TOP 4.

Sense of Identity-Developed in humans by becoming self-

Chapter 8– Fromm: Humanistic Psychoanalysis aware as separate individuals, enabling them to recognize
themselves as autonomous agents responsible for their
Humanistic Psychoanalysis- Views humanity’s separation actions.
from nature as causing basic anxiety—feelings of loneliness
and isolation—shaped by social, economic, and historical Primitive People-identified more closely with their clan and did
factors. not see themselves as individuals existing apart from their
group.
Erich Fromm-A pioneering thinker who blended
psychoanalysis, philosophy, and social critique to explore the Healthy People-less need to conform or surrender their
nature of personality and human existence. freedom and individuality to fit into society because they
possess an authentic sense of identity.
Fromm’s Basic Assumption-Is that individual personality can
be understood only in light of human history. 5. Frame orientation-When separated from nature, humans
need a guiding frame of orientation called—an "object of
Human dilemma-A condition where humans have no powerful devotion"—to navigate life purposefully and avoid confusion
instincts to adapt to a changing world; instead, they have and aimlessness.
acquired the facility to reason.
The Burden of Freedom-Gaining freedom also brings feelings
Existential dichotomies-Human reasoning helps us survive of isolation and anxiety because individuals must take full
and adapt, but it also forces us to confront deep, unsolvable responsibility for their lives without relying on external security
existential conflicts inherent to being human. or support.
Human Needs-True fulfillment of Human comes from meeting Mechanism of Escape-People attempt to flee from freedom
it's unique needs that connect them to the world and resolve through a variety of escape mechanisms as basic anxiety
deeper existential challenges produces a frightening sense of isolation.
Existential needs-Emerged during the evolution of human 3 PRIMARY MECHANISM FROMM IDENTIFIED FROM
culture, growing out of their attempts to find an answer to their "ESCAPE FROM FREEDOM"
existence and to avoid becoming insane.
1. Authoritarianism-Defined by Fromm as “tendency to give
5 HUMAN NEEDS BY FROMM up the independence of one’s self and fuse with somebody or
1. Relatedness-Basic human need for relatedness motivates something outside oneself, to acquire the strength which the
us to connect with others, and can be achieved through either individual is lacking”.
positive, growth-oriented ways or negative, unproductive TWO DISTINCT WAYS IN WHICH A UNION WITH A
methods. POWERFUL PARTNER CAN MANIFEST
FROMM’S 3 BASIC WAYS IN WHICH A PERSON MAY (1.1)Masochism-Results from basic feelings of
RELATE TO THE WORLD powerlessness, weakness, and inferiority and can never
(1.1) Submission-An act of People often pair with domineering contribute positively to independence and authenticity.
partners, creating relationships where power is unevenly (1.2)Sadism-More neurotic and more socially harmful and
distributed. aimed at reducing basic anxiety through achieving unity with
Symbiotic Relationship-Driven by a desperate need for another person/s.
connection rather than true love, which prevents personal THREE KINDS OF SADISTIC TENDENCIES BY FROMM
growth and undermines psychological health.
(1.2.1) First Sadistic Tendency-The need to make others
(1.2) Power-Domineering person, a power seeker that dependent on oneself and to gain power over those who are
welcomes submissive partners. weak
(1.3) Love-Fromm defined it as a union of sharing and (1.2.2) Second Sadistic Tendency-The compulsion to exploit
connection that respects individuality, allowing two people to others, to take advantage of them, and to use them for one’s
be united while maintaining their independence and integrity. benefit or pleasure.
The Art of Loving (Fromm 1956)-Where he identified care, (1.2.3) Third Sadistic Tendency-The desire to see others
responsibility, respect, and knowledge as four basic elements suffer, either physically or psychologically.
common to all forms of genuine love.
2. Destructiveness-Feelings of isolation and powerlessness,
THE FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENUINE LOVE leading to destroying people, objects, or nation in attempts to
(1.3.1) Care-Loving someone means caring for and being restore lost feelings of power.
willing to take responsibility for them. 3. Conformity-People who conform try to escape from a sense
(1.3.2) Responsibility-Love involves responsibility, of aloneness and isolation by giving up their individuality and
respecting others as they are, meeting their needs, and becoming whatever other people desire them to be.
resisting the urge to change them. Positive Freedom-Acting according to their basic natures and
(1.3.3) Knowledge and Respect-People can truly respect not to conventional rules; where people overcome the terror of
others only by understanding and seeing things from their aloneness, achieve union with the world, and maintain
perspective. individuality.
2. Transcendence-The urge to transcend a passive life and Character Orientations-A person’s relatively permanent way
achieve purpose and freedom can be pursued through both of relating to people and things.
positive and negative means. Personality-Fromm defined it as a combination of inherited
The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness (Fromm 1973)- and acquired psychic qualities, making an individual unique.
Fromm argued that humans are the only species to use Character-Is a crucial aspect of personality, acting as a
malignant aggression:that is, to kill for reasons other than substitute for instinct, enabling efficient and consistent
survival. behavior.
Malignant Aggression-A socially influenced form of TWO WAYS PEOPLE ARE RELATED TO THE WORLD
destructive passion that is not universal among all human
societies. 1. Assimilation-Acquiring and using things.
3. Rootedness-The need to establish roots or to feel at home 2. Socialization-Relating to self and others.
again in the world and can be sought in either productive or 2 TYPES OF CHARACTER ORIENTATION
nonproductive strategies. 1. Nonproductive Orientation-Refers to a way of acquiring
Productive strategy-People become fully mature and things that does not contribute to personal growth or self-
integrated by creatively engaging with the world beyond their realization.
dependence on their mother, embodying a productive way of 4 NONPRODUCTIVE CHARACTER ORIENTATION
relating to life.
(1.1)Receptive-Relying on others for love, ideas, and
Nonproductive Strategy of Fixation-A tenacious reluctance possessions rather than giving.
to move beyond the protective security provided by one’s
mother. (2.2.)Exploitative-Taking what one wants through force or
deceit rather than receiving or creating it.
(3.3)Hoarding-Keeping everything to oneself and resisting by love and belongingness. It includes desire for friendship, the
change or letting go. need to belong to a family and so on.
(4.4)Marketing-Means seeing oneself as a product and 4. Esteem Needs-To the extent that people satisfy the higher
changing personality to fit what others want needs, they are free to pursue esteem needs including self-
respect,confidence, and competence.
2. Productive Orientation-A healthy way of living through 5. Self- Actualization Needs-Self-actualization needs
meaningful work, love, and thinking that supports growth and become potent whenever esteem needs have been met.
individuality.
Personality Disorder-Are unhealthy traits where people can't THREE CATEGORIES OF NEEDS
love or connect with others. 1. Aesthetic Needs -People are motivated by the need for
THREE INTERCONNECTED DISTRUCTIVE APPROACH IN beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences.
LIFE 2. Cognitive Needs-A desire to know, to solve mysteries, to
understand, and to be curious.
1. Necrophilia-A personality marked by a deep attraction to 3. Neurotic Needs-An unhealthy style of life and have no
death, destruction, and decay, rather than love for life. value in striving for self actualization.
2. Malignant Narcissism-An extreme self-centeredness General Discussion of Needs-Maslow argued that it is better
where people overvalue themselves, ignore others, and react to think of decreasing percentages of satisfaction as we move
with anger or guilt when criticized. up the hierarchy.
3. Incestuous Symbiosis-An extreme emotional dependence Unmotivated Behavior-Maslow believed that even though
on a mother figure or substitute, where a person loses their behaviors have cause, some behaviors are not motivated.
own identity and feels they can't live without the other. Expressive and Coping Behavior
1. Expressive Behavior-An end in itself and serves no other
Psychotherapy-A personal, sincere relationship that helps purpose than to be. It is frequently unconscious and usually
patients know themselves and meet their basic human needs. takes place naturally with little effort.
Fromm’s Methods of investigation-Involves studying 2. Coping Behavior-Ordinarily concious, effortful, learned, and
personality using psychotherapy, cultural anthropology, and determined by the external environment.
psychohistory. Deprivation of Needs-Lack of satisfaction of any basic needs
FROMM'S TWO METHODS OF INVESTIGATION leads to some kind of pathology.
Metapathology-The absence of values, the lack of fulfillment,
1. Social Character in a Mexican Village-Refers to the and the loss of meaning in life.
common personality types found among villagers, mainly Instinctoid Nature of Needs-Some human needs are innately
nonproductive-receptive and productive-hoarding, based on determined even though they can be modified by learning.
their way of life, values, and social conditions. B-ValuesMaslow termed B-values as metaneeds to indicate
2. Psychohistorical Study of Hitler -Is Fromm’s analysis that they are the ultimate level of needs.
showing Hitler’s personality was shaped by failure, fantasy,
and traits of necrophilia, narcissism, and deep dependence. CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF-ACTUALIZING PEOPLE
Related Research-Limited studies based on Fromm’s ideas, 1. More Efficient Perception of Reality-Self-actualizing
mainly on marketing character, materialism, and people can more easily detect insincerity in others. They can
authoritarianism. discriminate between the genuine and the fake not only in
people but also in literature, art, and music.
THREE RELATED STUDIES OF FROMM'S IDEAS 2. Acceptance of self, others and natureSelf-actualizing
1. Testing the Assumptions of Fromm's Marketing people can accept themselves the way they are.
Character-focused on materialism and self-promotion—leads 3. Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness-They are
to alienation from one’s true self and community, and is linked unconventional but not compulsively so; they are highly ethical
to depression, anxiety, and even prejudice in consumer-driven, but may appear unethical or nonconforming.
hierarchical societies. 4. Problem Centering-Non-self-actualizing people are
2. Estrangement from Culture and Well-Being-Happens selfcentered and tend to see all the world’s problems in relation
when personal values differ from society’s, leading to anxiety, to themselves, whereas self-actualizing people are task-
depression, and lower well-being. oriented and concerned with problems outside themselves.
5. The need for privacy-Self-actualizing people have a quality
3. Authoritarianism and Fear-Refer to how fear leads people of detachment that allows them to be alone without being
to seek security through obedience to authority, as Fromm lonely.
predicted. 6. Autonomy -Self-actualizing people are autonomous and
Critique of Fromm-Fromm's theory is broad, deep, and depend on themselves for growth even though at some time in
philosophically rich, but lacks scientific clarity, hard to test, and their past they had to have received love and security from
offers lpractical use, making it low in research value and others.
simplicity. 7. Continued Freshness of Appreciation-Maslow (1970)
Concept of Humanity-Fromm believed humans are self- wrote that “self-actualizing people have the wonderfulcapacity
aware beings torn between freedom and isolation, shaped by to appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the basic
culture and history, yet capable of growth, identity, and goods of life, with awe, pleasure, wonder, and even ecstasy”.
meaningful connection. 8. The Peak Experience-As Maslow’s study of self-actualizers
continued, he made the unexpected discovery that many of his
ABRAHAM MASLOW - Holistic Dynamic Theory people had experiences that were mystical in nature and that
somehow gave them a feeling of transcendence.
Holistic Dynamic Theory-Whole person is constantly being 9. Gemeinschaftsgefühl-Maslow found that his self-
motivated by one need or another that people have the actualizers had a kind of caring attitude toward other people.
potential to grow towards psychological health. 10. Profound interpersonal relations-Related to
Hierarchy of Needs-Maslow's concept assumes that lower gemeinschaftsgefühl is a special quality of interpersonal
level needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied relations that involves deep and profound feelings for
before higher level needs. individuals.
Abraham Harold (Abe) Maslow-The most lonely and 11. The Democratic character structure-Maslow found that
miserable childhood of any person discussed in this book. all his self-actualizers possessed democratic values.
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS 12. Discrimination between means and ends-Self-
1. Physiological Needs -The most basic needs of a person actualizing people have a clear sense of right and wrong
including food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body conducts and have little conflict about basic values.
temperature and so on. 13. Philosophical sense of humor-Another distinguishing
2. Safety Needs-When physiological needs is partially characteristic of self-actualizing people is their philosophical,
satisfied, they become motivated by safety needs including nonhostile sense of humor.
physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and 14. Creativeness-All self-actualizing people studied by
freedom. Maslow were creative in some sense of the word.
[Link] and Belongingness Needs-After partially satisfied 15. Resistance to Enculturation-A final characteristic
their physiological and safety needs, they become motivated identified by Maslow was resistance to enculturation. Self-
actualizing people have a sense of detachment from their
surroundings and are able to transcend a particular culture. an individual that is driven by internal experiences and
Love, Sex, and Self-Before people can become self- biological processes.
actualizing, they must satisfy their love and belongingness The Ideal Self-Defined as one’s view of self as one wishes to
needs. be. The ideal self contains all those attributes, usually positive,
D-Love-Self-actualizing people are capable of both giving and that people aspire to possess.
receiving love and are no longer motivated by the kind of Incongruence-An unhealthy personality. Psychologically
deficiency love (D-love) common to other people. healthy individuals perceive little discrepancy between their
B-Love-Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love, that is, self-concept and what they ideally would like to be
love for the essence or “Being” of the other. Levels of Awareness
Maslow's Psychology and Philosophy of Science-Maslow’s First-Some events are experienced below the there should be
philosophy of science and his research methods are integral to awareness and are either ignored or denied.
an understanding of how he arrived at his concept of self- Second-Hypothesized that some experiences are a
actualization. hypothesized that some experiences are accurately
Desacrilization-The type of science that lacks emotion, joy, symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure.
wonder, awe, and rapture (Hoffman, 1988). Third-Awareness involves experiences that are perceived in a
Resacralize-Science or to instill it with human values, emotion, distorted form. When our experience is not consistent with our
and ritual. view of self, we reshape or distort the experience so that it can
Taoistic Attitude-For psychology, one that would be be assimilated into our existing self-concept.
noninterfering, passive, and receptive. Denial of Positive Experiences-Derogatory experiences that
MEASURING SELF-ACTUALIZATION are distorted or denied to awareness; many people have
1. Personal Orientation Inventory difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive
(POI)-Measures values and behaviors of self-actualizing feedback, even when deserved.
people, such as time competence (how presentoriented is a Becoming a Person
person) and support (how self- versus other-oriented is a Positive regard-The person develops a need to be loved,
person). liked, or accepted by another person. If we perceive that
2. Short Index of Self-Actualization(SISA)-Was easier to others, especially significant others, care for, prize, or value us,
administer than the POI. then our need to receive positive regard is at least partially
3. Brief Index of Self-Actualization(BISA)-In the 1990s, two satisfied.
additional measures of self-actualization were published: the Positive self-regard-Defined as the experience of prizing or
Brief Index of SelfActualization (BISA) (Sumerlin & Bundrick, valuing one’s self. believed, that receiving positive regard from
1996, 1998). others is necessary for positive self-regard, but once positive
4. Measure of Actualization Potential (MAP)-MAP was self-regard is established.
developed first by having a team of eight researchers in self- Barriers to Psychological Health
actualization suggest questions that tapped the concept of self- Conditions of worth-They perceive that their parents, peers,
actualization. or partners love and accept them only if they meet those
5. Characteristics of Self-Actualization Scale (CSAS)- people’s expectations and approval.
Newest self-actualization measure was to test and validate External evaluations-These evaluations, whether positive or
which of the 17 qualities of selfactualizing people that Maslow negative, do not foster psychological health but, rather, prevent
(1950) put forth hold up to empirical scrutiny. us from being completely open to our own experiences.
The Jonah Complexx-According to Maslow (1970), everyone Vulnerability-The greater the incongruence between our
is born with a will toward health, a tendency to grow toward perceived self (self-concept). vulnerable when they are
self-actualization, but few people reach it. unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic self and
Psychotherapy-To Maslow (1970), the aim of therapy would their significant experience.
be for clients to embrace the Being-values, that is, to value Anxiety and Threat
truth, justice, goodness, simplicity, and so forth. Anxiety-“A state of uneasiness or tension whose cause is
Positive Psychology-A relatively new field of psychology that unknown” (p. 204). As we become more aware of the
combines an emphasis on hope, optimism, and well-being with incongruence between our organismic experience and our
scientific research and assessment. perception of self, our anxiety begins to evolve.
Critique of Maslow- Maslow’s search for the self-actualizing Threat-Can represent steps toward psychological health
person did not end with his empirical studies. In his later years, because they signal to us that our organismic experience is
he would frequently speculate about self-actualization with little inconsistent with our self-concept. Nevertheless, they are not
evidence to support his suppositions. pleasant or comfortable feelings.
Defensiveness-The protection of the self-concept against
CARL ROGERS - PERSON CENTERED THEORY anxiety and threat by the denial or distortion of experiences
inconsistent with it (Rogers, 1959). Because the self-concept
Client-centered therapy-Developed a humanistic theory of consists of many self-descriptive statements, it is a many-
personality that grew out of his experiences as a practicing faceted phenomenon.
psychotherapist. Distortion-Misinterpret an experience in order to fit it into
Biography of Carl Rogers-Rogers gradually conceptualized some aspect of our self-concept.
his own ideas on psychotherapy, not intending them to be Denial-Refuse to perceive an experience in awareness, or at
unique and certainly not controversial. least we keep some aspect of it from reaching symbolization.
Person-Centered Theory-It emphasizes the importance of the Denial is not as common as distortion because most
individual's subjective experience and the innate tendency experiences can be twisted or reshaped to fit the current self-
toward self-actualization. concept.
Formative Tendency-It refers to the innate drive or natural Psychotherapy
tendency of human to develop, grow and reach their full In order for vulnerable or anxious people to grow
potential. psychologically, they must come into contact with a therapist
Actualizing Tendency who is congruent and whom they perceive as providing an
This tendency is the only motive people possess. The need to atmosphere of unconditional acceptance and accurate
satisfy one’s hunger drive, to express deep emotions when empathy.
they are felt, and to accept one’s self are all examples of the Counselor Congruence-Exists when a person’s organismic
single motive of actualization. experiences are matched by an awareness of them and by an
ability and willingness to openly express these feelings
The Self and Self Actualization (Rogers, 1980).
Self-Actualization-Is the process of realizing and fulfilling Unconditional Positive Regard-Empathy exists when
one’s own potential talents and [Link] involves achieving therapists accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are
personal growth self-awareness and the pursuit of meaning able to communicate these perceptions so that clients know
goals leading to a sense of fulfillment and authentic self- that another person has entered their world of feelings without
expression. prejudice, projection, or evaluation.
Self-Concept-Includes all those aspects of one’s being and Empathic Listening-Empathy exists when therapists
one’s experiences that are perceived in awareness (though not accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are able to
always accurately) by the individual. communicate these perceptions so that clients know that
Organismic self-The innate, natural, and authentic aspect of another person has entered their world of feelings without
prejudice, projection, or evaluation. Freedom Defined-Freedom is the individual's capacity to
Organismic valuing process (OVP)-a natural instinct know that he is the determined one" (p. 175). The word
directing us toward the most fulfilling pursuits. "determined" in this definition is synonymous with what May
(1981) would later call destiny.
ROLLO MAY FORMS OF FREEDOM
1. Existential Freedom-It is the freedom of action-the
Existentialism -Opposes the split between subject and freedom of doing. Most middle-class adult Americans enjoy
object. According to Kierkegard, people are more than mere large measures of existential freedom
cogs in the machinery of an industrialized society. 2. Essential Freedom -Freedom to act, to move around does
Rollo May-Rollo Reese May was born on April 21, 1909, In not ensure essential freedom: that is, freedom of being. In
Ada, Ohio, the first son of the six children born to Earl Title fact, existential freedom often makes essential freedom more
May and Matie Boughton May. His parents were not well difficult.
educated, and his older sister had a climate that was “virtually Philip’s Destiny-As Philip came to terms with his destiny, he
nonexistent”. May attributed his “psychotic breakdown” in began to be able to express his anger, to feel less trapped in
later years to his parents. his relationship with Nicole, and to become more aware of his
Background of Existentialism-Existentialism is a possibilities. In other words, he gained his freedom of being.
philosophical movement that emerged from the writings of
Kierkegaard, A Danish philosopher, He believed that the The Power of Myth-Myths are the stories that unify a society;
experiencing person and the person’s experience. "they are essential to the process of keeping our souls alive
BASIC CONCEPTS and bringing us new meaning in a difficult and often
[Link]-in-the-World-Expressed in the German word meaningless world.
daesin, meaning to exist there. It literally means to exist in the Psychopathology-May saw psychopathology as lack of
world and is generally means to exist in the world. communication-the inability to know others and to share
UMWELT-World of objects and things and would exist even oneself with them. Psychologically disturbed individuals deny
if people had no awareness. It is the world of nature and their destiny and thus lose their freedom. They erect a variety
natural law and includes biological drives, such as hunger of neurotic systems
and sleep, and such natural phenomena as birth and death. Psychotherapy -May believed that the purpose of
MITWELT-Our relationship with other people. Not every psychotherapy is to set people free. He argued that therapists
Mitwelt relationship, however, necessitates love. who concentrate on a patient's symptoms are missing the
EIGENWELT-One’s relationship with one self. To live in more important picture.
Eigenwelt means to be aware of oneself as a human being RELATED RESEARCH
and to grasp who we are as we relate to the world of things 1. Threats in the Umwelt:This can manifest in a kind of
and to the world of people. alienation from our own physical bodies, as demonstrated by
[Link]-being-Non-being can be also be expressed as blind the disgust-like reactions we often have to corporeal body
conformity to society’s expectations or as generalized hostility functions that remind us of our mortality.
that pervades our relation to others. 2. Finding Meaning in the Mitwelt:Our relationships with
The Case of Philip-Philip, the architect we met in the chapter others provide us with a feeling of positive regard and hence
opening. Philip wished to accept Nicole’s behavior, but on a sense that we are significant. May's colleague Irvin Yalom
another, he felt betrayed by her affairs. He was paralyzed (1980) wrote that reminders of our mortality can motivate us
unable to change it his relationship with Nicole, At this point in to pursue the things that make life feel more meaningful.
Philip’s life, he sought therapy from Rollo May. [Link] in the Eigenwelt: There is an Upside to
Anxiety-When they become aware that their existence or Mortality Awareness-Yet further studies have shown that
some value identified with it might be destroyed. our most direct encounters with others' death are especially
Normal Anxiety -As that which is proportionate to the threat, prone to lead us toward pro-social and personal growth goals
does not involve repression, and can be confronted (recall the discussion of research on post-traumatic growth
constructively on the conscious level. and OVP in the Rogers chapter). Vail and colleagues (2012)
Neurotic Anxiety-As a reaction which is disproportionate to believe this is because such encounters mix both conscious
the threat, involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic and nonconscious terror management processes.
conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off
activity and awareness. Critique of May Do not forget what you have
Guilt-Arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to decided to neglect" -(Allport, 1968, p. 23). May did not
accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or remain forget that he excluded discourses on developmental stages,
oblivious to their dependence on the natural world. basic motivational forces, and other factors that tend to
Intentionality-The structure that gives meaning to experience segment the human experience. May's philosophical writings
and allows people to make decisions about the future is have reached deep into the far recesses of the human
called intentionality. experience and have explored aspects of humanity not
Care, Love, and Will-Care is not the same as love, but it is examined by other personality theorists. His popularity has
the source of love, to love is to means to care, and love been due in part to his ability to touch individual readers, to
defined as delight in the presence of the other person and connect with their humanity.
care is also the source of will is defined as the capacity to Concept of Humanity
organize one’s self [Link]-versus free choice dimension.
Union of Love and Will-Modern society, Rollo May claimed Eysenck’s theory-sees personality as mainly
that, is suffering from an unhealthy division of love and will. biological, but shaped by both genetics and environment.
Love has become associated with sensual love or sex, [Link] versus pessimism.-Eysenck favors causality
whereas will has come to mean a dogged determination or over teleology, seeing personality as a chain from DNA to
will power. traits to behavior and outcomes.
FORMS OF LOVE [Link] versus unconscious determinants of
[Link]-A biological function that can be satisfied through behavior-Eysenck believed unconscious biological factors
sexual intercourse or some other release of sexual tension. influence personality, but emphasized both nature and
[Link]-It Is a psychological desire that seeks procreation or nurture, with biology setting limits and the environment
creation through an enduring union with loved ones. shaping outcomes within those limits.
[Link]-Is an intimate non-sexual friendship between two [Link] differences versus similarities-Eysenck’s
people, Philia cannot be rushed; it takes time to grow, to biological theory emphasizes both individual differences due
develop, and to sink its roots. to genetics and brain function, and universal traits shared by
4Agape-As esteem for the other, the concern for the other’s all humans as members of the same species.
welfare beyond any gain that one can get out of it;
disinterested and unconditional. GORDON ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Freedom and Destiny-A blend of the four forms of love [Link] of the Individual-emphasizing the uniqueness
requires both self-assertion and an affirmation of the other of the individual.
person. It also requires an assertion of one's freedom and a [Link] method-approach to personality psychology,
confrontation with one's destiny. Healthy individuals are able emphasizing the uniqueness of each individual.
both to assume their freedom and to face their destiny. [Link] Approach-gathers data on groups of people
[Link]-the dynamic organization within the individual
 of those psychophysical systems that determine his FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY
characteristic behavior. 1. Openness -People who prefer variety from those who
[Link] Motivation-healthy adults are generally aware need for closure and gain comfort in their association with
of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it. familiar people and things.
[Link] Behavior-mature people do not only react to 2. Conscientiousness-Describes people who are ordered,
external stimuli but they are capable of consciously acting on controlled, organized, achievement focused, and self-
their environment . disciplined,
6 CRITERIA FOR THE MATURE PERSONALITY 3. Extraversion-People who score high tend to be
1. Extension of the sense of self-mature people continually affectionate, jovial, talkative, joiners, and fun-loving.
seek to identify with and participate in events outside 4. Agreeableness-Distinguishes soft-hearted people from
themselves ruthless ones.
2. Warm relating of self to others-mature people have the 5. Neuroticism- People who score high tend to be anxious,
capacity to love others in an intimate and compassionate self pitying, and vulnerable to stress-related disorders.
manner. PERSONALITY SYSTEM CAN BE INTERPRETED INTO
[Link] security / Self-acceptance-mature people TWO WAYS
accept themselves for what they are and they possessed 1. Cross-Sectionally-How the system operates at any given
emotional poise. point in time
[Link] perception of their environment-mature people 2. Longitudinally-How we develop over the lifetime
do not live in a fantasy world or bend reality to fit their own Basic Tendencies -One of the central components of
wishes. personality.
[Link] and Humor-mature people know themselves and Characteristics Adaptations-Acquired personality structures
have no need to attribute their own mistakes and weaknesses that develop as people adapt to their environment and include
to others. habits, skills, and beliefs.
[Link] philosophy of life-mature people have a clear Self-Concept -The beliefs, attitudes, and feelings one has
view of the purpose of life, a well-developed conscience, and towards oneself.
a strong desire to serve others. THREE PERIPHERAL COMPONENTS
2 CATEGORIES OF STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY 1. Biological Bases-The principal biological mechanisms
[Link] Disposition-characteristics that peculiar to the that influence basic tendencies are genes, hormones, and
individual. brain structures.
[Link]-behavior and characteristics that people regard 2. Objective Biography-Everything the person does, thinks,
as warm, central, and important in their lives and to a sense or feels across the whole lifespan.
of self-identity . 3. External Influences-Particularly physical or social
MOTIVATION situation that has some influence on the personality system.
[Link] motives-those that reduce a need FOUR POSTULATES OF BASIC TENDENCIES
[Link] strivings-seek to maintain tension and 1. Individuality-Postulates stipulates that adults have unique
disequilibrium set of traits and that each person exhibit a unique
A THEORY OF MOTIVATION combination of trait patterns.
[Link] Autonomy-holds that some, but not all, human 2. Origin-Postulates takes a clear if somewhat controversial
motives are functionally independent from original motive stance.
responsible for the behavior. 3. Development -Postulates assumes that traits develop and
2 MAIN ASPECTS OF FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY change through childhood.
[Link] Functional Autonomy-the tendency of an 4. Structure-Postulates states that traits are organized
impression to leave an influence on subsequent. hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and general.
[Link] Functional Autonomy-those self-sustaining
motives that are related to the proprium. EYSENCK’S BIOLOGICALLY BASED FACTOR THEORY

MCCRAE AND COSTA’S FIVE-FACTOR TRAIT THEORY Biological Based Trait Theory -The individual differences in
people’s personalities were biological, and not merely
Inductive Method-They began with no preconceived bias psychological, aspects of personality.
concerning the number or name of traits or types. Hans Jurgen Eysenck-A prolific writer having published
Deductive Method -They have preconceived hypotheses in about 800 journal articles or book chapters and more than 75
mind before they begin to collect data. books.
THREE SOURCES OF DATA Eysenck’s Factor Theory-Personality traits need biological
1. Person’s Life Record (L Data)-Derived from observations evidence, not just statistics, to be valid and meaningful.
made by other people. 4 CRITERIA FOR IDENTIFYING FACTORS
2. Self-Reports (Q Data- Obtained from questionnaires and 1. Psychometric evidence-A corollary to this criterion is that
other techniques designed to allow people to make subjective the factor must be reliable and replicable.
descriptions of themselves 2. Heritability-This excludes learned traits like voice imitation
3. Objective Tests (T Data)-Measure performance such as or religious and political beliefs.
intelligence, and other activities designed to challenge 3. Theoretical view-Eysenck used the deductive method,
people’s maximum performance. starting with a theory and collecting data that fit it.
CATTELL DIVIDED TRAITS INTO THE FOLLOWING 4. Social Relevance-Personality factors must link to real-life
1. Common Traits-Shared by many issues like addiction, illness, or crime to be meaningful.
2. Unique Traits-Peculiar to one individual 4 LEVEL HIERARCHY OF BEHAVIOR ORGANIZATION
CATTELL FURTHER CLASSIFIED TRAITS INTO 1. Specific acts or Cognitions -Individual behaviors or
1. Temperament-Concerned with how a person behaves. thoughts that may or may not be characteristic of a person.
2. Motivation-Deals with why one behaves 2. Habitual acts or Cognitions-Responses that recur under
3. Ability-Refers to how far or how fast one can perform. similar conditions.
Factor Analysis -One begins by making specific 3. Traits/Personal Dispositions-Important semi-permanent
observations of many individuals. personality dispositions.
Correlation Coefficient -A mathematical procedure for 4. Types or Superfactors-A type is made up of several
expressing the degree of correspondence between two sets interrelated traits.
of scores. 3 DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
Factor Loadings-Correlations of scores with factors 1. Extraversion/Introversion (E)-This describes people who
Unipolar Traits-Scaled from zero to some large amount. are social, impulsive, cheerful, energetic, and enjoy being
Bipolar Traits-Extend from one pole to an opposite pole, with around others.
zero representing a midpoint. 2. Neuroticism/Stability (N)-Neuroticism is largely inherited,
Oblique Method-Assumes some positive or negative with Eysenck’s research showing a genetic link to traits like
correlation and refers to an angle of less than or more than anxiety and OCD.
90° 3. Psychoticism/Superego (P)-Psychoticism ranges from
NEO-PI-A revision of an earlier unpublished personality antisocial and aggressive (high scorers) to caring and
inventory that measured only the first three dimensions: N, E, responsible (low scorers).
and O.
Hedonic Tone-Refers to the subjective feeling of the person
in the situation, either positive or negative.
Diathesis Stress Mode-This suggests that illness can result
from both genetic vulnerability and environmental stressors.
4 MEASURING PERSONALITY
1. Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI)-The Maudsley
Personality Inventory measured Extraversion and
Neuroticism, showing a slight correlation between them.
2. Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)-The EPI measures
extraversion, neuroticism, and honesty, showing little link
between E and N.
3. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)-The EPQ
updates the EPI by adding a psychoticism scale and includes
adult and junior versions.
4. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire– Revised
Subsequent criticisms of the P scale led to yet another
revision, the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire-Revised.
Biological Bases of Personality-Traits P, E, and N are
mostly biological, with about 75% genetic influence and 25%
from the environment.
Personality as a Predictor-Traits P, E, and N interact with
genetics and biology to help predict social behaviors and
health outcomes.
Personality and Behavior-Eysenck stressed that P, E, and
N traits shape behavior and must be included in research.
Personality and Disease-Personality factors can predict
mortality from cancer and cardiovascular disease (CVD).
Eysenck and Grossarth-Maticek 4 Personality Type-
Eysenck found Type I had higher cancer risk, Type II had
more heart disease, while Types III and IV had low risks.
Related Research(Eysenck Personality Questionnaire)-
The EPQ is used with brain and genetic tests to study
personality's biological basis.
Biological Basis of Extraversion -Personality traits are
biologically based, shown by brain differences in traits like
introversion and extraversion.
Biological Basis of Neuroticism-Neuroticism stems from
high activity and low thresholds in the limbic system.
5 CRITIQUE OF EYSENCK’S BIOLOGICALLY BASED
THEORY
1. Does Eysenck’s biologically based theory
generate research?-This criterion, it must be rated very high.
2. Are trait and factor theories falsifiable?-On this criterion,
trait and factor theories receive a moderate to a high rating.
3. Trait and factor theories are rated high on their ability
to organize knowledge.-Eysenck’s model highlights biology,
showing behavior differs from birth, with genetics explaining
about half.
4. A useful theory has the power to guide the actions of
practitioners. On this criterion, biological theories rank
relatively low.
5. A useful theory is parsimony.-Eysenck’s model, like the
Five-Factor Model, uses factor analysis to explain personality
traits simply and efficiently.
4 CONCEPTS OF HUMANITY
1. Determinism versus free choice [Link]’s
theory sees personality as mainly biological, but shaped by
both genetics and environment.
2. Optimism versus pessimism.-Eysenck favored causality,
viewing personality as a chain from DNA to traits to behavior.
3. Conscious versus unconscious determinants of
behavior.-Eysenck saw personality as shaped by biology and
environment, with biology setting limits.
4. Individual differences versus similarities.-Eysenck’s
theory highlights genetic, brain-based differences and
universal traits in personality.