UNIT V POWER CONDITIONERS AND UPS

PART-A TWO MARK QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1. Define voltage swell.
The voltage magnitude is substantially higher than its nominal value for a few cycles.
2. Define voltage sag.
The voltage is substantially lower than its nominal value for a few cycles.
3. What is meant by EMI?
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is an electrical disturbance caused by electromagnetic
induction or electromagnetic radiation coming from high-powered equipment, faulty power
lines, and transmission towers.
4. What is the purpose of power conditioner?
A power conditioner circuit improves the quality of power supplied to electronic devices and
equipment by protecting against voltage fluctuations, electrical noise, and other power
disturbances.
5. Draw the chopped waveform.

Chopped voltage waveform

6. Define UPS.
UPS is an electrical device used to provide emergency electrical power to different electrical
loads in the case of a main power supply failure.
7. Draw the block diagram of UPS.

8. What are the types of UPS?

 Off-Line UPS
 On-Line UPS
 Line Interactive UPS
9. Write the applications of UPS.
 UPS systems are used in industrial control and monitoring systems.
  UPS systems are also used in telecommunication systems.
 They are also used in hospitals, banks, insurance offices, and other commercial
applications for backup power, etc.
10. What is the purpose of filter?
A filter circuit is one which removes the ac component present in the rectified output and
allows the dc component to reach the load.
11. Draw the circuit diagram of SCR battery charger.

12. State off Line UPS.

The Off-Line UPS is also known as Standby UPS. This type of UPS system gives only the
most basic features. In the case of off-line UPS, the system will start operating only when
there is a power failure in the supply mains.
13. Define online UPS.
The On-Line UPS system uses a double conversion method. That means, in this UPS system,
the input AC power is first converted into DC power by a rectifier to charge the UPS battery,
and then this DC power is converted back into AC power by a power inverter to power the
load equipment. Therefore, the On-Line UPS systems are commonly used in such systems
where electrical isolation is required between the input and output.
14. Mention the function of power conditioner.
A power conditioner has the ability to regulate and clean AC power by delivering dynamic
power adjustments and removing spikes, surges, noise, sags and frequency irregularities,
which may damage or adversely affect the performance of any equipment load.
15. What is power conditioner?
A power conditioner is an electrical component designed to improve the quality of power
supplied to a computer component by supplying voltage at the level that allows that
component to operate properly. Although technically there is no single correct definition for a
power conditioner, it is often associated with a voltage regulator, which improves the quality
of power through transient impulse protection, power factor correction or noise suppression.
16. State Line-Interactive UPS.
The Line-Interactive UPS systems are connected in parallel with the AC mains in a standby
configuration so that these systems can interact with the AC input system. These types of
UPS systems are mainly used in small businesses and offices.
17. List out the need of filter.
 The ripple in the signal denotes the presence of some AC component. This ac
component has to be completely removed in order to get pure dc output. So, we need
a circuit that smoothens the rectified output into a pure dc signal.
 A filter circuit is one which removes the ac component present in the rectified output
and allows the dc component to reach the load.
18. What is filter?
The power supply block diagram clearly explains that a filter circuit is needed after the
rectifier circuit. A rectifier helps in converting a pulsating alternating current to direct
current, which flows only in one direction. Till now, we have seen different types of rectifier
[Link] outputs of all these rectifier circuits contain some ripple factor. We have also
observed that the ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is greater than that of a full wave
rectifier.
20. What is an uninterruptable power supply?
An uninterruptable power supply (or UPS) is essentially a back-up battery for your computer
or other electronics system in the event of a power failure (blackout) or other electrical line
problems. In the occurrence of a blackout, for example, your computer would continue to
draw power from the UPS thus allowing you to save your work and shutdown your system
properly without data loss or interruption of service.
21. How about some examples of AC/DC UPS?
Custom UPS are often designed at Power Stream to deliver the DC voltages required by the
system, thus eliminating inefficiencies in the power conversion, and simplifying the
equipment. For example, a telecommunications unit designed to run on a -48V bus gets the -
48V directly from the UPS. A mobile cart containing a computer, printer, and scanner gets
+12, -12, +5, and +3.3 V directly from the UPS for the computer, printer, and scanner, and
the monitor gets 120VAC from an inverter circuit also included in the UPS. Thus the battery
energy is used more efficiently, giving longer service between charges.
22. What is a brownout?
A brownout is more or less the opposite of a power surge, where voltage falls below normal
levels.
23. What provides the power when the mains supply fails?
A battery inside the UPS takes over and produces fresh alternating current via an inverter.
Though these are usually lead-acid batteries, the acid is in the form of a gel and the batteries
are sealed and require no maintenance.
24. What is a power surge?
A power surge is a rise in voltage that goes above normal levels, potentially overloading any
active equipment.
25. How long can I expect the batteries to last?
Depends upon the specification of the batteries used. On larger equipment (above around
5kVA) you can often specify 10-year design life batteries. Unless you do so, the
manufacturer will fit standard batteries. These should be renewed at around four years - by
then even if they haven't failed the runtime will be deteriorating.
Battery life depends upon a number of issues, particularly temperature and the number of
'deep discharges' experienced. Battery life is halved for every 10 degrees (C) temperature
increase above it's specified operating temperature (usually 25 degrees (C). UPS batteries are
designed for maximum life in 'typical' use, which means long periods at continuous low
charge and occasional minor discharges. So-called 'deep' discharges on a repeated basis will
reduce the life of the battery.
26. What are DC UPS's?
A DC UPS has DC input and output. These are used in vehicles to keep auxiliary equipment
running if there is a blackout or brownout from the vehicle's power bus. For example, it could
keep a car alarm or low jack system alive if the car's battery is removed. Or it could keep a
video system or computer from re-booting when the engine is started.
27. List out the benefits of UPS.
 Power supply for emergency
 Offers protection against surges
 More battery life
 Uninterruptible power supply prices are cheaper for maintenance and are therefore
cost-effective.
 Shields against unknown data loss
28. Mention the limitations of UPS.
 The Replacement Cost is higher since these UPS batteries will not last forever. UPS
batteries will last only five to ten years, so new cells have to be replaced.
 It’s not simple to install the UPS, and we require experts to fix it.
29. List out the various types of filter.
1. Series Inductor Filter
2. Shunt Capacitor Filter
3. L-C Filter
4. Π- Filter
30. What is Series Inductor Filter?
As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be
constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load. The
figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.

31. What is Shunt Capacitor Filter?

As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor Filter can be
constructed using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the following figure.

32. Define L-C Filter.

A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to obtain a better
output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be used. The figure below
shows the circuit diagram of a LC filter.
33. State Π- Filter.
This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor at its input
and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors and one inductor
are connected in the form of π shaped network. A capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in
series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes this circuit. If needed, several identical
sections can also be added to this, according to the requirement. The figure below shows a
circuit for π- filter Pi−filter

34. Define front end charger.

Battery charging is a complex electrochemical process, in which the discharged electric
energy must be replenished from the electric network. The quality of the charging process is
critical to the health and longevity of batteries. As a result, battery chargers play a key role in
the life and performance of today’s industrial batteries.
35. List out the various types of front end charger.
1. Ferro resonant Chargers
2. SCR Chargers
3. High Frequency Chargers
36. What is Ferro resonant charger?
A Ferro resonant charger is a class of chargers that employ a ferro resonant transformer to
regulate the charger output.
37. What is Ferro resonant charger?
SCR battery chargers use SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers) along with conventional
transformers to regulate the charger output. Since the SCR switching action is controlled,
SCRs provide more precise control of output voltage and can be easily interfaced with a
microprocessor to implement various charging profiles.
38. Define high frequency battery charger.
A typical high frequency battery charger incorporates a front-end AC-DC rectifier to generate
an unregulated DC input voltage, a high frequency (HF) power converter that converts input
DC input a high frequency AC voltage, a high frequency isolation transformer to provide
output isolation as well as voltage step-down function, and an output rectifier and filtering
stage to generate a smooth, very low ripple output DC voltage.
39. State boost charger.
Boost charging means, the charging of a battery from discharged condition to a fully charged
condition. In this mode, a constant current process is followed for efficient charging. During
boost charging battery voltage varies from 1.85V/cell to 2.75V/cell. In between these, the
point 2.35 V/cell is called the gassing point i.e. gassing starts at this point. Beyond this point,
the charging current must be restricted to a certain limit, otherwise, that may damage the
plates or may affect the life of the battery.
40. Draw the block diagram of boost charger.

41. Draw the block diagram of front end charger.

 PART B & C QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. Explain term power line disturbances along with their source and effect of
disturbance with relevant sketch.
the voltage supplied by the utility system should be a perfect sine wave without any
harmonics at its nominal frequency of 60 Hz and at its nominal magnitude. For a 3-phase
system, the voltages should form a balanced set, with each phase displaced by 120 degrees
with respect to the others. In practice, however, voltages can significantly depart from the
ideal condition due to power line disturbances listed below:

1. Overvoltage or voltage swell – the voltage magnitude is substantially higher than its
nominal value for a sustained period of a few cycles.
2. Under voltage or voltage sag or brownout – the voltage is substantially lower than
its nominal value for a few cycles.
3. Outage or blackout – the utility system voltage collapses for a few cycles or more.
4. Voltage spikes – these are superimposed on the normal 60 Hz waveforms and occur
occasionally (not on a repetitive basis).
5. Chopped voltage waveform – repetitive chopping of the voltage waveform and
associated ringing as shown below.

Fig.5.1
6. Harmonics – a distorted voltage wave form as shown below, contains harmonic
voltage components at harmonic frequencies (usually low order multiples of the line
frequency, these harmonics exist on a sustained basis.
 Fig.5.2
7. Electromagnetic interference – refers to high frequency noise, which may be
conducted on the power line or radiated from its source.
Sources of Disturbances:
Sources of power line disturbances are very diverse.
- Over voltages may be caused by sudden decreases in the system load, thus causing the
utility voltage to go up.
- Under voltages may be caused by overload conditions, by start of induction motors, or
for many other reasons.
- Occasional large voltage spikes may be a result of switching in or out of power factor
correction capacitors, power lines, or even such things as pump/compressor motors in
the vicinity.
- Chopping of the voltage waveform may be caused by ac-to-dc line-frequency
thyristor converters, if such converters are used to interface the power electronic
equipment with the utility system. These converters produce a short circuit on the ac
voltage source through the ac system impedance on a repetitive basis.
- Voltage harmonics may be caused by a variety of sources such as magnetic saturation
of power system transformers and harmonic currents injected by power electronic
loads. These harmonic currents flowing through the ac system impedances result in
harmonic voltages.
- Electromagnetic interference is produced by most power electronics equipment due to
rapid switching of voltages and currents. It can also be produced by other
communication gadgets like cell-phones, radio transmitters and other similar devices.
Effects of disturbances on sensitive equipment:
The effect of power line disturbances on sensitive equipment depends on the following
factors:
1. Type and magnitude of the power line disturbance
2. Type of equipment and how well it is designed
3. Presence of power conditioning equipment

- Sustained over voltages and under voltages may cause equipment to trip out, which is
highly undesirable under certain applications.
- Large voltage spikes may cause a hardware failure in the equipment. (Manufacturers
of sensitive equipment often provide a certain degree of protection by providing surge
arrestors at the input to guard against failures. However, spikes of very large
magnitude in combination with a higher frequency of occurrence can still result in a
hardware failure.)
- Chopped voltage waveforms and voltage harmonics have the potential of interfering
with the equipment if it is not designed to be immune from such effects. (Power
conditioners consisting of filters and an isolation transformer can correct such
problems)
- The effect of power system outage depends on the duration of the outage and the
equipment design.
Sensitive equipment may be found in the following systems:

- Medical facilities
- Life supporting systems
- Data storage and computer systems
- Emergency equipment
- Telecommunications
- Industrial processing
- On-line management systems
2. Explain various types of power line disturbances along with relevant sketch.
Power disturbances are any electrical distortions that cause an electrical power system to
deviate from its normal operational behavior. Since electrical devices are designed and
expected to work at certain steady voltages, power disturbances can wreak havoc on your
devices.

Power disturbances are common occurrences that happen all the time. Whether at home or
work, your electronic devices always risk encountering power disturbances and all their
harmful effects. To help you combat these problems, here are six types of power disturbances
and how you can protect your device from each one of them.

1. Surge/Transient

Fig.5.3
A power surge or power transient is a sudden and brief increase in voltage in an electrical
system. Although brief, the voltage spike coming from a power surge is enough to damage
and cause malfunctions to electronic devices.

Power transients are caused by various reasons, including power grid failure, equipment
failure, lightning strikes, and the sudden turning on and off of large electrical equipment.
Power transients are often the most dangerous type of power disturbance as their effects are
instant and the most damaging. The harmful effects of power transients can easily
be mitigated through surge protection devices. Surge protectors can be integrated into power
strips, convenience outlets, and circuit breakers. Keep note that not all power strips,
convenience outlets, and circuit breakers are rated to handle power transients.
Power strip surge protectors are often the most cost-effective way of protecting from a power
transient as they are inexpensive, easy to carry, and don’t need installation. But if you want a
surge protector already integrated into the house, having convenience outlets and whole-
house surge protectors may be a better investment. You can also protect your devices from
power transients by unplugging your devices during circumstances where the chances of a
power transient are high. Make sure to unplug during a thunderstorm, a power outage, or a
few minutes before the local factory starts operating.

2. Power Outage

Fig.5.4
Power outages are disruptions to the normal flow of electricity, which results in the loss of
power in a household or establishment. Power outages happen due to equipment failure and
malfunctions caused by bad weather, human error, and poorly maintained infrastructures.

Although not as damaging as power transients, the sudden loss of electricity to your device
could still lead to malfunctions and data loss if you were using it before the outage. Power
transients also commonly occur when the power comes back on after a power outage.
Connecting your computer and monitor to an uninterruptible power supply should negate
their harmful effects to protect your device from a power outage and the likely occurrence of
a power transient. Charging your phone through a surge protector should also ensure that they
are safe during and after a power outage.
3. Power Swell

Fig.5.5
Power swell, also known as overvoltage, is a type of power disturbance where the flow of
electricity is over the expected regulated voltage. Overvoltage is different from a power
transient as power transients are sudden voltage spikes lasting only a short period, while a
power swell is the continuous flow voltage that is over the normal voltage level.

A power swell commonly happens during operations of nearby large electrical equipment,
faulty power equipment, and malfunctions in power adapters and chargers. To avoid a power
swell affecting your device, keep electronic devices away from large electrical equipment and
replace damaged power adapters/chargers. You may also consider using an automatic voltage
regulator (AVR), which will regulate the voltage that enters your device.

4. Power Sag

Fig.5.6
Power sag, or under voltage, is the opposite of a power swell. Under voltage is when the
voltage used to deliver power is below the expected voltage. Under volting an entire device
may cause errors and malfunctions if not cause your device to shut down. Furthermore,
prolonged under voltage causes devices to wear faster, reducing their lifespan. Avoid the
damaging effects of under voltage by unplugging your device during brownouts, replacing
any damaged power supply, and using an AVR.

5. Electrical Noise

Fig.5.7
Electrical noise is the random electrical frequencies that affect the smooth transmission of
power from the grid to your device. Electrical noise is very common in houses and
establishments connected to the grid. This is because having a perfectly smooth signal is
nearly impossible unless your power supply runs on batteries or your own off-grid power
system.

Each device will have a tolerance level and sensitivity to electrical noise. For example, some
devices, such as blenders, microwaves, and light bulbs, are highly tolerant to electrical noise.
At the same time, devices such as computers, monitors, and measuring equipment have lesser
tolerance. Furthermore, the quality of parts and manufacturing will also dictate the level of
electrical noise a device can tolerate before it malfunctions. So, if you don’t want electrical
noise to affect your device, buying your electronics from reputable brands will ensure a more
noise-tolerant device. If you aren’t sure about the quality of the devices you already have,
having either an AVR or a UPS should help lengthen your device's lifespan.
6. EMI

Fig.5.8
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) is an electrical disturbance caused by electromagnetic
induction or electromagnetic radiation coming from high-powered equipment, faulty power
lines, and transmission towers. EMIs may also originate from various natural causes, such as
solar flares, thunderstorms, and volcanic eruptions.

EMI can cause devices to malfunction, corrupt data, disrupt communication systems, and
even permanently destroy devices if the EMI is strong enough. To protect your electronics
from EMIs, distance sensitive devices from high-powered appliances such as motors and
microwaves, ensure proper grounding of your home electric system, and use auto-regulating
power supplies such as AVRs and UPS.

3. Discuss construction and working of power conditioner with neat diagram.

A power conditioner is an electrical component designed to improve the quality of power
supplied to a computer component by supplying voltage at the level that allows that
component to operate properly. Although technically there is no single correct definition for a
power conditioner, it is often associated with a voltage regulator, which improves the quality
of power through transient impulse protection, power factor correction or noise suppression.

A power conditioner has the ability to regulate and clean AC power by delivering dynamic
power adjustments and removing spikes, surges, noise, sags and frequency irregularities,
which may damage or adversely affect the performance of any equipment load.
Power conditioning is recognized by the IEEE, NEMA and other standards. Power
conditioners are used by both individual users and large corporations. A power conditioner
may also be known as a power line conditioner or a line conditioner.
 A power conditioner circuit improves the quality of power supplied to electronic
devices and equipment by protecting against voltage fluctuations, electrical noise, and
other power disturbances.
 Power conditioner circuits are used in data centers, medical facilities, industrial
settings, and audio/video equipment for reliable operation.
 The proper PCB integration and layout of power conditioner circuits are essential for
achieving reliable and high-performance electronic devices.

Fig.5.9
A power conditioner circuit, also known as a power conditioning circuit, improves the quality
of power supplied to electronic devices and equipment. It protects against voltage
fluctuations, electrical noise, and other power disturbances affecting performance and
reliability. Voltage is delivered at the right level for equipment to work correctly.

Power conditioner circuits are used in data centers, medical facilities, industrial settings, and
audio/video equipment for reliable operation. They can help extend the life of electronic
equipment and devices, prevent data loss, and reduce downtime from power supply problems.
Power conditioner circuits have different features and capabilities depending on their
application and the quality of power available.
 Power Conditioner Circuits Can Provide:

Voltage Regulation Voltage regulation capabilities that automatically maintain the voltage within a
specified range
Noise Filtering Filters to reduce electrical noise and provide clean power to the equipment
Surge Protection Surge protection mechanisms to safeguard against voltage spikes or surges caused
by lightning strikes, power grid switching, or other sources
Frequency Frequency regulation capabilities to ensure that the output frequency remains
Regulation within acceptable limits.
Backup Power Backup power functionality, providing a temporary power source during brief
power outages.
Display/Monitoring Displays and monitoring capabilities, allowing users to check the status of the
power supply and connected equipment.
Isolation Isolation transformer to separate connected equipment from the main power
Transformer source to protect against voltage fluctuations and provide additional noise
reduction.

Power conditioner circuits ensure that electronic devices get clean and stable power. These
circuits are often integrated into electronic devices' overall printed circuit board (PCB) design
to enhance their performance and reliability. PCB designers should consider power
conditioner circuits in the following ways:
 Signal Integrity: Clean and stable power is essential for maintaining signal
integrity in electronic devices. Power conditioner circuits help reduce electrical noise
and voltage fluctuations, which can impact the performance of digital and analog
signals. PCB designers must consider the placement and routing of power conditioner
components to minimize interference with signal traces.
 PCB Layout: Power conditioner circuits, such as voltage regulators, filters, and surge
protectors, are typically integrated into the PCB layout. They are placed strategically
on the board to ensure power is conditioned before it reaches sensitive components
like microprocessors, memory chips, and sensors.
 Size and Form Factor: PCB design considers the size and form factor of power
conditioner circuits. These components must fit within the available space on the PCB
 while leaving room for other critical components. Power conditioner circuits must be
carefully selected to meet size and thermal requirements.
 Trace Routing: Getting conditioned power to different parts of the circuit depends on
how the power traces are routed on the PCB. To ensure an even distribution of
conditioned power, designers need to pay attention to trace widths, lengths, and
impedance matching.
 Heat Dissipation: Power conditioner components, like voltage regulators, can
generate heat. PCB designers need to plan for proper heat dissipation by including
heat sinks and thermal vias. It's important to ensure power conditioner components
operate within their specified temperature ranges.
 Grounding: For power conditioner circuits to work properly, they need to be
properly grounded. To minimize ground loops and reduce noise, PCB designers need
a solid ground plane and optimized ground paths for power conditioner components.
 Voltage Protection: A power conditioner circuit can include protection features like
over-voltage protection, under-voltage protection, and surge suppression. These
protection mechanisms must be correctly integrated into the circuit to respond quickly
to protect sensitive components.
 EMI/EMC Compliance: Power conditioner circuits can reduce electromagnetic
interference (EMI) and guarantee electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) on PCBs.
Layout and design are essential to meet regulatory requirements and prevent
emissions that could interfere with other electronics nearby.
 Testing and Validation: After the PCB is made, it gets tested and validated, a process
that includes verifying the performance of power conditioner circuits. This ensures
that the power delivered to the components meets the required specifications.

Power conditioner circuits are integral components of PCB design, and their proper
integration and layout are essential for achieving reliable and high-performance electronic
devices. To ensure that the PCB layout operates as intended, PCB designers must consider
the electrical, thermal, and mechanical aspects of power conditioner circuits.
4. Demonstrate construction and working principle of UPS system with neat sketch.
UPS stands for Uninterruptible Power Supply. An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an
electrical device used to provide emergency electrical power to different electrical loads in
the case of a main power supply failure. A UPS or uninterruptible power supply uses batteries
and super capacitors to store electrical energy and delivers this stored electrical energy when
the main input power supply fails. However, a typical UPS battery can supply electrical
power for a short duration. Hence, UPSs are mostly used as short run time backup power
sources for small loads. In addition to supplying emergency electrical power to the loads, a
UPS also protects sensitive equipment such as computers, data centers, TV sets, industrial
process control and monitoring systems, and many other electronic devices.

A UPS is commonly used with computers that keep running a computer for a short time,
about 15 to 30 minutes, after the failure of supply mains. Therefore, it prevents the sudden
turn off of the computer and loss of data in the system, and other system failures. These days,
there are several types of UPS systems available in the market. Some smart UPS systems are
also available that come with software components that enables us to automate the switching
function of the backup supply when we are away from the computer system.
Major Parts of an UPS
Following are the main components of a UPS system −
1. Battery − The battery works as the energy storage unit in the UPS system. It provides
the stored electrical energy for a sufficient amount of time during main power failure.
2. Rectifier or Charger Circuit − It converts the supply voltage of 240 VAC into 12 V
(or any other battery voltage) DC. It supplies this rectified DC power to the battery for
storage.
3. Inverter − It converts the DC output power of the battery into ac power to supply the
load during mains power failure.
4. Static Switch − It is a semiconductor device such as a thyristor which transfers the
load from the utility to the inverter (and the inverter to the utility) without any
interruption in the power supply to the load.

Fig.5.10 Parts of UPS

Primary Function of a UPS
When there is any failure in the main power supply from the utility, the UPS supplies
emergency power to the load for a short duration of time. This is the primary function of a
UPS. Modern UPSs can also provide protection against electrical faults such as short-circuit,
voltage fluctuations, low voltage, instability of mains frequency, etc.
5. Discuss construction and working of various types of UPS with neat diagram.
The uninterrupted power supply (UPS) systems are broadly classified into the following three
types −
 Off-Line UPS
 On-Line UPS
 Line Interactive UPS
Now, let us discuss each of these three types of UPS systems individually along with their
block diagrams.
1. Off-Line UPS
The Off-Line UPS is also known as Standby UPS. This type of UPS system gives only the
most basic features. In the case of off-line UPS, the system will start operating only when
there is a power failure in the supply mains. The block diagram of the off-line UPS is shown
in Figure .5.11.

Fig.5.11 Off-Line UPS

In an off-line UPS system, the ac power from the supply mains is first converted into DC
power using a rectifier circuit and then stored in the battery connected to the output port of
the rectifier. When, there is any power failure that occurs in the supply mains, the dc power
of the battery is converted into ac power using a power inverter and is then transferred to the
load connected to the ups system. The off-line ups systems provide surge protection in
addition to the emergency power. These are the least expensive UPS systems available in the
market.
2. On-Line UPS
The On-Line UPS system uses a double conversion method. That means, in this UPS system,
the input AC power is first converted into DC power by a rectifier to charge the UPS battery,
and then this DC power is converted back into AC power by a power inverter to power the
load equipment. Therefore, the On-Line UPS systems are commonly used in such systems
where electrical isolation is required between the input and output. The block diagram of a
typical On-Line UPS system is shown in Figure 5.12.

Fig.5.12 Online UPS

In this system, the rectifier circuit receives ac power from the supply mains and directly
drives the inverter circuit. Thus, it involves two simultaneous conversion processes and is
hence referred to as a Double Conversion UPS System.
In the case of supply mains power failure, the rectifier circuit becomes inactive and the DC
power stored in the battery is converted into AC by the inverter and supplied to the load.
Once the mains power is restored, the rectifier circuit again starts charging the battery. A
current limiting mechanism is also provided in the system to protect the battery from
overheating. Although, on-line ups systems are slightly expensive due to their design and
components used.
3. Line Interactive UPS
The Line-Interactive UPS systems are connected in parallel with the AC mains in a standby
configuration so that these systems can interact with the AC input system. These types of
UPS systems are mainly used in small businesses and offices. The block diagram of a line
interactive UPS system is shown in Figure.5.13.

Fig.5.13 Line-Interactive UPS

Under normal operating conditions, the load is supplied with AC power through a parallel
connection of the AC source and the bidirectional converter. The converter charges the
battery, and also provides AC power to the load in the situation of breakage of supply mains.
In this type of UPS system, a bypass is also provided which transfers the load to a bypass AC
input when the UPS fails to function. The line-interactive UPS systems are well suited for
medium to high power rating loads.
6. Discuss construction and working of various types of filter with neat diagram.
A filter circuit is constructed using two main components, inductor and capacitor. We have
already studied in Basic Electronics tutorial that
 An inductor allows dc and blocks ac.
 A capacitor allows ac and blocks dc.
Let us try to construct a few filters, using these two components.
1. Series Inductor Filter
As an inductor allows dc and blocks ac, a filter called Series Inductor Filter can be
constructed by connecting the inductor in series, between the rectifier and the load. The
figure below shows the circuit of a series inductor filter.

Fig.5.15 series filter

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the inductor blocks the ac components
that are present in the signal, in order to provide a pure dc. This is a simple primary filter.
2. Shunt Capacitor Filter
As a capacitor allows ac through it and blocks dc, a filter called Shunt Capacitor Filter can be
constructed using a capacitor, connected in shunt, as shown in the following figure.5.16

Fig.5.16 Shunt Filter

The rectified output when passed through this filter, the ac components present in the signal
are grounded through the capacitor which allows ac components. The remaining dc
components present in the signal are collected at the output. The above filter types discussed
are constructed using an inductor or a capacitor. Now, let’s try to use both of them to make a
better filter. These are combinational filters.
 i. L-C Filter
A filter circuit can be constructed using both inductor and capacitor in order to obtain a better
output where the efficiencies of both inductor and capacitor can be used. The figure
5.17below shows the circuit diagram of a LC filter.

Fig.5.17 LC filter
The rectified output when given to this circuit, the inductor allows dc components to pass
through it, blocking the ac components in the signal. Now, from that signal, few more ac
components if any present are grounded so that we get a pure dc output. This filter is also
called as a Choke Input Filter as the input signal first enters the inductor. The output of this
filter is a better one than the previous ones.
ii. Π- Filter
This is another type of filter circuit which is very commonly used. It has capacitor at its input
and hence it is also called as a Capacitor Input Filter. Here, two capacitors and one inductor
are connected in the form of π shaped network. A capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in
series, followed by another capacitor in parallel makes this circuit. If needed, several identical
sections can also be added to this, according to the requirement. The figure below shows a
circuit for π- filter Pi−filter

Fig.5.18 Pi−filter
Working of a Pi filter
In this circuit, we have a capacitor in parallel, then an inductor in series, followed by another
capacitor in parallel.
  Capacitor C1 − This filter capacitor offers high reactance to dc and low reactance to
ac signal. After grounding the ac components present in the signal, the signal passes
to the inductor for further filtration.
 Inductor L − This inductor offers low reactance to dc components, while blocking the
ac components if any got managed to pass, through the capacitor C1.
 Capacitor C2 − Now the signal is further smoothened using this capacitor so that it
allows any ac component present in the signal, which the inductor has failed to block.
7. Explain with neat block diagram the filter for PWM Voltage source inverter.
A complete design procedure for both reactive and passive components of LCL-filter is
demonstrated with a new iterative approach in selection of the filter inductors. The design
process for a two-level VSI is clearly illustrated through an example and the dynamic
response is investigated under insufficient and sufficient damping cases. In this study,
comprehensive analyses have been conducted to maximize the performance and efficiency.
For this purpose, the line current total harmonic distortion (THD) and power factor
performance of the designed system is assessed under various load conditions. Besides, the
effects of the utilization of different PWM patterns on efficiency are compared and contrasted
under different loads with altering switching frequencies. Simulation results validate
theoretical findings throughout the design phase.

LCL line filters have proven to be useful on PWM switching harmonic attenuation and found
to be favorable in comparison to the usual L filters in size and weight aspects. Especially in
high power applications, where the switching frequency is limited to a few kHz, single L
filters becomes bulky and costly. The use of LCL line filters brings the system to a more
compact size and dynamic response of the converter is improved. Nevertheless, LCL-filter
may lead to the amplification of undesired harmonic components around the closed loop
stability boundary due to the presence of a pole pair at the resonant frequency (fres). The
damping of the LCL-filter can be achieved either passively or actively. Passive damping
methods create a considerable amount of power loss for high power applications while the
power loss due to passive damping is negligible for low power applications. On the other
hand, active damping methods could be used for low and medium power applications despite
the complexity in the controllers. Additionally, the existence of passive damping resistors
modifies the LCL transfer function and degrades the advantages in harmonic suppression.
Depending on the PWM switching method, harmonics around fres of the LCL-filter may be
produced unintentionally; however, the passive damping methods guarantee the stability of
the converter.
The system analyzed in this paper is shown in Fig.5.19. On the admittance transfer function
between Ig and converter-side voltage of two-level VSI (Vc) in, equivalent series resistances
(ESRs) of inverter-side inductance (Lc), grid-side inductance (Lg) and filter capacitance (Cf)
are neglected and this assumption has no crucial effect on the analysis and provides a worst
case scenario to reach stability. The reduction in switching ripple is targeted with the addition
of a capacitor and a second inductor in contrast to a standard L filter design. The high
frequency ripple is filtered through the LC part. Low frequency fundamental current is not
affected by the capacitive part; hence, the current controllers are designed as if there is not
(Cf) present in the circuit.

Fig.5.19 Configuration of LCL-filtered VSI system

The LCL-filter design has been depicted in a step-by-step manner. The design process
requires the power rating of the VSI (Prated), DC bus voltage (Vdc), the grid frequency (fg),
switching frequency (fsw), sampling frequency(fsam), and grid voltage (Vg) in rms volts as
inputs. The design algorithm with the necessary inputs. Selection of fres lower than the
critical frequency (fcrit) is adopted together with the grid-side current feedback throughout
the LCL-filter design procedure. Therefore, damping of fres is essential and passive damping
technique will be used. Furthermore, optimum damping control for LCL-filter resonance is
another key issue. In order to achieve an adequate phase margin, a suitable crossover
frequency for the filter should be determined.
8. Explain in detail, the front-end battery charger working with neat diagram.
Battery charging is a complex electrochemical process, in which the discharged electric
energy must be replenished from the electric network. The quality of the charging process is
critical to the health and longevity of batteries. As a result, battery chargers play a key role in
the life and performance of today’s industrial batteries. A battery charger is an
electrical/electronic device that converts the incoming AC line voltage into a regulated DC
voltage to meet the charging needs of the respective battery (see Fig. 1). Although today’s
industrial battery charging market is dominated by ferro resonant and SCR type chargers,
which have been in existence for many years, new high frequency battery charging
technologies is making headways into the industrial battery charger markets. This is due to
the higher efficiencies and smaller sizes and weights that a high frequency charger offers over
ferro resonant and SCR types.

Fig.5.20: Battery charger block diagram

1. Ferro resonant Chargers:

A Ferro resonant charger is a class of chargers that employ a ferro resonant transformer to
regulate the charger output. A ferro resonant transformer is a three-winding transformer,
having one winding in parallel with a capacitor (see Fig. 5.21). As a result of this connection,
the transformer core is driven into saturation by the resonant tank circuit. The charger output
is derived from the saturated winding of the transformer and is relatively independent of
supply voltage. The AC output is rectified to obtain a regulated DC voltage (see Fig. 5.23).
The absence of electronic controls makes these chargers more durable and dependable in
various applications.
 Fig. 5.22: Ferro resonant transformer

Ferroresonant chargers have many limitations including lack the sophisticated control
circuitry to give batteries what they need. As a result, these chargers may work well with
flooded batteries, but can easily overcharge and damage more delicate modern sealed
batteries. In addition, ferroresonant chargers are very sensitive to slight changes in line
frequency and have low efficiencies since the ferroresonant transformers dissipate more heat
than conventional transformers. These chargers are large and bulky, quite heavy, and they
make an audible humming noise while charging.
[Link] Chargers:
SCR battery chargers use SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers) along with conventional
transformers to regulate the charger output (see Fig. 5.24). Since the SCR switching action is
controlled, SCRs provide more precise control of output voltage and can be easily interfaced
with a microprocessor to implement various charging profiles. Unlike ferroresonant types,
SCR chargers are less sensitive to line frequency variations and work well with all types of
batteries including sealed types.

Fig.5.24 SCR battery charger

One of the limitations of SCR controlled chargers is that they generate un-smoothed DC
voltages resulting in higher ripple voltages and consequently higher ripple currents. These
currents can cause additional battery heating especially at high charge rates (e.g. fast
charging). Similar to ferroresonant chargers, SCR chargers operate at line frequencies
(50/60Hz) and use a low frequency transformer for isolation and voltage step-down and thus
are bulky and heavy. Unlike ferroresonant types, the power factor is poorer resulting in
higher kVA power intake.
3. High Frequency Chargers:
A frequency battery charger is a class of power supplies that incorporates fully controllable
switching power devices, e.g. MOSFETs and IGBTs, and can thus operate at frequencies
much higher than line frequencies (few kHz to 100’s of kHz). Unlike SCRs, which are half
controlled devices with uncontrollable turn-off, MOSFETs and IGBTs can be fully turned on
and off at any instant in time allowing for precise control of the charger output. A typical
high frequency battery charger incorporates a front-end AC-DC rectifier to generate an
unregulated DC input voltage, a high frequency (HF) power converter that converts input DC
input a high frequency AC voltage, a high frequency isolation transformer to provide output
isolation as well as voltage step-down function, and an output rectifier and filtering stage to
generate a smooth, very low ripple output DC voltage (see Fig. 5.25). Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) is generally employed to regulate the charger output, where the duty
cycle of the switching power device (ratio of on-time to switching time) is controlled to
control the output current and/or output voltage of the charger.

Fig.5.25: Typical isolated high frequency battery charger employing a high frequency
transformer
The main advantage of high frequency battery chargers over Ferro and SCR chargers is the
significant size and weight reduction of the isolation transformer and the subsequent
improvement in transformer efficiency. Note that the size of an isolation transformer is
inversely proportional to the operating frequency, i.e. the higher the operating frequency, the
lower the transformer size. For example, a high frequency transformer operating at 60kHz is
ideally 10,000 times smaller than a low frequency 60Hz transformer and is much more
efficient.
9. Discuss construction and working of various types of charger with neat diagram.

Ferro resonant Chargers:

A Ferro resonant charger is a class of chargers that employ a ferro resonant transformer to
regulate the charger output. A ferro resonant transformer is a three-winding transformer,
having one winding in parallel with a capacitor (see Fig. 5.21). As a result of this connection,
the transformer core is driven into saturation by the resonant tank circuit. The charger output
is derived from the saturated winding of the transformer and is relatively independent of
supply voltage. The AC output is rectified to obtain a regulated DC voltage (see Fig. 5.23).
The absence of electronic controls makes these chargers more durable and dependable in
various applications.

Fig. 5.22: Ferro resonant transformer

Ferroresonant chargers have many limitations including lack the sophisticated control
circuitry to give batteries what they need. As a result, these chargers may work well with
flooded batteries, but can easily overcharge and damage more delicate modern sealed
batteries. In addition, ferroresonant chargers are very sensitive to slight changes in line
frequency and have low efficiencies since the ferroresonant transformers dissipate more heat
than conventional transformers. These chargers are large and bulky, quite heavy, and they
make an audible humming noise while charging.
[Link] Chargers:
SCR battery chargers use SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers) along with conventional
transformers to regulate the charger output (see Fig. 5.24). Since the SCR switching action is
controlled, SCRs provide more precise control of output voltage and can be easily interfaced
with a microprocessor to implement various charging profiles. Unlike ferroresonant types,
SCR chargers are less sensitive to line frequency variations and work well with all types of
batteries including sealed types.

Fig.5.24 SCR battery charger

One of the limitations of SCR controlled chargers is that they generate un-smoothed DC
voltages resulting in higher ripple voltages and consequently higher ripple currents. These
currents can cause additional battery heating especially at high charge rates (e.g. fast
charging). Similar to ferroresonant chargers, SCR chargers operate at line frequencies
(50/60Hz) and use a low frequency transformer for isolation and voltage step-down and thus
are bulky and heavy. Unlike ferroresonant types, the power factor is poorer resulting in
higher kVA power intake.
3. High Frequency Chargers:
A frequency battery charger is a class of power supplies that incorporates fully controllable
switching power devices, e.g. MOSFETs and IGBTs, and can thus operate at frequencies
much higher than line frequencies (few kHz to 100’s of kHz). Unlike SCRs, which are half
controlled devices with uncontrollable turn-off, MOSFETs and IGBTs can be fully turned on
and off at any instant in time allowing for precise control of the charger output. A typical
high frequency battery charger incorporates a front-end AC-DC rectifier to generate an
unregulated DC input voltage, a high frequency (HF) power converter that converts input DC
input a high frequency AC voltage, a high frequency isolation transformer to provide output
isolation as well as voltage step-down function, and an output rectifier and filtering stage to
generate a smooth, very low ripple output DC voltage (see Fig. 5.25). Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) is generally employed to regulate the charger output, where the duty
cycle of the switching power device (ratio of on-time to switching time) is controlled to
control the output current and/or output voltage of the charger.

Fig.5.25: Typical isolated high frequency battery charger employing a high frequency
transformer
The main advantage of high frequency battery chargers over Ferro and SCR chargers is the
significant size and weight reduction of the isolation transformer and the subsequent
improvement in transformer efficiency. Note that the size of an isolation transformer is
inversely proportional to the operating frequency, i.e. the higher the operating frequency, the
lower the transformer size. For example, a high frequency transformer operating at 60kHz is
ideally 10,000 times smaller than a low frequency 60Hz transformer and is much more
efficient.
10. Explain in detail, the boost charger working with neat diagram.

Boost charging means, the charging of a battery from discharged condition to a fully charged
condition. In this mode, a constant current process is followed for efficient charging. During
boost charging battery voltage varies from 1.85V/cell to 2.75V/cell. In between these, the
point 2.35 V/cell is called the gassing point i.e. gassing starts at this point. Beyond this point,
the charging current must be restricted to a certain limit, otherwise, that may damage the
plates or may affect the life of the battery. Therefore, to charge a discharged battery
efficiently, a two-step constant current process is the best process. If the battery is discharged
and demands current over a set limit, the Boost charger is switched on. The boost charger is
switched off automatically on the battery reaches the desired voltage level. During Boost
operation, the FCBC battery is connected to load through the tapped cell and diode.

Fig.5.27 Boost Charger

 In the boost battery charging process, the charging voltage is above the normal float
setting voltage. Therefore, the battery draws more current in boost charging.
 The boost charger has a separate transformer and rectifier unit of a higher current
rating.
 The boost charger charges the batteries faster. This charging option is suitable when
the battery needs charging just after discharge. When the battery discharges, its
terminal voltage falls. The battery charges at a faster rate on the application of boost
voltage.
 The boost charger charges the battery after the battery gets exhausted on delivering
power to the load when the AC mains fail.
 Boost voltage increases the battery charging current. However, the increased charging
current causes a voltage drop in the battery’s internal resistance. Therefore, there is a
need to adjust the boost voltage after dropping the battery charging current.
 When the battery is fully charged, the charger voltage must be lowered to the correct
float voltage. If the battery remains on the boost charging for a longer period, then the
battery overcharges and is apt to fail.
 There are chances of overcharging the battery in the boost charging mode.
 During boost charging, the exhaust fans of the battery room must be in operation
because heat and gas generation are more when the battery quickly charges on boost.
 Once the battery is fully charged, the battery charging can be switched over to float
charging.