitation is by bombardment with high-energy electrons.
➢ If the excitation is due to the passage of an electric current, the resulting luminescence is called electro-
luminescence.
➢ Other types of luminescence are tribo-luminescence, chemiluminescence, radio-luminescence,
magnetoluminescence, etc.
In all these cases, the nomenclature refers to the mechanism by which the excitation is achieved. On the
other hand, thermoluminescence refers to the case of luminescence in which, irrespective of the method
of excitation, the emission is stimulated by thermal process. Luminescence is an important property
exhibited by certain materials, which makes them useful for device applications.
Ex: Fluorescent tubes, cathode ray tubes, Fluorescent paints used in signal boards, watch dials etc.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

LASERS:
LASER: The word LASER stands for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Laser is a source producing an intense, monochromatic, and highly parallel beam of coherent light.
Properties of Laser:
The extraordinary features of a laser beam are
1. High intensity - Laser beams are highly intense as a large number of photons are concentrated in a
small region.
2. Monochromatic - Highly monochromatic radiation (i.e. single wavelength)
3. Coherence - Perfectly coherent as the emitted light waves has the same phase with one another.
4. High degree of directionality - Travels in a single direction as the photons are traveling along the
optical axis of the system.

Basic Principles:
Interaction of an electromagnetic radiation with matter leads to transition of an atom or molecule from
one energy state to another. If the transition is from lower state to higher state it absorbs the incident energy. If
the transition is from higher state to lower state it emits a part of its energy.
If ΔE is the difference between the two energy levels,
Then ΔE = (E2 - E1) Joule
According to Max Planck, ΔE = (E2 - E1) = hν = hc/λ

There are three possible ways through which radiation can interact with matter.

1) Induced Absorption: Induced absorption is the absorption of an incident photon by a system, as a

result of which the system is elevated from a lower energy state to a higher state, where the energy of the
incident photon is equal to the energy difference of the two energy states.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Let E1and E2 be two energy levels in the energy level scheme of an atom in which E1 is lower energy
state. Let a photon having energy, hν = ∆E = E2-E1 be incident on the atom which is in the lower energy
state. The atom absorbs the photon. Hence its energy becomes E1 + ∆E = E2. Hence it is shown in the
level E2. Then the atom is said to have made transition to the excited state. This can be represented as,
atom + photon atom*

2) Spontaneous Emission: Spontaneous emission is the emission of a photon, when a system transits
from a higher energy state to a lower energy state without the aid of any external agency.

Consider an atom in the excited state. Because of universal tendency for any system to attain the least
available energy state the atom emits a photon of energy ∆E=E2-E1. Then the energy of the atom becomes
equal to E2-∆E= E1, and is shown in level E1. Since the atom emits a photon, without the aid of external
agency, it is called spontaneous emission. This process can be denoted as,
atom* atom + photon
3) Stimulated Emission: Stimulated emission is the emission of a photon by a system, under the
influence of a incident photon of right energy due to which the system transits from a higher energy state
to a lower energy state. The photon thus emitted is called the stimulated photon (emitted photon) and will
have the same phase, energy and direction of movement as that of the stimulating photon (incident
photon).

Consider an atom in the excited state. Let a photon having an energy ∆E =E2 -E1 interacts with atom by
passing in its vicinity. The atom emits a photon and transits to the lower energy state. The two photons
travel in exactly the same direction, and same energy. The waves associated with the two photons will
have identical phase and thus they are coherent. The process can be represented as,
atom* + photon atom + (photon+ photon)
This kind of emission is responsible for laser action.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Einstein’s Coefficients:
Einstein’s coefficients give the probability associated with the absorption and emission processes.
Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms. Let N1 and N2 be the number density of atoms
in the states 1 and 2 (number density is the number of atoms per unit volume).
Let a radiation of frequency ν be incident on the system. Let Uν represents the energy density of
frequency ν (energy incident/unit volume of the system is called energy density).

i)Case of Induced Absorption:

In case of induced absorption, an atom in the level E1 can go to the level E2, when it absorbs a
radiation of suitable frequency ν = E2-E1/h. The number of such absorptions per unit time per unit
volume is called rate of absorption. The rate of absorption depends upon.
1) the number density of lower energy state N1 and
2) the energy density Uν

:. Rate of absorption α N1 Uν
or Rate of absorption = B12N1 Uν
where B12 is called Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption.

ii) Case of spontaneous Emission:

In the case of spontaneous emission an atom in the higher energy level E 2 undergoes transition to the
lower energy level E1 by emitting a photon. This transition is independent of the energy density of any
frequency in the incident radiation. The rate of spontaneous emission (number of emissions/unit
volume/unite time) is proportional to only the number density in the higher energy state N2.
:. Rate of spontaneous emission α N2
:. Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2
where A21 is called the Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

iii) Case of stimulated Emission:

In stimulated emission an external photon of appropriate frequency stimulates the downward transition of
an atom in the excited state. The number of stimulated emission per unit time per unit volume, ie, rate of
stimulated emission is proportional to
1)number density of higher energy state N2 and
2)the energy density Uν
:. Rate of stimulated emission α N2U
:. Rate of stimulated emission = B21N2Uν
where B21 is called Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

From Boltzmann’s law, we know that the ratio of the population densities N2 and N1 in the excited state
E2 and ground state E1 respectively at any instant at any temperature T is given by,
𝑵𝟐
= 𝒆−(𝑬𝟐 −𝑬𝟏)⁄𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆−𝒉𝝊⁄𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆−𝒉𝒄/𝝀𝒌𝑻
𝑵𝟏
This equation indicates that the population at energy level E2 is much smaller than that at E1 at
equilibrium and most of the electrons are in the lower energy state.

Expression for Energy density:

At steady state, we can write
Rate of absorption = rate of spontaneous emission + rate of stimulated emission
ie. B12N1Uν = A21N2 + B21N2 Uν
Or Uν (B12N1 -B21N2) = A21 N2

:. By dropping subscript B12 = B21=B and A21=A

𝐴
:. At thermal equilibrium, 𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵[𝑒 (ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇)−1]

Requisites of a Laser System

The three requisites of a laser system are:
1) An excitation source for pumping action (pumping mechanism): The act of exciting atoms from
lower energy state to a higher energy state by supplying energy is called pumping. The excitation source
provides the appropriate amount of energy for pumping the atoms. The energy input may be in the form
of light energy, electrical energy or chemical etc. The different pumping methods are
➢ Optical Pumping: By using high intensity light or flash tubes for excitation.
Ex: Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser
➢ Electrical Pumping: By applying very high potential between the plates of discharge tube gas gets
discharge leads to atom – atom collision and pumping.
Ex: He-Ne laser, CO2 laser, Argon laser.
➢ Chemical Pumping: Exothermic chemical reactions liberate energy. This energy is used in pumping the
atoms. Ex: Dye lasers.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

[A suitable method of pumping is selected to produce population inversion. The choice of the method
depends on the type of laser under consideration, the nature of the active medium and the laser output.
For example, in solid state lasers, optical pumping method is used with a flash lamp as the source of light.
Most often, the output from the source of light will be in the form of short flashes. The method may be
suitable for pulsed lasers in which the output from the laser is also in pulses.]

2) An active medium: It is a medium in which the atoms or molecules will be excited to higher energy
states in order to produce population inversion and lasing action occurs. The active medium that are used
in lasers are solids, liquids, gases or semiconductors. Depending on the active medium used, lasers are
classified into various types
i) Gas lasers: Gases and mixture of gases. Ex: He-Ne laser, CO2 laser.
ii) Solid state lasers: Crystals and doped glasses. Ex: Ruby laser, Nd:YAG laser.
iii) Liquids lasers: liquid medium, ex: SeOCl2
iv) Semiconductors lasers: semiconductor or diode. Ex: GaAs laser.
3) A laser cavity: An active medium bound between two mirrors form a laser cavity. One of the mirrors
is fully reflecting and the other is partially transparent to allow some radiation to pass through. This
cavity helps to increase the stimulated emission thereby increasing the intensity of the laser beam. There
are two commonly used mirror configurations for optical cavity resonators. They are plane parallel
mirrors and confocal mirrors. The radiation will propagate to and fro within the cavity between the two
mirrors.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Conditions for Laser Action:

Efficient laser emission can be achieved under the following conditions:
(i) rate of stimulated emission should be more than the rate of spontaneous emission
(ii) Rate of stimulated emission should be more than the rate of absorption.
Which can be achieved by
1) Population Inversion: Under normal condition the population of ground state is more than the excited
state (Fig a). Hence the probability of absorption is more than the emission.
The population inversion is the state of a system at which the population (or number of electrons) of an
excited state is higher than that in the lower state (Fig b). When population inversion is achieved there
will be more number of emissions than absorptions. It is not possible to achieve population inversion with
only two energy levels. The condition of population inversion can be achieved with the help of metastable
states with which the atoms or molecules of the active medium are associated.

2) Metastable States: The lifetime of excited atom in ordinary excited states is of the order of 10-8 second
which is very small. Within 10-8 second the atoms return to one of the lower energy states by spontaneous
emission.
A metastable state is one which has a relatively longer lifetime which is of the order of 10-3 to 10-2 second
and atoms excited to these levels will come down to lower levels at a much smaller rate than the rate at
which they are excited. This property helps in achieving the population inversion.

By supplying appropriate energy, the atoms are excited from E1 to E3 state. From E3 state the atoms
undergo spontaneous transition to E1 and E2. But E2 is a metastable state, where the atoms stay for longer
duration. Hence population of which increases steadily. Under these conditions a stage will be reached
wherein the population of E2 exceeds that of E1, which is known as population inversion.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Two- Level, Three- Level and Four- Level Laser Systems:

The efficiency of laser emission depends on the nature of the active medium and the energy levels
between which the laser action takes place.
For example, if there are only the two energy states, a ground state and a metastable state, it is said to be a
two-level system (Fig. a).

Fig; Transitions in a (a) two level, (b) three level and (c) four level lasers.

In the case of two-level system, the population inversion will not be possible. This is because, as more
and more electrons are pumped to the metastable state, there will be more stimulated emission and at any
instant of time, there will be no more than half the number of electrons in each state. As a result, no laser
amplification occurs.
Population inversion will be possible only when the absorption is to a level higher than the metastable
state as in the case of a three-level laser. Pumping takes the electrons from the ground state to the excited
state. From this excited state, the electron makes a transition to the metastable state by spontaneous
emission. The laser emission occurs when the electron in the metastable state is stimulated to undergo a
transition to the ground state. However, a reverse transition is also possible from the ground state to the
metastable state by a re absorption of the emitted radiation. This removes some photons from the laser
beam and hence the efficiency of the laser decreases. This problem is overcome in a four-level laser.
In the case of a four-level laser, the laser transition occurs to an unstable intermediate state rather than
the ground state. The electron decays to the ground state rapidly. Thus, the initial and the final laser levels
are separated from the higher excited state and the ground state respectively. The probability of re
absorption of laser radiation is thus avoided which improves the efficiency of the laser.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Ruby Laser:
A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a ruby crystal as its gain medium. The first working laser
was a ruby laser made by H.T. Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories in 1960.

Construction:
Ruby: Ruby is crystalline substance of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) doped approximately 0.05% by weight
of chromium oxide (Cr2O3). On doping, some of the Al3+ ions are replaced by Cr3+ ions and induces a
pink or red colour.
Resonant cavity: A ruby rod of about 4 cm length and 0.5 cm diameter is used as active medium. The
end faces of the rod are grounded so that they are parallel and are polished (or coated with a highly
reflecting material), so that the rod acts like a resonant cavity. One end of the ruby is fully silvered and
the other is partially silvered so that the laser beam emerges out of the ruby rod.
Pumping Mechanism: The laser action is achieved by using optical pumping mechanism. A helical
Xenon flash tube that surrounds the ruby rod, provides the pumping light to raise the chrominium ions to
the upper levels. A cooling arrangement is used to reduce the temperature.

Ruby Laser
Working: In ruby laser, chromium ions are the active centers responsible for laser transition. The energy
level diagram for chromium ions in ruby crystal is shown in following Fig. The chromium ions from the
ground state E1 are excited to the band E3 by the absorption of energy from the flash lamp (in a band of
energies in the blue-green region). This excited level is highly unstable, and the electrons make non
radiative transition (decay) to the level E2. The level E2 is a metastable state with a lifetime of the order of
milliseconds. So, population inversion takes place between metastable and ground state. The stimulated
emission from the metastable state E2 to ground state E1 produces the laser output with a peak intensity at
6943 Å. E2 is a doublet and hence the output has an additional emission line at 6928 Å. Once the
stimulated emission begins, the metastable state is quickly depopulated. Thus, the output from ruby laser
is in pulses, closely related to the rate of build-up and depletion of population in the metastable state.
Further, the flash lamp used for optical pumping produces light of many wavelengths not useful for
pumping and hence a large amount of heat is produced. So cooling system is used to remove the heat
energy produced.
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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Energy- level diagram of Ruby Laser

Applications: Since Ruby laser was the first laser device to be made, it found many applications in the
early days like in research, holography and materials working. Later with the advance in other laser
systems the use of ruby laser has become very much limited currently. A

Helium-Neon Laser:
The first gas laser to be operated successfully was the He-Ne laser. Helium-Neon laser is a gas laser
useful for continuous operation.
Construction: It consists of a discharge tube made of fused quartz, with a diameter of 1-2 cm and of
length nearly 0.5-1 meter. The tube is filled with a mixture of Helium and Neon gases in 10:1 ratio. The
partial pressures of helium and neon are 1mm of mercury and 0.1mm of mercury respectively. Flat quartz
plates which function as Brewster windows are sealed to the tube at both of its ends. Two optically plane
mirrors are fixed on either side of the tube normal to its axis. One of the mirrors is fully silvered and
reflects all the incident light, whereas the other mirror is partially silvered: so that the combination of
these two mirrors act as resonant cavity.

Schematic diagram of He-Ne laser

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Working: When a high voltage is applied across the electrodes, many electrons are rendered free from
the gas atoms. These free electrons collide with helium atoms and the helium atoms are excited from
ground state F1 to the energy levels F2 and F3, which are metastable states for helium.
The excited He atoms return to the ground state by transferring their energy to neon atoms through
collision. (Such an energy transfer can take place only when the two colliding atoms have identical
energy states). The energy levels E4 and E6 of neon atoms coincide in energy with the levels F2 and F3 of
helium atom. Therefore, Ne atoms acquire energy and go to the excited states E4 and E6 on collision
whereas He atoms drop back to the ground state F1.

As the collisions go on, accumulation of neon atoms increases rapidly in the states E4 and E6, which
causes population inversion with respect to E3 and E5 levels. Once the population inversion is established,
three types of laser transitions take place. They are
1) Transition from the E6 level to the E5 level gives radiation of wavelength 33912 Å which is in IR
region.
2) Transition from the E6 level to E3 gives visible radiation of wavelength 6328 Å which is a most
popular red light.
3) Transition from E4 level to E3 level gives radiation of wavelength 11523 Å which is also in IR region.

Then the atoms from E3 and E5 levels undergo spontaneous transitions to E2 level much faster. The
depopulation of these levels helps to maintain population inversion between lasing levels. The atoms in
the metastable state E2 come down to ground state, when they collide with the wall of the tube.
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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Of the three laser beams the red laser beam 6328A is tapped and amplified by adjusting the distance
between the two mirrors. Since the discharge in the tube is maintained continuously, the cycle of events
also takes place continuously and the emission of laser radiation is also continuous. Output power of He-
Ne laser is 0.5 to 50 mW.
Application: He-Ne laser can be used in surveying, holography and printers.

Semiconductor Laser:

Semiconductor laser is the one in which the active medium is formulated by semiconducting materials.
They are smallest in size and least expensive. They are used as photonic sources in optical
communication. Only a kind of semiconductors called direct band gap semiconductors are employed in
semiconductor lasers.
Conduction band

hν
Valence band

When junction is forward biased at low current electron hole pair recombines to give out a photon. This is
spontaneous emission. When current crosses a threshold value a large number of electron hole pair occurs
at the junction. This is population inversion. The recombination of these electron hole produces lasing
action. The photons emitted will come out of the junction edge. Gallium Arsenide is a class of direct band
gap semiconductor.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Laser:

Principle: GaAs is a direct band gap semiconductor. In a direct band gap semiconductor during the
recombination of electron and hole, the recombination energy is given out as photon.
In a diode laser, the p-n junction is formed using degenerate semiconductors. When the dopant
concentration is increased, the impurity levels will expand into bands and then merge with the nearest
energy band. In an n-type semiconductor, the donor band overlaps with the conduction band and for a p-
type semiconductor the acceptor band overlaps with the valence band. Such semiconductors are called
degenerate semiconductors.
When p-n junctions made out of these degenerate semiconductors are forward biased, electrons and holes
are injected across the junction in large concentration. This results in a condition identical to population
inversion in the region close to the junction and transitions from the bottom of the conduction band to the
top of the valence band can take place with the emission of radiation of energy equal to the band gap
energy.
Eg = hν = hc/ λ or λ= hc/Eg

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Construction: GaAs laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs and consists of heavily doped n and p
sections. The n- section is formed by doping with Tellurium and p- section is formed by doping with
Zinc. [The doping concentration is very high is of the order of 1017 to 1019 dopant atoms/cm3]. A pair of
parallel planes of the crystal are cleaved or polished at right angle to the p-n layer. These planes play the
role of reflecting mirror. The other two remaining sides perpendicular to the junction are roughened to
suppress reflection of the photons. The end surfaces of the p and n sections parallel to the plane of the
junction are provided with electrodes for the application of forward bias voltage.

GaAs Laser

Working: GaAs laser diode is subjected to a forward bias as shown in figure. Due to the forward bias, the
holes are injected into the p-side of the junction and electrons are injected into the n-side. During the flow
when a hole meets an electron recombination takes place resulting in the emission of a photon. In a GaAs
laser by heavy doping, a large number of electrons are available in an n- type material and a large number
of holes are available in a p-type material.
When the current in the diode is low, the concentration of the electrons at the bottom of conduction band
will be still lesser than that in the valence band, and the recombination result in only spontaneous
emissions. But as the current is increased, a threshold for lasing will be attained beyond which a
population inversion can be achieved between the conduction band and valence band and an active region
is formulated very near the junction. At this stage a photon released by a spontaneous emission may
trigger stimulated emission over a large number of recombination, leading to the buildup of laser
radiation of high power.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Energy band diagram of a diode laser under forward bias

Since the energy gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV, the wavelength of the emitted light is
λ = hc/Eg = 8400 Å
Applications:
Semiconductor lasers are the smallest and least expensive of all the lasers available.
• They find important use in optical communications
• They are also used extensively as reading devices for compact disc (CD) players, bar code readers.
• They are used in Laser printers, Laser Pointers etc.

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:
➢ One of the major applications is in pure science to investigate the interaction of matter with intense
electromagnetic radiation. The directionality and coherence of the laser beam are useful in the
measurement of distances based on interferometric methods.
➢ In the field of communication, laser has been used with proper modulation for information transmission.
➢ Because of the high intensity and energy associated with laser beams, they can be utilized for applications
such as welding, cutting and ablation of materials.
➢ Laser has also been used for medical applications like treatment of dental decay, destruction of tumors,
treatment of skin diseases and eye surgery.
➢ Holography is another important application which helps in recording the amplitude as well as the phase
of light reflected from objects thereby preserving the three dimensional information.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
1. A He-Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 5 mW. How
many photons are emitted each second by this laser?
Solution:
Wavelength of emitted light λ = 632.8 x 10-9 m.
Energy of each photon ΔE = hc/λ = (6.62 x 10-34 x 3 x 108) / 632.8 x 10-9

= 3.138 x 10-19 J
Energy emitted by the laser, E = 5mW = 5 x 10-3 Js-1
Number of photons emitted = E/ΔE = (5 x 10-3) / (3.138 x10-19) = 1.59 x 1016 photons/sec

2. Find the ratio of population of the two energy states the transition between which is responsible
for the emission of photons of wavelength 694.3 nm. Assume the ambient temperature as 27 ℃.
Solution:
Energy of the emitted radiation = (E2-E1)= hc/λ = (6.63 x 10-34 x 3 x 108)/ 694.3 x 10-9
= 2.86 x 10-19 J
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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
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The ratio of population (N2/N1) between two energy states E2 and E1 is given by the Boltzman relation,
(N2/N1) = exp-[(E2-E1)/kT] = exp – [(2.86 x 10-19)/(1.38 x 10-23 x 300)]
= exp(-69.08)
= 9.98 x 10-31

3. A He- Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How
many photons are emitted in each minute by this laser when operated?
4. The ratio of population of two energy levels in a laser system at 320 K is 10-30. Find the wavelength of
the radiation emitted.
5. A laser operating at 632.8 nm emits 3.18 x 10 19 photons per second. Calculate the output power of the
laser if the input power is 100 watts. Also find the percentage power converted into coherent light energy.
6. A Nd:YAG laser emits pulse of power of 1W and of duration 12ps . Calculate the number of photons
in each pulse, if the laser wavelength is 1064nm.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

OPTICAL FIBERS
Optical Fibers: An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light. It is long, thin, cylindrical in shape
and it consists of mainly two regions. The central cylindrical region is the light guiding region known as
the Core. The coaxial region surrounding the core is known as Cladding. The refractive index of the
core material is higher than that of the cladding. The core and cladding are made of either glass or
plastic. The outermost region surrounding cladding is called the sheath or protective buffer coating.
Additional covering is provided to improve the strength and also to protect it from moisture and
mechanical wear. With all the protective coverings, the optical fibers are still very thin, less than 0.1 mm
in diameter typically.

glass or plastic plastic jacket

cladding
fiber core

[There are mainly two types of materials used for the construction of optical fibers: glass and plastic. The glass fibers are made
of silicates like sodium borosilicate, sodium calcium silicate and lead silicate. Pure silica (SiO2) has a refractive index of 1.45
at a wavelength of 1 μm. Additives like B2O3 can be used to lower the R.I. while additives like GeO2 can be used to raise it.
Hence, a typical fiber may have SiO2:GeO2 as the core and pure SiO2 as cladding. These glass fibers may be manufactured
with a wide range of refractive indices and are known for their characteristics of low scattering. They are good for
communication applications. Fibers can also be made from plastic, but these fibers are associated with high attenuation due to
scattering. Alternatively, plastic coated silica fibers may be made with core of pure silica and cladded with a suitable polymer.
These optical fibers are economical, but are suitable for medium distances with moderate bandwidth.]

Total Internal Reflection:

Propagation of light through an optical fiber is by total internal reflection (TIR). For a light ray traveling
from one medium of refractive index n1 to a second medium of refractive index n2, we have, by Snell’s
law, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
where θ1 and θ2 are the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction respectively.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

When the ray of light is traveling from a denser medium to a rarer medium, i.e., n1 > n2, the ray bends
away from the normal as shown in figure (ray AOA′). If the angle of incidence is increased, for a
particular angle of incidence called critical angle θc, the refracted ray just grazes the interface, (ray BOB′)
i.e., θ2=90°.
Hence the critical angle of incidence θc is given by
n1 sin θc = n2 sin 90°
or sin θc = n2/n1
The ray will be totally internally reflected into the denser medium when the angle of incidence is greater
than the critical angle (known as total internal reflection) (ray COC′).
Thus, if we have a fiber consisting of a core of higher R.I. surrounded by a cladding of lower R.I., the
light ray once enters into the core, it will propagate by means of multiple total internal reflection at core-
cladding interface.

Ray propagation in the optical fiber:

[Angle of Acceptance, Acceptance cone & Numerical Aperture]
Consider a ray of light AO enters into the core of an optical fiber at an angle θ0 to the fiber axis as shown
in figure. This ray is refracted along OB at an angle θ1 in the core and further proceeds to fall at critical angle
(90-θ1) at B on the core-cladding interface. Hence the ray is refracted at 90° to the normal to the interface, i.e.
it grazes along BC.

It is clear from the figure that, any ray that enters the core at an angle less than θ0, will have angle of
incidence (90-θ1) at the interface greater than the critical angle and hence undergoes total internal
reflection.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

On the other hand, any ray that enters at an angle greater than θ0 at O, will have angle of incidence less
than the critical angle at the interface. Hence it refracts into the cladding and is lost from the core.
The angle θ0 is called angle of acceptance. Angle of acceptance (semi-angle of the cone of acceptance)
is the maximum allowed angle that the incident ray can make with the fiber axis for transmission through
the fiber by total internal reflection.
If the incident ray AO is rotated around the fiber axis keeping θ0 same, then it describes a conical surface
called acceptance cone. Only those rays which are funneled into the fiber within this cone will propagate
through the fiber by TIR.
Numerical Aperture (N.A.) is a measure of light-gathering or light-collecting ability of an optical fiber. It
is defined as the sine of the angle of acceptance.
N.A. = sin θ0
Expression for Numerical Aperture:
Let n0, n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core and cladding respectively.
By applying Snell’s law for refraction at the point of entrance at O,
n0 sin θ0 = n1 sin θ1
𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛1 √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃1 -------(1)
0

Applying Snell’s law for refraction at B on the interface,

n1 sin (90-θ1) = n2 sin 90°
or n1 cos θ1= n2
or cos θ1= n2/ n1 ---------(2)
Substituting (2) in (1)

𝑛1 2
𝑛1 𝑛22
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃1 = √1 − 2
𝑛0 𝑛0 𝑛1

√(𝑛12 −𝑛22 )
𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = 𝑛0
If the surrounding medium is air, then, n0= 1.
Then

𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

If θi is the angle of incidence of an incident ray, then the condition for ray propagation is
θi < θ 0
or sin θi < sinθ0
or sin θi < N.A.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Fractional index Change or Relative Refractive index difference (Δ):

It is the ratio of the refractive index difference between core and cladding to the refractive index of the
core of an optical fiber.
𝑛1 −𝑛2
i.e. ∆= 𝑛1

Relation between N.A. and Δ:

𝑛1 −𝑛2
∆= or n1-n2 = n1.Δ
𝑛1

𝑁. 𝐴. = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22 = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )(𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) = √(𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )𝑛1 ∆

Since 𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 , (n1+n2) = 2n1

Hence 𝑵. 𝑨. = √𝟐𝒏𝟐𝟏 ∆= 𝒏𝟏 √𝟐∆

Modes of propagation in a fiber:

There are various modes by which light waves can be made to propagate in an optical fiber. The mode of
propagation depends on the construction of the optical fiber. Modes of propagation refers to the number
of paths for the light rays along which the waves are in phase inside the fiber. Multimode means several
paths are available. Single mode means single ray propagation.

V-Number:
It is a parameter which determines the number of modes of propagation.

Where d-diameter of the core and r-radius of the core. λ is wavelength of light.

𝑉2 𝜋 2 𝑑2
Number of modes 𝑀 ≈ ≈ (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )
2 2𝜆2

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Types of Optical Fibers:

Classification of optical fibers based on modes of propagation:
i. Single mode fibers
ii. Multi- mode fibers
Optical fibers are classified into two types based on the refractive index profile:
i. Step index fibers
ii. Graded index fibers.
Optical fibers are broadly classified into three types:
(1) Step index Single mode fibers,
(2) Step index Multi mode fibers, and
(3) Graded index Multi mode fibers.

Refractive Index Profile:

The refractive index profile of an optical fiber is a graphical representation of the magnitude of the
refractive index across the fiber.
The refractive index is plotted on the vertical axis, and the radial distance from the core axis is plotted on
the horizontal axis. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber,
or gradual, in graded-index fiber.
• In step-index fibers the refractive index changes abruptly at the interface between core and cladding
• Graded-index fiber, the refractive index decreases gradually away from the center of the core.

(1)Single mode fibers (SMF)

Fig. 1: Single mode step index fiber

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

A step-index fiber has a central core with a uniform refractive index and outside cladding surrounding the
core also has a uniform refractive index; however, the refractive index of the cladding is less than that of
the central core. (Fig. 1). The R.I. profile is a step-index profile as the refractive index changes abruptly at
the interface between the core and the cladding.
The diameter of the core is very small about 8-10 μm and external diameter of cladding is 60-70 μm. In a
single mode fiber, the core is so small that there is a single path for the light to propagate in the fiber.
Only laser can be used as a source of light.
Applications:
• Nearly 80% of the fibers manufactured are of this type.
• It finds particular application in submarine cable system.
• It is used as telephone lines in long distance communication.
Advantages:
• It can transmit signal over longer distances.
• The signal propagating through fiber is free from intermodal dispersion.
Disadvantages:
• It is difficult to launch the light through the fiber
• The single mode optical fibers are costly, because the fabrication is difficult.
• It is difficult to achieve end to end connection of fibers.

(2) Step Index Multi mode fibers:

A step-index Multi mode fibers has a central core with a uniform refractive index and outside cladding
also has a uniform refractive index; however, the refractive index of the cladding is less than that of the
central core. (Fig. 1). The refractive index changes abruptly at the interface between the core and the
cladding and hence the R.I. profile is a step-index profile.
The diameter of the core is 50-200 µm and external diameter of cladding is 100-250 µm. The fiber
supports many modes for propagation. Either a LASER or LED can be used as source of light.

Fig. 2: Step index multimode fiber

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Application - They are used in data links.

Advantages:
• Can transmit more than one mode
• Launching light in to fiber is easy
• The multi-mode optical fibers are cheaper than single mode fibers, because the fabrication is easy.
Disadvantages:
• It is used to transmit signal only for short distances.
• Multimode fibers suffer intermodal dispersion.

(iii) Graded index Multi mode fibers:

In a graded index multimode fiber, the refractive index of the core is maximum at the center of the core
and decreases gradually and becomes equal to that of the cladding at the interface between core and
cladding (Fig.1). As the refractive index decreases gradually away from the center of the core, the R. I.
profile is a graded index profile.
Diameter of the core is 50-200 µm, Cladding diameter is 100-250 µm. Hence The fiber supports many
modes for propagation. Either a LASER or LED can be used as source of light.

Fig. 3: Graded index multimode fiber

Application - They are used to connect telephone trunks between central offices.
Advantages:
• It has a small numerical aperture.
• It has intermediate bandwidth and capacity.
• It is a high quality fiber.
• Intermodal dispersion less due to variation in RI.
• Bandwidth is high due high NA

Disadvantage: It is expensive.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Signal distortion in optical fibers:

Propagation of a signal through the optical fiber involves total internal reflection of light rays many times.
Further, the rays are reflected at various angles. The rays reflected at higher angles travel greater
distances than the rays reflected at low angles. As a result, all the rays do not arrive at the end of the fiber
simultaneously and the light pulse broadens as it travels through the fiber. Since the
output pulse does not match with the input pulse; the signal is said to be distorted. When white light
source is used instead of a monochromatic radiation, another kind of distortion occurs. Since radiation of
different wavelengths has different velocities, they do not arrive at the output simultaneously. This
distortion is called chromatic dispersion.
The signal distortion is quite considerable in multimode step index fibers. In graded index fibers, the light
travels with different velocities in different parts of the core as the refractive index varies radially along
the core. The rays travel faster near the outer edge of the core (since the refractive index is smaller) than
near the center. Hence, all the rays arrive at the output almost at the same time and the signal distortion is
reduced. In a single mode step index fiber also the distortion is less than that in multi-mode step index
fibers.

Signal attenuation in optical fibers:

Attenuation is the loss of optical power suffered by the optical signal as it propagates through the fiber.
The main reason for the loss of light intensity over the length of the fiber is due to (1) Light Absorption,
(2) Scattering and (3) Radiation Losses.
(1) Light Absorption: Absorption loss is due to the loss of signal power by absorption of photons
associated with the signal. It is takes place by two ways.
(i) Absorption by impurities or extrinsic: Intrinsic attenuation is caused by impurities incorporated into
the glass during the manufacturing process. The presence of impurities like copper, chromium, iron etc
(ie, transition metals) and hydroxy ions (OH) will absorb some photons in the signal. The photons may be
absorbed by the impurity atoms and re-emitted by spontaneous emission or converted into some other
form of energy.
(ii) Intrinsic Absorption: Even if the material has no impurities, the fiber material itself may absorb some
photons. This is called intrinsic absorption. Intrinsic attenuation can also occur due to absorption of
signal in the fiber.

(2) Scattering losses: This loss is due to the scattering of signal photons by some compositional
inhomogeneity’s in the fiber. Since glass is a heterogeneous mixture of many oxides like SiO2, P2O5
(Phosphorous pentaoxide) etc., the composition of the molecular distribution varies from point to point.
Hence due to the inhomogeneity in the material there will be sharp variation in refractive index value
inside the glass over a distance that is smaller than wavelength of light. The scattering of photons by such
scattering centers is same as Rayleigh scattering and it is inversely proportional to the 4th power of
wavelength. The presence of structural inhomogeneity’s (defects, trapped gas bubbles, unreacted starting
materials etc.) can also scatter some photons.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

(3) Radiation Losses (Bending losses): This is caused by two mechanisms, namely, macroscopic
bending and microscopic bending of the fiber.
Because of the bending of the fiber during installation, which are known as macroscopic bending, the
curvatures in the fiber also leads to attenuation. All optical fibers have a minimum bend radius
specification that should not be exceeded. This is a restriction on how much bend a fiber can withstand
before experiencing problems in optical performance or mechanical reliability. A bend in the fiber may
result in the modification of the angle of incidence on the core-cladding interface and hence may lead to
signal loss.
Microscopic bending is a small scale distortion of the core-cladding interface in a localized region. This
may be related to pressure, temperature, tensile stress or crushing force to which the fiber might have
been subjected to.

Attenuation coefficient (α):

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a fiber. It is measured in decibels
(dB/km). Over a set distance, a fiber with a lower attenuation will allow more power to reach its receiver
than a fiber with higher attenuation. The attenuation coefficient (constant) α of the fiber, in units of
dB/km, is given by

𝟏𝟎 𝑷
𝜶=− 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) bB/km
𝑳 𝒊𝒏

Where L - Length of the fiber in km

Pin – Input power in watt
Pout – Output power in watt

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

Applications of optical fibers:

Optical fibers find extensive applications in
• Fiber optic communication – Telecommunications, Local Area Networks, Cable TV, CCTV
• Optical Fiber Sensor
• Applications in medicine - endoscopy
• Application in industry

Advantages of Optical Fibers:

• Less Expensive, Small size, lighter weight and more compact than copper cables.
• They have higher signal carrying capacity (bandwidth up to 2 Gbps, or more), because of which the
cost/meter/channel for the fiber would be lesser than that for metallic cable.
• Lower attenuation and less signal degradation - Repeaters can be spaced 75 miles apart (fibers can be made
to have only 0.2 dB/km of attenuation)
• Signals are transmitted in the form of light signals, so higher speeds can be achieved
• Immunity to Noise - Immune to electromagnetic interference.
• High Security – as optical signals are transmitted through the fiber, there is no energy radiation and hence it
is impossible to tap information.
• Optical fibers have longer life (20-30 years) than copper cables (12-15 years).

DisAdvantages of optical fibers:

• Disadvantages include the cost of interfacing equipment necessary to convert electrical signals to optical
signals. (optical transmitters, receivers)
• Splicing fiber optic cable is also more difficult.
• Expensive over short distance
• Requires highly skilled installers.

Numerical examples:

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

5. Calculate the numerical aperture and hence the acceptance angle for an optical fiber whose core and
clading has refractive index of 1.45 and 1.40 respectively.
Solution:
If n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of core and clading respectively, then, numerical aperture is given
by,

𝑁. 𝐴. = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

= (1.452 – 1.402)1/2
= 0.38 (Ans.)
Acceptance angle θm = sin-1 (0.38)= 22.3° (Ans.)
Review Questions:
1. What is luminescence? Mention the various methods by which luminescence can be achieved. (3 or 6
marks)
2. What is a LASER? Explain its properties. (3 or 6 marks)
3. Distinguish between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. (3 or 6 marks)
4. Explain how Einstein’s theory predicts existence of stimulated emission. (3 or 6 marks)
5. Define the terms ‘Metastable state’ and ‘Population inversion”. (3 or 6 marks)
6. Mention the basic conditions for laser action. How can they be materialised? (3 or 6 marks)
7. What are the basic components required for the construction of a laser? Explain the method of
production of laser. (4 or 10 marks)
8. Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of three level and four level lasers. (4 or 10 marks)
9. What are the different methods of achieving population inversion? (3 or 6 marks)
10. Describe the construction and working of a Ruby laser. What are its disadvantages? (4 or 10 marks)

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

11. Describe the construction and working of a He-Ne laser. Mention its applications. (4 or 10 marks)
12. Describe the construction and working of a semiconductor laser. (4 or 10 marks)
13. Briefly mention the applications of lasers. (3 or 6 marks)
14. What is an optical fiber? What is the principle on the basis of which optical transmission is achieved
through a fiber? Explain. (3 or 6 marks)
15. Explain the terms numerical aperture, semi angle of the cone of acceptance and relative refractive
index difference. (4 or 10 marks)
16. Derive an expression for numerical aperture of an optical fiber in terms of R.I. of core and cladding. (4
or 10 marks)
17. What are the different modes of propagation possible in optical fibers. Explain in detail with necessary
diagrams. (4 or 10 marks)
18. Write any four difference between single mode and multi-mode fibers. (3 or 6 marks)
19. What is attenuation in an optical fiber? Mention the possible reasons for the same. (3 or 6 marks)
20. Describe how the optical fiber can be used in communication. Mention its advantages. (3 or 6 marks)
21. Describe an optical fiber with working principle. Write any two advantages of an optical fiber
communication system over conventional communication system. (4 or 10 marks)
22. Describe the different types of optical fiber along with the sketches of geometry, refractive index
profile and ray propagation. (4 or 10 marks)
Related Problems: (3 or 4 marks)
23. Find the ratio of population of the two energy states the transition between which is responsible for the
emission of photons of wavelength 694.3 nm. Assume the ambient temperature as 27°C.
24. The ratio of population of two energy level is 1.059x10-30. Calculate the wavelength of the emitted
photon at 300 K.
25. The ratio of population of two energy level is 1.08 x10-30. Calculate the temperature, if the wavelength
of the emitted photon is 696 nm.
26. A laser beam has pulse duration of 12ps and a power of 200mW. Calculate the number of photons in
each pulse, if the laser wavelength is 1060 nm.
27. A He-Ne laser emits light at a wavelength of 632.8 nm and has an output power of 2.3 mW. How
many photons are emitted in each minute by this laser when operating?
28. Calculate the wavelength of emission from a GaAs semiconductor laser whose band gap energy is 1.44
eV.
29. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30 when kept in air. Find the angle of acceptance when
it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33
30. A fiber has a core diameter of 6 m and its core refractive index is 1.47 and for cladding it is 1.43.
How many modes can propagate into the fiber if the wavelength of the source is 1.5 m.
31. The fractional index change of optical fiber and refractive index of core are 0.0515 and 1.533
respectively. Determine the refractive index of cladding.

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 Course Title: Engineering Physics Unit V: Lasers and Optical Fibers
Course code: 20PH102

32. The fractional refractive index of an optical fiber of diameter 80 µm is 0.03. The refractive index of the
core is 1.48 and the operating wavelength is 0.8 µm. Calculate (a) acceptance angle (b) numerical
aperture, (c) critical angle for core-cladding interface and (d) number of modes supported in the fiber.
33. In multimode optical fiber with core R.I. 1.49 and cladding R.I. 1.48, can support 1200 modes. If the
wavelength of light is 1.25 μm determine the core diameter.
34. Calculate the acceptance angle and critical angle for the core-cladding interface when the core R.I. is
1.48 and fractional index change is 2%.
35. A step index fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.26, a core refractive index of 1.5 and a core diameter
of 100 µm. Calculate the R. I. of cladding, angle of acceptance and the maximum number of modes
with a wavelength of 1 µm that the fiber can carry.
36. A glass clad fiber is made with core glass of refractive index 1.5 and the cladding is doped to give a
fractional index difference of 0.05. Determine (a) the acceptance angle (b) the numerical aperture and
(c) the critical internal reflection angle.
37. The refractive index of the core and cladding are 1.48 and 1.45 respectively. Calculate the acceptance
angle of the fiber. If the diameter of the fiber is 60 µm, find the number of modes the fiber can support
at an operating wavelength of 1.5 µm.
38. A laser operating at 632.8 nm emits 3.18 x 10 19 photons per second. Calculate the output power of the
laser if the input power is 100 watts. Also find the percentage power converted into coherent light
energy.
39. A Nd:YAG laser emits pulse of power of 1W and of duration 12ps . Calculate the number of photons
in each pulse, if the laser wavelength is 1064nm.

************

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