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Characteristics and Utilization of Steel Slag in Road Construction

a a,b* a,b
Ebenezer Akin Oluwasola , Mohd Rosli Hainin , Md. Maniruzzaman A. Aziz
a
Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
b
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Construction Research Centre, Universiti Teknologi, Malaysia 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia

*Corresponding author: mrosli@[Link]

Article history Abstract

Received :1 May 2014 Presently, the rate of utilization of steel slag in Malaysia is rather too low compared to some advanced
Received in revised form : countries. Many studies focused on the better way to increase the usage of industrial by-products in order
14 September 2014 to ease disposal problems. Enormous quantities of steel slag were deposited in yards, causing
Accepted :1 Oktober 2014 environmental pollution. Like other metallurgical slags, steel slags exhibit a great potential to be used as
aggregate in highway construction. The assessment and evaluation of this material should be based on
Graphical abstract environmental, economic and technical factors before it can be used in road construction. In terms of
technical perspective, steel slags must met the required test requirements that are needed for natural
aggregates used for similar purposes. The degree of slag utilization needs to be improved as an important
measure to these problems. The physical and chemical properties of slag were reviewed and the various
areas of its applications are highlighted. The principal setback of its use; volumetric instability which
results from hydratable oxides can be checkmated through appropriate methods like aging and steam test.
In order to sustain its uses, microstructure analysis that can identify any harmful materials present in it is
suggested. There is also an urgent need of standard methods to assess its suitability as highway
construction material.

Keywords: Steel slag; volumetric instability; pavement; industrial by-product

© 2014 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved.

Uses of steel slag

1.0 INTRODUCTION were produced from each of these processes. A flow chart that
illustrates the kinds of slag produced for each process of iron and
Over the years, steel slag has been utilized in various construction steelmaking is shown in Figure 1.
activities. According to Godfrey and Nie [1], enormous quantity This paper critically examines utilization of steel slags for
of steel slag was used for wall making and road construction road construction in both developing and developed countries.
during the period of Roman Empire. It was later used in the Besides, characterization of steel slags in terms of mechanical,
production of cement in the early 19th century. Its application as chemical and mineralogical properties was also examined. The
rail ballast and in bridges construction has been encouraging. problem and challenges associated with slag were also critically
Also, during that period blast furnace slag was used in the analyzed.
production of bricks and mortar and the production of slag wool
Kalyoncu [2].
Steel slag is one of the by-products in metallurgical industry. 2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL SLAG
In terms of pretreatment, it can be grouped as Basic Oxygen
Furnace (BOF), Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) and Ladle Refining 2.1 Physical Properties
(LF) slags [3]. According to the type of steel, steel slags can either
be stainless steel slag or carbon steel slag. It can also be processed Unlike the chemical and mineralogical properties of steel slag, the
into aggregate (fine or coarse) which is useful in both dense and available information on the physical properties of steel slags in
open graded hot mix asphalt concrete pavements [4-6]. Steel slag the literature is very limited. Table 1 shows the physical
aggregate is also used in cold mix or surface treatment of properties of steel slag and the Malaysian specification for road
pavement [7]. works. Except for water absorption, the steel slag satisfies the
Currently, only BOF and EAF steel making process are requirements in terms of strength and shape. It was observed that
predominant. Iron is converted into steel in the BOF steel making the flakiness index value for slag was generally low, which can be
process while EAF process recycles mainly steel scraps. The steel attributed to the rounded shape of steel slags. The shape improved
from BOF and EAF can be processed into high grade steels, by its interlocking properties when blended with bitumen compared
passing them through a ladle refining unit. Different types of slags to granite aggregates. The steel slag Los Angeles Abrasion

70:7 (2014) 117–123 | [Link] | eISSN 2180–3722 |

118 Ebenezer, Mohd Rosli & Md. Maniruzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 70:7 (2014), 117–123

Value(LAAV) and its Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) were all soundness results indicated that steel slag would not disintegrate
within the aggregate standard specifications for Malaysian road under the destructive action of the nature. The stripping test
works. This implied that the material possesses adequate strength results indicated no evidence of stripping indicating a strong bond
for utilization as highway aggregate material. The excellent strength the binder and steel slag aggregate.

Figure 1 Flowchart of iron and steelmaking processes [8]

2.2 Chemical Properties (4CaO.Al2O3.FeO3), C2F(2CaO.Fe2O3).CaO (free lime),

([Link].2SiO2), FeO, MgO, C3S (3CaO.SiO2), RO phase and
The two major types of slag were produced during steel CaO-FeO-MgO-MnO [10].
production. Thus, they are expected to have similar chemical
composition. Tables 2a and 2b show the major chemical
composition from different literatures of chemical composition of 3.0 UTILIZATION OF STEEL SLAG
BOF and EAF slag respectively. The BOF slag has silica (SiO2)
content ranges from 8-22%. The iron oxide (FeO/Fe2O3) of the The mineralogical composition of steel slags plays a significant
BOF slag has a high value of 35%; this can be described as the role in its utilization for various construction purposes. Since steel
amount of iron that has been oxidized and cannot be recovered consumption is proportional to slag production, the recent
into the steel during its production from molten iron. increase in the steel consumption has greatly increased slag
As noted in Table 2b, the compositions of both BOF EAF volume which has a positive impact on developing various
slags are quite similar. Due to its mode of production, its chemical methods of steel slag utilization.
composition depends mainly on the recycled steel properties. In Unlike mined material, its production data for the globe are
view of this, both EAF and BOF slags differ in their basic relatively unavailable. The ratios of iron and steel to slag output
chemical compositions. For example, the FeO, CaO, SiO2 and were used to estimate annual world iron and steel slag output. For
Al2O3 values of EAF slags were 3.3-30%, 23-60%, 8-32.2% and instance, in Malaysia about 750 tons of steel were produced daily
2-18% respectively. and approximately 7.5 tons of slag were produced. From the
research carried out in the Asian country, approximately 10% of
2.3 Mineralogical Properties steel slag was produced from the production of steel.

Cooling rate and chemical composition determine slag

crystallization. Steel slag samples subjected to X-ray diffraction
analysis indicates a complex structure with various peaks
overlapping showing the phases of crystalline that present in steel
slag [9]. The types of mineral that were reported in the literature
for slags were presented in Table 2c. The common mineral phases
are olivine (2MgO.2FeO.SiO2), β-C2S (2CaO.SiO2) α-C2S, C4AF
119 Ebenezer, Mohd Rosli & Md. Maniruzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 70:7 (2014), 117–123

Table 1 Physical properties of steel slag [11] *, [12] **

Testing Granite* Steel slag* Steel slag** JKR Specification

Aggregate Crushing Value 26.10% 26.05% 23.00% <30%
Los Angeles abrasion 9.80% 9.80% 24.00% <30%
Aggregate Impact value 20.54% 17.20% 23.00% -
Flakiness 19.00% 4.00% 2.00% <30%
Soundness 5.20% ND 2.07% <18%
Polished stone value 52.70% 56.60% 54.00% >40%
Water absorption 0.51% 1.20% 5.40% <2%
Stripping - >95% >95% >95%

Table 2a Chemical composition of basic oxygen furnace slags

References % Composition of Oxide

CaO Al2O3 SiO2 MgO Fe2O3 FeO MnO P2O5 TiO2 Free CaO
Yi et al.[13] 45-60 1-5 10-15 3-13 3-9 7-20 2-6 1-4 - -
Belhadj et al.[14] 40-45 1-2 8-13 4-8 28-32 - 2-4 1-2 0.5-1 -
Ameri et al.[15] 50-57 0.7-1.4 9-11 1-2 10-13 - 4-5 2.3-3.2 - -
Zhu et al.[16] 40-58 2.3-4.9 12-16 6-9 17-28 - - 1.4-1.8 - -
Li et al. [17] 41-43 2.7-2.9 19-20 5-6 7-8 11-13 - - - -
Wang [18] 35-41 2.4-3 12-18 8-11 - - 4-5 0.5-0.8 - -
Wang et al. [19] 30-55 1-6 8-20 5-15 - 10-35 2-15 0.2-3 0.4-2 -
Mahieux et al. [20] 47-50 2.00 11.80 6.30 22.60 - 1.90 2.70 0.50 -
Shen et al.[21] 39.3 0.98 7.75 8.56 38.06 - 4.24 - 0.94 -
Shen et al. [22] 30-55 1-6 8-20 5-15 - 10-35 2-8 0.2-2 0.4-2 -
NSA 2008 [23] 41.30 2.20 15.60 6.90 - - 8.90 - 0.50 3.3
Nicolae [24] 40.10 2.04 17.80 6.32 6.58 12.92 6.52 1.33 - 3.9
Das et al. [25] 47.88 1.22 12.16 0.82 - 26.30 0.28 3.33 - -
Chaurand et al.[26] 41.30 2.40 12.50 4.30 31.20 - 6.10 1.10 0.80 -
Xue et al. [27] 45.41 3.80 13.71 6.25 3.24 21.85 3.27 1.42 - -
Reddy et al. [28] 53.30 1.30 15.30 1.10 - - 0.39 3.10 - -
Tossavainen et al. [29] 45.00 1.90 11.10 9.60 10.90 10.70 3.10 - - -
Poh et al.[30] 40-52 1-4 10-15 5-8 9-10 13-17 2-5 0.9-1.3 0.5-0.7 3-10

Table 2b Chemical composition of electric arc furnace slags

References % Composition of Oxide

CaO Al2O3 SiO2 MgO Fe2O3 FeO MnO P2O5 TiO2 Free CaO
Yi et al.[13] 30-50 10-18 11-20 8-13 5-6 8-22 5-10 2-5 - -
Pasetto and Baldo [31] 29.60 9.30 13.02 3.65 - 32.84 5.09 - 0.35 -
Wang et al. [19] 35-60 2-9 9-20 5-15 - 15-30 3-10 0.1-2.0 - -
Lekakh et al. [32] 32.1 8.6 19.4 9.4 - - 6.8 - 0.4 -
Tsakiridis et al. [33] 35.7 6.25 17.53 6.45 26-36 - 2.5 - 0.76 -
Nicolae [24] 40.78 4.23 17.81 8.53 3.97 9.25 9.79 0.74 - -
Tossavainen et al. [29] 45.5 3.7 32.2 5.2 1.0 3.3 2.0 - - -
Tossavainen et al. [29] 38.8 6.7 14.1 3.9 20.3 5.6 5.0 - - -
Manso et al.[34] 23.9 7.4 15.3 5.1 - - 4.5 - - -
Manso et al. [35] 23-32 3.5-7.0 8.15 4.8-6.6 11-40 7-35 2.5-4.5 - - 0.45
Shi [36] 35-60 2-9 9-20 5-15 - 15-30 3.0-8.0 0.01-0.25 - 0-4.0

Table 2c Mineralogical phases of slags

Reference Type Mineralogical Phases

Gahan et al [37] EAF CaFe2O4, Ca2MgO2AlFeO6SiO2O5, Ca2SiO4, FeO
Gahan et al [37] BOF Ca2Fe2O5, CaxMn(1-x)O, Ca2SiO4, FeO
Tsakiridis et al. [33] EAF CaSiO4, 4CaO.Al2.Al2O3.Fe2O3, Ca2Al(AlSiO7), Ca3SiO5, 2CaO.Al2O3SiO2, FeO, Fe3O4,
MgO, SiO2
Tossavainen et al. [29] EAF Ca3Mg(SiO4)2, β-Ca2SiO4, (Mg, Mn) (Cr,Al)2O4, (Fe, Mg, Mn)O), Ca2(AL, Fe)2O5
Tossavainen et al. [29] BOF Β-Ca2SiO4, FeO-MnO-MgO , MgO solid solution
Nicolae [24] BOF 2CaO.Al2O3.SiO2, Fe2O3,CaO,FeO
Nicolae [24] EAF MnO2, MnO, Fe2SiO4, Fe7SiO10
Reddy et al. [28] BOF 2CaO.Fe2O3, 2CaO.P2O5, 2CaO, SiO2, CaO
Belhadj [14] BOF C2S, C2F, Ca (OH) 2, CaO, (Fe (1-x) O, CaCO3, MgO, SiO2, Fe3O4.
Qian et al.[10] EAF ϒ-Ca2SiO4, CMS2, CFMS, FeO-MnO-MgO solid solution

Table 3 shows the estimated slag generated in recent years Globally, steel slag has been extensively used in the following
while Figure 2 shows the various applications of steel slag for a areas of Civil Engineering works:
particular year, 2006.
120 Ebenezer, Mohd Rosli & Md. Maniruzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 70:7 (2014), 117–123

3.1 Asphalt Aggregates at a given temperature. Tropical climate countries like Singapore
had utilized steel slag as asphalt aggregates.
Provided adequate quality control measures were put in place Ahmedzade and Sengoz [39] researched on the influences of
during the production of steel slag, it can perform credibly well as steel slag utilization as coarse aggregate on hot mix asphaltic
asphaltic aggregates. Many research works have proved it to be a concrete properties. The incorporation of steel slag into the mixes
high quality aggregates for asphaltic concrete. There is a natural produced better Marshall Stability and flow test results than
temperature dependent viscosity for each grade of bitumen. Thus mixtures with limestone. This implies that using steel slag as a
it will become soft and flow beyond a given temperature and coarse aggregate in asphaltic concrete mixtures reduces flow
become brittle and crack under load below a given temperature values and increased stability which indicates resistance to
[38]. In view of this the tropical climates binders need to be stiffer permanent deformation and high stiffness.

Table 3 Slag generation [40, 41]

Year US Output World Output

1994 9-14Mt -
1995 9-14Mt -
1996 15Mt -
1997 17Mt -
1998 17Mt -
1999 11Mt -
2000 13Mt -
2001 - -
2002 9-14Mt 90-135Mt
2003 9-14Mt 96-145Mt
2004 11-16Mt 115-118Mt
2005 10-14Mt 113-170Mt
2006 10-15Mt 124-186Mt
2007 - 135-194Mt
2008 - 134-189Mt
2009 - 121-180Mt
2010 - 141-201Mt

Figure 2 Use of steel slag in 2006 [40]

3.2 Cement Stabilization materials. The basicity of steel slag generally increased with its
cementitious properties. In view of this powdery steel slag can be
Cement stabilization is one of the methods used in building used as concrete admixtures and cement additives [42]. Research
pavement layers. Steel slag can be mixed effectively with other by carried out by Arabani and Azarhoosh [43] where a mixture of
product materials to produce an excellent cement stabilization powdered steel slag, cement clinker and fly ash were used to
product. BOF slag has been successfully mixed with Blast prepare composite cement and it was observed that quantity of
Furnace Slag and Fly ash to produce a semi rigid structure; it does steel slag admixture present in cement can improve pore
not deform under traffic load and not flexible enough to resist distribution, enhance the consistency of cement and also reduce
cracking. the porosity. Altum, et al. [44] confirmed that 30% powdered
The major chemical composition of cement (C2S, C3S and steel slag added to the cement satisfied the Turkish Portland
C4AF) that presents in steel slag qualifies it as cementitious Cement standard requirements.
121 Ebenezer, Mohd Rosli & Md. Maniruzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 70:7 (2014), 117–123

3.3 Sub base volume increase in slag and thus results in loss of strength and
disintegration. This development renders steel slag unsuitable for
Steel slag has very good internal friction, free draining ability and use in Portland cement concrete or as compacted fill material.
good compactability. Besides, it will not pump from the high Similarly Verhasselt and and Choquet [40] had extensively
water table due to its low water absorption. These qualities qualify discussed the use of steel slag as unbound aggregate in highway
it as a good sub base material. It has been used in Chile for construction in detail. They also have the similar opinion that the
decades under reinforced concrete roads as a sub base material free lime present in steel slag constitutes a major factor of
and its long term performance has been sustained. instability by its transformation into portandite where its volume
The study carried out by Pasetto and Baldo [45] on is almost increased by 100%.
evaluating the performance of base course and road base asphaltic The formation as a result of exposure of steel slag aggregates
concrete incorporating electric arc furnace steel slags shown that to both atmospheric condition and water, called Tufa-like
EAF slags exhibits substantially equivalent physical and formation is another challenge when using steel slag in road and
mechanical characteristics to those of natural aggregates normally highway construction. Tufa is a form of white powdery precipitate
used in pavement layers construction. Without violation of that consists mainly of calcium carbonate. When calcium
workability and densification of the mixes, mix designs with EAF hydroxide solution that is formed when free lime in steel slag
slags gave good values of Marshall quotient and Marshall reacts with water is exposed to atmospheric condition, calcium
stability. Mixes with EAF slags also exhibit low water damage carbonate is precipitated in the form of tufa and powdery
thereby showing a good durability application. All the mixes with sediment on surface water. According to Hamilton and Socotch
EAF slags satisfied the conditions for acceptance of the Italian [41], Tufa precipitates may result in clogging of highway drain
road standards and thus suitable for road construction. systems.
Another problem that arises from the use of steel slag in road
3.4 Ground Improvement is that there is no standard or specification with respect to the
usage of steel slag in road construction in most part of the globe.
It can be successfully used in swampy and water logged areas as In view of this, steel slag should be used with caution and
filling materials because of its low water absorption and free standard and specification should be developed for its use in
draining ability. When it is compacted it remains stable and can highway construction.
be placed easily in wet environments. Besides, it is not susceptible Some nations have developed different techniques of curbing
to frost action; high percentage of coarse aggregates and its the problem of steel slag expansion. In the USA and Japan, the
special chemical composition make it suitable for road immersion expansion ratio was developed to evaluate the volume
foundations in cold areas like North America [38]. stability of slags while in China steel slag stability test method
Besides, high resistance to crushing, angular shape, dense, inert, was adopted. A maximum of 2% is allowed for immersion
durable and polishing under the action of all kinds of traffic expansion test. In Germany, the measure adopted is steam test and
qualifies it for good road construction. It also provides better skid boiling test for road construction and hydraulic construction
resistance surface than natural aggregates. respectively [21].
Weathering is another method that can be adopted. Though,
3.5 Miscellaneous both the British standards and European standards did not specify
any duration for weathering process, most researchers believe that
Aside from the enumerated applications, it is also useful as between 3-18 months will be adequate. It is strongly advisable
railway ballast, filter media, chippings etc. The products must that steel slag is weathered or undergoes any other suitable
conform to relevant specifications before use. A Vibro-flotation method before utilization in road works.
and stone column application is the latest application of steel slag
[38]. Steel slag with high content of quicklime, CaO can be used
as sinter ore fluxing agent. It has been proved that addition of slag 5.0 CONCLUSIONS
can reduce the cost of sinter, decrease fuel consumption as a result
of Fe liberation and oxidation reaction of FeO. In the advanced This paper has reviewed the utilization of steel slag and its
nations like USA and Germany, steel slag that have been used as characterization. Also, the problems associated with its use were
sinter material exceeded 56% and 24% respectively [46]. Some also examined. The assessment of this review work results in the
steel rolling mills in China like Baoshan Iron and Steel Group and following recommendations:
Lianyuan Iron and Steel Company have been using steel slag for Microstructure analysis should be conducted for steel slag to
sintering purposes since 1996. Due to its physical, mechanical and identify any harmful components present in it. Slag should be
chemical properties of steel slag, it has many environmental stored in an open space for a period at least 3 months before use.
applications as showed in Table 4. The volumetric stability of steel slag should be ascertained before
use by conducting volumetric swelling test. There is a need of
standard methods to assess its suitability as highway construction
4.0 PROBLEM AND CHALLENGES OF USING STEEL material. Field performance data should be made available to
SLAG assess its performance on surface treatment.

Volume instability has been considered as the major threat to its

utilization as aggregates in highway engineering. The rate of
cooling of steel slag is highly dependent on its mineral
constituents. Both free lime (CaO) and free periclase (MgO)
which are not totally consumed react with water in a humid
environment and subsequently hydrated to form portlandite
Ca(OH)2 and brucite Mg(OH)2 respectively. These hydrates are
majorly accounted for massive expansion. This reaction leads to
122 Ebenezer, Mohd Rosli & Md. Maniruzzaman / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 70:7 (2014), 117–123

Table 4 Typical uses of iron and steel slag [47]

Environmental applications

surface

Landfill uses
subsurface

Placed in water

Agricultural
Encapsulated
uses

uses
Applied to land

Applied to land
Iron and steel slag uses

Aggregate in bitumen mixes x

Concrete aggregate and as a cement ingredient
x
Antiskid aggregate (snow and ice control) x
Surfacing stabilized shoulders, banks and other
select material x x x
Bank stabilization (erosion control aggregate)
x x
Gabions and riprap x x
Aggregate base courses and sub-bases
x X x

Unpaved driveways, surface roads and walkways x

Railroad ballast x
Neutralization of mine grainage and industrial
discharge x X x
Agricultural uses x x

Controlled, grannular fills, such as those required

for unpaved parking areas and storage areas x X
Fluxing agents x X x x
Landfills x
Landscape aggregate x X
Trench aggregate/drain fields
x X
Sand blast grit x
Roofing granules x
Bulk fillers e.g paints, adhesives x
Mineral wool (home and appliance insulation)
x
Fill x X x x

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