1.
Condition for a system to be causal
A system is causal if its output at time depends only on inputs for (not future values).
For LTI systems: for .
2. Periodicity of
fundamental period .
Periodic with .
3. Define continuous- and discrete-time signal
Continuous-time: defined for all real (e.g., ).
Discrete-time: defined only at integer multiples (e.g., ).
4. Conditions for linear and time-invariant
Linear: superposition holds additivity + homogeneity:
Time-invariant: a time shift of input causes the same shift at output:
5. Is time-variant?
Yes. The explicit factor changes with time time-varying.
6. Difference between causal and non-causal
Causal: depends only on present/past inputs; realizable in real time.
Non-causal: depends on future inputs; not physically realizable (needs preview).
7. Laplace transform of and
, ROC: .
8. Impulse response of an LTI system
Output of the system when input is a unit impulse ; denoted .
9. Aliasing
Distortion from under-sampling: spectral replicas overlap when sampling frequency , causing
different analog frequencies to appear identical after sampling.
10. Sampling theorem (baseband signals)
A bandlimited signal with highest frequency Hz can be perfectly reconstructed from uniform
samples if
f_s \ge 2B \quad (\text{Nyquist rate}),